Pub - Videomaker Guide To Video Production Fourth Editio

The Videomaker Guide to Video Production
Fourth Edition
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The Videomaker Guide to
Video Production
Fourth Edition
From the Editors of Videomaker Magazine

Introduction by Matt York, Publisher/Editor
Preface by John Burkhart, Editor in Chief
Editorial Staff
Jennifer O’Rourke—Managing Editor
Mark Montgomery—Technical Editor
Charles Fulton—Associate Editor
AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON • NEW YORK • OXFORD

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Copyright © 2008 Videomaker Magazine. Published by Elsevier Inc.

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07 08 09 10 11 12 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Printed in the United States of America

This book is dedicated to Thomas Jefferson for his
commitment to pluralism, diversity and
community. He would be happy to see readers
of this book exercising freedom of the
electronic press.
Civil liberty functions today in a changing technological con-

text. For five hundred years a struggle was fought, and in a few
countries won, for the right of people to speak and print freely,
unlicensed, uncensored and uncontrolled. But new technolo-
gies of electronic communication may now relegate old and
freed media such as pamphlets, platforms and periodicals to
a corner of the public forum. Electronic modes of communica-
tion that enjoy lesser rights are moving to center stage.
Ithiel de Sola Pool

Technologies of Freedom
(Harvard University Press, 1983)
v
Contents
PREFACE xi
INTRODUCTION xiii
PART I VIDEO GEAR 1

1 Camera Buttons and Controls 3
2 HDV High Def Value 7
3 How DV Works: Inside the Technology 11
4 Dissecting a Digital Camcorder 15
5 All about Lenses 20
6 Image Stabilizers: The Technology That Steadies
Your Shots 28
7 Solar Panel Imaging: Secrets of the CCD 33
8 Sifting the Light: A Look at Lens Filters 39
9 Dissecting a Video Editing Computer 44
10 Battery Basics 46
11 Data Storage Devices: Room to Move 49
12 Sound Track: Microphone Types 52
13 Putting Radio to Work: The Low-Down on Wireless Mics 58
14 Monitoring the Monitors 62
15 Screen Time 64
16 Resolution Lines 66
17 Switch It! 70
18 Try a Tripod: Some Valuable Features in the Three-Legged Race 72
vii
viii Contents
PART II PRODUCTION PLANNING 75

19 Honing Your Ideas: From Concept to Finished Treatment 77
20 Budgeting Time 83
21 It’s All in the Approach: Creative Approaches for 88
Video Productions
22 Put It on Paper First 93
23 Look Who’s Talking: How to Create Effective, Believable 97
Dialogue for Your Video Productions
24 Storyboards and Shot Lists 104
25 Budget Details: Successful Video Projects Stick to Budgets 110
26 A Modest Proposal 115
27 Recruiting Talent 119
28 The Right Place at the Right Time 122
29 Production Planning 126
PART III PRODUCTION TECHNIQUES 137

30 Framing Good Shots 139
31 Shooting Steady 142
32 Make Your Move 146
33 Use Reflectors Like a Pro 151
34 Applying 3-Point Lighting 156
35 A Dose of Reality: Lighting Effects 161
36 Outdoor Lighting: What You Need to Know to Shoot Great
Footage Outdoors 165
37 Audio for Video: Getting It Right from the Start 173
38 Outdoor Audio 178
39 Stealth Directing: Getting the Most Out of Real People 182
40 What Were You Thinking?! Pet Peeves of the Video Pros 186
41 Makeup and Wardrobe for Video 190
42 Let’s Make a Documentary 194
43 How to Use Available Light 206
44 Practical Special Effects: A Baker’s Ten to Improve Your 209
Video Visions
PART IV POST-PRODUCTION TECHNIQUES 215

45 Editing from Start to Finish 217
46 Color Tweaking 231
47 Composition 101 235
48 The Art of the Edit 239
49 Title Talk 245
50 Adventures in Sound Editing: Or How Audio Post-
Production Can Make Your Videos Sound Larger Than Life 249
51 In the Audible Mood: Sound Effects and Music—
Evocative, Legal, and Inexpensive 254
52 Seeing Sounds 257
53 Setting the Mood 260
PART V TELEVISION DISTRIBUTION 265

54 Commercial Distribution: Mapping Your Way to 267
Financial Success
55 Public Access: Produce Your Own TV Show 274
56 PBS and ITVS: Fertile Soil for Independent Videographers 277
Contents ix
57 Paths to Broadcast Television 282

58 Promotion Strategies: Fame and Fortune on a Budget 286
59 The Demo Tape 292
PART VI INTERNET DISTRIBUTION 297

60 Producing Your Own Vidcast 299
61 The 4th Codec 312
62 Peer to Peer File Sharing 315
PART VII AUTHORING DVDs 321

63 Jacks of All Trades 323
64 To DVD or Not to DVD? (There is no question.) 325
65 From Video to Disc: A DVD Software Buyer’s Guide 328
66 Burner Basics: An Introduction to DVD Burners 332
67 DVD Flavors: What’s the Deal with DVD Compatibility? 337
68 Step by Step Guide to Making DVDs 342
69 What Makes DVDs Go ’Round and ’Round 345
JARGON: A GLOSSARY OF VIDEOGRAPHY TERMS 349

CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS 369
INDEX 371
Preface
There has never been a better time to be barrier is distribution. For a long time you
an independent video producer. could create a compelling video program,
The once formidable barriers to video but getting it out in front of a sizeable
production have been falling one by one, audience was a frustrating and difficult
and for the last 20 years, Videomaker process, ruled by the soul-crushing broad-
Magazine has been chronicling that fall, cast distribution system. Now, however,
and doing our best to hasten it. with recent advances in the speed of the
The first barrier was the cost of the Internet and the rise of video sharing sites,
equipment. Million-dollar edit suites and you have an equal platform on which to
camcorders costing over $100,000 used to compete with the majors.
rule the television landscape. Now you There has never been a better time to be
can get much better images and polished an independent video producer.
productions from a $1,000 consumer cam- You have access to:
corder and a laptop.
The second barrier was training. Because 1. Affordable equipment
of the expense of the equipment, access
2. This book
used to be limited to a technical elite, and
an apprenticeship was the only way to 3. Audiences by the millions world-
learn the trade. However, as prices fell, the wide.
demand for knowledge on production and
editing techniques began to grow. That’s Now get out there and make something!
where Videomaker Magazine came in, and John Burkhart
by extension, the book you’re holding in Editor-in-Chief
your hands now. Videomaker Magazine
The third barrier, I’m excited to say, is
in the middle of falling right now. That
xi
Introduction:
If You Are New to Making
Video: Welcome!
Matt York
Publisher/Editor of Videomaker Magazine
The craft of making video is an enjoyable reading about a battlefield in war can be
one. Whether video production is for you less powerful than hearing a live radio
a pastime, a part-time moneymaker or report from a journalist with sounds of
a full-time occupation, I am certain that gunfire, tanks, rockets, incoming artillery
you will enjoy the experience of creat- fire and the emotions from an anguished
ing video. There are many facets to video reporter’s voice. Neither compares with
production. Each brings its own pleasures video shot on a battlefield.
and frustrations, and each will stretch It is amazing that you can walk into
your abilities, both technical and artistic. a retail store, make a few purchases in
Video is a wonderful communica- a few minutes and walk out with all of
tion medium that enables us to express the essential tools for producing video.
ourselves in ways unlike other media. For less than $1,500, you can buy a DV
Television is pervasive in our society today. camcorder and a personal computer and
The chance to utilize the same medium suddenly, you have the capacity to create
that the great TV and film producers have video that rivals that of a television station.
used to reach the masses is an incredible The image and sound quality of a DV cam-
privilege. Video is powerful. Video is the corder is better than broadcast television
closest thing to being there. For convey- as viewed on an average TV. The transi-
ing information, there is no medium that tions and special effects, available with
compares with video. It overwhelms the any low-cost video editing software pack-
senses by delivering rich moving images age, exceed the extravagance of those used
and high-fidelity sound. Having grown on the nightly news.
up with TV, many of us lack the apprecia- These days, more and more people are
tion for its power. Compared with radio or watching high definition TV and video-
print, television profoundly enhances the sharing sites like YouTube. If you want
message being conveyed. For example, to make a video for an HDTV audience,
xiii
xiv Introduction
you might need to invest something more Once a highly complex pursuit, video-
like $2,300. However, if you want to share editing is now just another software appli-
your videos on the Internet, all you need cationon a personal computer. We all realize
is a webcam and you can upload directly that simply using video editing software
to one of the many video-sharing sites. doesn’t make someone a good TV producer
Realistically, if you are reading this you any more than using Microsoft Word makes
have a greater commitment to excellent one a good writer. However, the ability to
video, which requires a camcorder and edit video in your own home or office is so
video editing. While many of the videos on convenient that it enables more people to
these video-sharing sites are of low qual- spend more time developing their skills.
ity, there are plenty of people uploading One of the most rewarding experiences
and sharing some wonderfully produced in video production is getting an audi-
videos. Video sharing is a wonderful new ence to understand your vision. The time
way to reach anyone on the planet who has between the initial manifestation of your
an Internet connection. vision and the first screening of the video
There was a time when any message may be just a few days or several years,
conveyed on a TV screen was perceived as but there is no more satisfying (or nerve-
far more credible than if it were conveyed wracking) feeling than witnessing an audi-
by other media (i.e., print or audio cas- ence’s first reaction to your work.
sette). While that may no longer be as true,
video messages are still more convincing
to many people.
PART I
Video Gear
A guide to essential equipment: what to buy, how it works.

1
Camera Buttons
and Controls
Robert G. Nulph, Ph.D.
It’s easy for first-time camcorder owners switch might also be part of the switch
to be intimidated by all of the buttons that changes the mode of the camcorder
and controls that seem to sprout from from camera to playback VCR.
every recess and surface of a new cam- The eject button is also a standard fea-
corder. Believe me, if you don’t know ture on all camcorders. This button, often
how to focus, adjust your iris or when to colored blue, can be found most any-
select a different shutter speed, you are where on the camcorder. Usually they are
not alone. In this column, we will give all located on the side, top or bottom of the
you beginners an overview of the various camcorder near the tape door. By press-
buttons, controls, dials and knobs coming this button, you can eject your tape or
mon to camcorders. open the tape door so that you can insert
your tape into the tape carriage. On many
camcorders, the door opens and the tape
Power, Eject and Record Buttons carriage then pops or slides out. If this is
the case with your camcorder, when load-
Somewhere on the camcorder, there is a ing the tape into the camcorder, slide your
power switch. This switch often includes tape into the carriage, then let the cam-
a save, standby or neutral position so that corder pull the tape inside before closing
the camera goes into a power save mode the outside door. This allows you to make
when not recording, to preserve battery sure that the camcorder firmly seats the
life. If your camcorder goes into the standby tape into its internal mechanism.
or save mode, simply push the standby All camcorders have a record button,
button to power it back up. Power switches of course. This button is usually red and
sometimes have a “lock” feature that pre- is located where your thumb sits when
vents you from turning the camera on holding the camcorder in your right hand.
accidentally. To disengage this lock, press Some camcorders also have a record but-
in the power switch to move it. The power ton on top or in the front for easier access
3
4 The Videomaker Guide to Video Production
when using the camera with a tripod. The

record button starts and stops recording
while in camera mode. On some cameras,
the record button also acts as a record/
pause button when your camcorder is in
the VCR mode.
Focus
The buttons, knobs or dials that control

the lens and the picture are perhaps the
most important controls on the camera.
As a beginner, you may tend to let the
camera do the work in Auto mode. How-
ever, as you get used to your camcorder
and do more shooting, you may want to
switch it to manual so that you can take Figure 1-1 One good way to use the focus
greater control of your focus. controls (if you aren’t confident doing it
yourself) is to let the camera automatically
The focus button or dial is usually located focus and then switch the focus to manual
on or near the lens but, on some camcord- (i.e., lock the focus).
ers, it is on the side of the casing. By set-
ting the camera for automatic focus, you let
your camera do the focusing, sending out W for Wide (zoom out) and T for Telephoto
an infrared beam, computing the distance (zoom in). You can also think of these as
and setting the lens. This sounds great, but aWay and Towards. These buttons change
in practice, there are many problems with the focal length of the optical system,
it. Anything that moves across the lens which controls how close or far away your
will cause it to change focus and, even subject looks. The zoom can be a very
though your subject may not change posi- helpful feature, but be careful not to over-
tion, the camera is constantly checking the use it. Its primary use should be in setting
focus and changing it. This constant check the image size before you begin recording;
and rechecking of the focus causes your try not to zoom during recording. Recorded
picture to drift in and out of focus and is a zooms often don’t look very good unless
major drain on your battery. your camcorder has a variable speed zoom
If you are not comfortable focusing man- and you practice using it a lot.
ually, let the camera focus automatically,
then switch to manual. This effectively
locks the focus until you change it again. Iris (Aperture)
Some camcorders allow you to hold the
manual focus button down so that the cam- Some camcorders have an iris or aperture
era focuses using its auto function. Then, control dial (see Figure 1-2). The iris con-
when you release the button the camera trols the amount of light that enters the
enters the manual focus again so that it camera. By turning the dial, you can make
won’t auto-fluctuate (see Figure 1-1). the image brighter or darker. Aperture
is measured in f-stops (e.g., f/1.8–f/16),
with larger numbers indicating smaller
Zoom openings. Some camcorders do not have
explicit iris controls and instead adjust
The zoom control is usually a couple of the overall exposure through some com-
buttons, a slider or a rocker switch on top bination of iris and electronic amplifica-
of the camera. These buttons have the letters tion (gain).
Camera Buttons and Controls 5
Figure 1-2 The iris controls the amount of

light that enters the camera. By turning the Figure 1-3 Stop Motion—Fundamentally,
dial, you can make the image brighter or shutter speed controls the amount of light that
darker. is coming into the camera.
Manual aperture control can be handy

when your subject is standing against a
bright background. The camera automati- light that enters the lens. If shooting out-
cally reads the scene as being bright, so it doors at midday, this is not much of a
closes the iris, making your subject very problem, as the sun provides a lot of light.
dark. By turning the iris control dial, you Indoors, however, you will have to add
can make your subject brighter (with the light if you want to use the high-speed
background likely becoming overexposed). shutter function.
Many cameras have an explicit backlight
button that may help you do this semi-
automatically. You can avoid using the
White Balance
backlight button if you watch your back-
grounds and change your shooting loca-
The white balance button is a necessary
tion. Always try to place your subject so
feature on a camcorder. This button sets the
that the background is a little darker than
electronics of the camera so that they see
the subject. You can usually make your
colors accurately (see Figure 1-4). Sur-
subject brighter by turning him or her so he
prisingly perhaps, different kinds of light
or she almost faces the sun. You can also
sources (fluorescent, the sun, incandescent
reduce the brightness of the background
bulbs) produce slightly different colors
by zooming in on your subject.
of light. To use the white balance but-
ton, point your camera at a white piece of
Shutter Speed paper or cloth after you set up your shot.
Press the white balance button and you’ll
Fundamentally, shutter speed controls see an icon in the viewfinder blink off and
the amount of light coming into the cam- on. When the camera is white balanced, it
era, with faster shutter speeds letting in will stop blinking. Make sure you white
less light (see Figure 1-3). Faster speeds balance every time you change position or
also decrease the amount of blur for fast light sources. Watch out for a subtle, peri-
moving subjects. This comes in very odic cycling of automatic white balance
handy when you slow the video down under fluorescent lights, especially when
in your editor. Without the shutter speed using slower shutter speeds.
control, the slowed-down video would
show blurred motion. By increasing the
shutter speed, the motion will be crystal VCR Controls
clear, even if the image is paused.
The one problem with higher shutter Most camcorders have basic VCR
speeds is that it decreases the amount of controls built into them. These controls
Figure 1-5 Record Review—You might also

find a record review button that you can press
Figure 1-4 The white balance button is a
to check what you just recorded. When you
necessary feature on a camcorder. This button
press this button, the camcorder rewinds the
sets the electronics of the camera so that they
tape and plays back your last few seconds of
see colors accurately.
footage.
Clicking Off
include Rewind, Fast Forward, Play, Pause
and Stop. You might also find a record We’ve covered the most common cam-
review button that you can press to check corder buttons, but your camcorder may
what you just recorded (see Figure 1-5). have a few more buttons. Read over your
When you press this button, the cam- manual and experiment using the differ-
corder rewinds the tape and plays back ent settings. If you’ve had your camcorder
your last few seconds of footage. The for a while, but have only shot in Auto
camera does not have to be in the VCR mode, it may be time to take more control
setting to do this, making it a very handy of your camcorder. Have fun and enjoy
function. making videos.
Sidebar 1
Direct Focus
On still cameras, the focus ring is often mechanical, and a turn actuates a direct change in the
position of the optics. On almost all camcorders, the focus ring is not mechanical. Instead, the
movement of the focus ring by your hand translates into an electronic signal that then trans-
lates into the movement of the lens. This makes the focus ring seem mushy and unresponsive
to changes.
Sidebar 2
Menus
Camera designers are faced with a dilemma: too many buttons can be baffling, yet too few
restrict a videographer’s freedom. Design engineers have attempted to solve this issue by
putting the most commonly used controls on the body of the camera and placing seldom-used
items in electronic menus. More advanced cameras tend to have more buttons, while simpler
point-and-shoot models tend to have more menus. If your camera doesn’t have a button that is
listed in this article, check the on-screen menu.
2
HDV High Def Value
Paul M. J. Suchecki
If you’re eager to leap into High Definition in MPEG-2 with a resolution of 1280
production, but prefer to limit your six- 720 pixels (progressive). HDV2 from Sony
figure purchases to real estate, then HDV and Canon records in MPEG-2 at 25 mega-
is for you. In the same way that miniDV bits per second with a resolution of 1920
revolutionized standard definition shoot- pixels by 1080 (interlaced). If you shoot
ing, the not quite three-year-old HDV JVC’s HDV1, you won’t be able to trans-
format is doing the same for Hi Def. fer through FireWire from a Sony HDV2
Affordable HDV is available today, but deck or camcorder. Sony’s HDV doesn’t
myriad variations can confound a buyer. play back on JVC either. Canon adds to the
At first glance, you might suspect that compatibility issues with an “F” setting
the video princes have sidestepped their on its camcorders that won’t play back
usual format wars. HDV was created by on either a JVC or Sony deck. In practi-
a partnership of Canon, Sharp, Sony and cal terms this means that you’ll either be
JVC. Much is in common. HDV records in digitizing directly from your camcorder
MPEG-2 on miniDV cassettes. The aspect or committing to HDV1 or HDV2 for your
ratio is wide screen 16:9, while the output complete production and post chain.
is 1080i (1080 pixels horizontally scanned
interlace) or 720p (720 pixels scanned pro-
gressively). The tape run time for HDV is Camcorder Overview
the same as for miniDV so your 63-minute
cassette will last more than an hour. Since Professional HDV camcorders are now
the top throughput of HDV tops out at the available from Canon, JVC and Sony. Let’s
same data rate of DV tape, video can be break down what they share and how
readily loaded to an edit system in real they differ beginning with 3 1/3 CCDs.
time via FireWire. These are much smaller than 2/3 pro-
However, there are differences: HDV1 fessional Betacam or HDCam camcord-
from JVC records at 19 megabits per second ers. 2/3 HDV is coming but for now the
7
smaller chips common in all these cam- camera moves defined by prime lenses
eras present a challenge. and finally 24 progressive frames. Sony
The shorter focal lengths of HDV give uses a CineFrame mode that replicates the
greater depth of field, which helps ease the look of film with a 3:2 conversion of inter-
critical focus issues with shooting in High nal 1080i that works by throwing away a
Def. It’s an asset for run and gun ENG-style field of data. Canon has a simulated pro-
shooting. However, some videographers are gressive capture mode that’s designated
going to be using HDV for digital cinema- “F.” It works by interlaced scanning twice
tography. Since much of the “film look” is in the time of a normal field. Compared to
due to a shallow depth of field, you’ll need true progressive, this process does create
to pick up a set of neutral density filters to some artifacts. JVC’s HDV-1 actually uses
cut down on light, thus opening your iris genuine 720 24p recording making it the
to greater isolate your subject against soft far better camera to use if film is the ulti-
focused backgrounds. This is where a matte mate destination for your show. You can
box proves handy, giving you a choice of export directly to a film-style edit system
options like gradients to take down the without converting the frame rate.
exposure of the sky. Another way to emulate
film is to use a prime lens, which is usually
sharper than a zoom. For this, you’ll need MPEG-2 Compression
a camera that offers interchangeable lenses
(Canon and JVC at present). DV and HDV compress images very dif-
There is less tolerance for bad focus ferently. In DV, like HDCam and Digital
because the HD image is noticeably Betacam, the videocompression is purely
sharper. All the top end HDV cameras offer intraframe, comparing and compressing
both electronic viewfinders and external within each individual image. It’s the same
LCD’s, but they go further offering peak- kind of compression most photos used
ing enhancement in black and white view- on the Internet (e.g., JPEG). Each frame is
finder mode so that in-focus elements are compressed independently. Since HDV is
tinged with color. Sony allows a camera MPEG-2, it uses both intraframe and inter-
operator to temporarily double the center frame compression. Interframe compres-
of the image for a focus check. sion happens in what is called a GOP or
HD cameras allow you to monitor with group of pictures, made up of I, B and P
standard definition field monitors. However, frames. The I frame is encoded indepen-
for critical applications such as an ultimate dently. The next frame to be encoded is a
transfer to film, get a portable HD monitor. P or predictive frame, which anticipates
Very good LCD options are available. changes in the video discarding redundant
Shoulder-mounted cameras are easier to information. Between the I and P frames,
handle during extensive handheld shoot- B or bi-directional frames fill in, looking
ing. When possible get a camcorder with both backwards and forwards. It’s played
XLR inputs for your mics. Most HDV back I–BB-P BB P etc., with the next I
camcorders will allow the user to shoot frame determined by the size of your GOP.
in NTSC DV as well as HDV. Sony’s HVR- Since most video has redundancy across
Z1U also plays back in DVCAM, 1080 50i frames, the method works well until there
and PAL. The Canon can record to PAL is a lot of change. While shooting HDV be
with an optional upgrade. wary of rapid camera motion like fast pans,
which can overwhelm the compression
process.
The Hornet’s Nest of 24P Sony also recommends using its better
quality HDV vs. DV tape. If you’re unlucky
“Film look” is a combination of lighting, enough to have a dropout on a recorded
low depth of field, wide exposure latitude, I frame, you have no backup immediately
HDV High Def Value 9
fore and aft. The glitch will affect every- edit system you choose, you’d be wise to
thing in your GOP. get as much RAM and the fastest CPU’s
you can afford. The good news is that the
Editing file sizes will be as manageable as work-
ing in DV, so you don’t have to buy the
Editing HDV footage is more problematic gig a minute of storage that uncompressed
than cutting DV. Since each DV frame is standard definition editing requires.
compressed independently, the footage Compression issues are exacerbated
can be cut at any frame without affect- if you are shooting in simulated 24P. If
ing those next to it. In HDV, the I frame, you’ve ever cut film that was telecined,
the only truly intact frame, is typically you’ve seen the field complications that
recorded once every half second or less. arise from a 3/2 pulldown. Both Sony
The rest are extrapolated across the GOP. and Canon’s HDV cameras do a reverse
Any transition while editing, even a sim- 2/3 which requires even more sophisti-
ple cut, requires an entire decompression cated processing with MPEG-2 during
and then recompression of every frame in editing. These HDV modes can produce
the GOP. unintended motion artifacts. Some vid-
Non-linear HDV editing demands a lot eographers planning to finish on film have
of processing power to extract and then opted for shooting in PAL mode at 25 fps.
reconstruct an image at a transition. MPEG They find the 4% speed difference less
hardware encoding is usually cleaner and objectionable than the processing errors
faster than software only, so consider caused by pseudo 24P.
investing in a dedicated HDV encoding Choose your HDV package based on
board. Some will also give you real time your specific shooting needs. Each one has
playback on a monitor. No matter what its tradeoffs.
Sidebar 1
The Natives and the Non-Natives
Different editing programs handle the long GOP MPEG-2 file format of HDV in different ways.
The two main workflows today consist of native and non-native HDV editing.
Native brings the long GOP I, B and P frames into the editing program unchanged. At this
point, to cut in between most frames, a conversion process would have to take place. Some
time after the cut and before output to tape, the GOP would have to be reconstructed (ren-
dered). Though there is slight degradation of the image, proponents of native editing believe
this to be the cleanest, not to mention quickest way to edit HDV footage. Only those GOPs that
are altered need to be reconstructed at output.
Non-native HDV editing usually involves the use of an intermediary. The long GOP must be
converted, or transcoded, into a group of I frames. Though a time-consuming render is neces-
sary when capturing footage and putting back out to tape, there is no interruption to the edit-
ing work flow during cutting as all the frames are now all I frames, just as if it was DV footage.
Some of the drawbacks here include the need for more hard drive space as the conversion
from long GOP could take up to four times the space, generation loss on conversion and longer
render time when capturing and outputting.
Of course, both camps claim their process produces both a better workflow and a better out-
putted image.
Sidebar 2
HDV Glossary
16 9 aspect ratio is the ratio of the width to height of an image.
Depth of field is the front to back area of apparent focus in a shot. It is affected by focal
length of the lens, iris size and camera to subject distance.
Intraframe compression is a technique that compresses the video by removing redundancy
from individual video images.
Interframe compression is a technique that achieves compression of a video file by eliminat-
ing redundant data between successive compressed frames. In a shot sequence of a red balloon
sailing across a blue sky, for example, most of the image stays the same and is redundant from
frame to frame.
• MPEG-2 refers to an interframe and intraframe compression scheme instituted by the

Motion Picture Experts Group. It differs from other MPEG compressions in that it is used
to encode audio and video for broadcast signals. DVD uses MPEG-2 compression.
• Interlace Scanning (i) Picture a Venetian blind representing scan lines. The odd lines, like
the slats of a blind, are all scanned in one field. The even are scanned next. Put together
they make up one complete frame of video.
• Progressive Scanning (p) This is a scanning method where the lines are scanned in numer-
ical sequence from top to bottom. This action in video more closely simulates how film
records information.
• Megabits per second (Mbps) a number representing the amount of digital data moved
through a single point within a second of time.
3
How DV Works:
Inside the Technology
Bill Fisher
Ladies and gentlemen, step right up! device (CCD) at the end of the lens bar-
Inside this tent you’ll have a remarkable rel uses hundreds of thousands of pixels
opportunity to get closer than ever before to make DV look incredibly sharp and
to digital video, otherwise known as DV. clean, with around 500 lines of poten-
I’ll give each of you an unusual close-up tial resolution (or more, in three-chip pro
look at the mechanics of DV, at the various cameras).
DV formats on the market and at the rea-
sons DV can do so much, so well. So fol-
low me into the tent of wonders! From Analog to Digital
Look—the journey is already beginning.
We’re now shrinking, small enough to Next we come to the circuit boards, which
penetrate the inner workings of a DV cam- do an enormous amount of the work of
corder. Let’s enter through the lens hous- making your DV footage look and sound
ing and start exploring. fantastic. The software coding and com-
puter components contained in the boards
produce a digital replica of each moment
Light, Sound and Current of video and audio in the analog-to-digital
conversion process. There is also circuitry
As we move through the zoom lens, note that works in reverse, for playback on your
that at this point, digital video is a lot like television. It’s the “digital” part of DV that
analog video. Light and sound enter the puts this technology head and shoulders
camera through a lens and microphone and above consumer analog video formats.
then a computer transforms the real world Digital video is pure data, not analog
into electronic signals. signals, allowing pristine and endlessly
Digital and analog part ways fairly soon, repeatable transmission of high-resolution
however. The tiny silicon charge-coupled data through an all-digital pathway.
11
Doing the Math • Audio A separate sampling process takes

the audio signal (after pre-amplification)
All consumer digital video formats (Mini and turns it into data as well. An audio
DV, Digital8, DVCAM and DVCPro) utilize sample rate of 48 kHz (with a 16-bit
the same basic data format and data rate depth per sample) produces a single
(25 Mbps) to encode and decode 30 fps track of high-fidelity digital stereo audio
NTSC video data. (2 channels). Alternately, a 32 kHz sam-
ple rate with a 12-bit depth yields two
• Sampling DV encoding hardware sam- stereo tracks (4 channels total), one
ples each frame of video for luminance of which can be used for voiceover
(brightness) and chrominance (color) narration.
information. It uses 4:1:1 (Y:U:V or YUV)
• Vital data All of this pristine but com-
sampling for this operation (see Figure
pressed digital information is bundled
3-1). The hardware scans each line of
with additional vital pieces of generated
every 720 480 video frame, taking
data. This information includes time
four pixel samples of luma informa-
code, time/date information and digital
tion (Y) for every one pixel sample it
pilot tone signals to replace the con-
takes of chroma information (U and V).
ventional control track of analog video,
That cuts down on extra data and also
which the DV format lacks.
provides the right mix of luma and
chroma detail to satisfy our eyes, which • Error correction Also added to the data
are more sensitive to brightness (luma) mix are error correction bits. Digital
than color (chroma). video data travels in tiny packets and
the DV hardware adds unique codes that
• Compression The DV brain then math-
verify and correct corrupted data bits.
ematically compresses each resampled
frame of video to speed throughput and
save storage space on tapes and hard Express Delivery
drives. This is accomplished with a 5:1
DCT (discrete cosine transform) mathe- The whole package is finally bundled in
matical algorithm that discards as much data packets compliant with the DV stan-
unnecessary image information as pos- dard. Every one of these packets—each the
sible while retaining much of the qual- size of a single DV track—contains four
ity of the original image. independent regions: a subcode sector for
time code and other data, a video sector,
an audio sector and a sector for insert edit-
ing and track data (see Figure 3-2). These
packets move at a rate of 25 Mbps (mega-
bits per second), which translates to
Figure 3-1 4:1:1 Sampling—DV Encoding

hardware samples each frame of video for
luminance (brightness) and chrominance
(color) information taking four pixel samples
of luma information (Y) for every one pixel
sample it takes of chroma information Figure 3-2 10 Tracks, 1 Frame—Each frame
(U and V). of DV video is made up of 10 tracks, each of
which is divided into four subsections.
How DV Works 13
roughly 3.5 MB of disk storage space per The tape itself is 6.35 mm wide and is
second of DV video. coated with metal that was deposited using
an evaporated processing technique (ME)
(see Figure 3-3). It moves at a rate of about
Where the Action Is 19mm per second, with a track width of
10 microns. The typical 60-minute Mini
We’ve seen the brains, but now we’ve DV cassette is about 70 m long and stores
come to the brawn—the spinning drums around 13 GB of data. The closely related
that record data onto the tape and read it standard DV tape (designed for use in
off. The drum that houses the heads is a VTRs) is the same tape format, but comes
polished metal cylinder that’s angled in the in a cassette that’s twice as big and holds
cassette compartment and rotates at a very as much as 180 minutes of tape.
high rate. Rollers hold the tape against the DVCAM (Sony) and DVCPro (Panasonic)
drum’s grooved surface, where a number of formats are modified DV25 for the profes-
electromagnetic heads make slanted swipes sional market. They use a wider track
across the surface of the tape, recording pitch for greater reliability and move the
tracks of data that correspond exactly to tape past the heads much faster. Both for-
the DV packets described above. mats offer as much as three hours of run-
Everything about this system is micro- ning time on a single cassette.
scopic and its measurements are in microns, The DVCPro format has several other
or thousandths of a millimeter. In fact, the pro-level features. DVCPro tapes use a
record heads are so small, the tracks are metal particulate (MP) process instead of
so narrow and the data they contain is so ME. Unlike Mini DV and DVCAM, DVCPro
densely packed, that a minute of digital can use optional linear tracks at the top
video—about 200 MB of information— and bottom edges of the DV tape to record
occupies less than two meters of tape. Put analog time code and audio information.
another way, a DV cassette can hold about The Digital8 format also has idiosyncra-
13GB of digital information. sies. Larger than Mini DV tape, Digital8
records onto 8 mm and Hi8 tape. The key
difference is that in a Digital8 camcorder,
The Skinny on Digital Formats the tape moves twice as fast as in its ana-
log relatives, and the signal is digital. The
Everything up to this point is common Digital8 format is backward-compatible
to the 25 Mbps Mini DV (DV25), Digital8, with the analog 8mm format. That’s a big
DVCAM and DVCPro formats. When it plus if you have a closetful of legacy 8 mm
comes to recording to tape, however, man- gear and tapes (see Figure 3-4).
ufacturers have developed several differ-
ent ways to store the data.
Mini DV tape comes in a 55 mm wide Decks
plastic cassette to fit consumer camcorders.
Most of what you’ve seen here applies to
digital VTRs as well. Decks use the same
Surface Prep Layer
processing system as camcorders to under-
Overcoat
stand analog and digital signals. Where
Metal Evaporate
decks differ from, and usually outshine,
Base
camcorders is their mechanical robust-
ness and their multiple digital and analog
input/output capabilities. These units also
Figure 3-3 Physical Format—Metal
Evaporated (ME) Mini DV tapes have a offer format cross-compatibility: many DV,
number of physical layers protecting the DVCAM and DVCPro decks can play back
important data layer. all of the different tape formats.
25 Mbps DV Tape Formats

Tape Pitch (microns) Tape Speed (in mm/sec) Cassette Dimensions (mm)
MiniDV 10 18 66 48 12
DVCam 15 28 66 48 12
Digital8 16 29 95 63 15
DVCPRO 18 34 98 65 15
Figure 3-4 All consumer digital video formats utilize the same basic data
format and data rate (25 Mbs) to encode and decode 30 fps NTSC video
data.
Output and Beyond Parting Advice
We conclude our tour at the camcorder’s As you leave this tent of wonders, make
FireWire connection. And that’s appropri- sure to remember that all DV equipment,
ate, because FireWire is a big part of DV’s from the most economical camcorder to
success. FireWire is a data transfer proto- the most elaborate high-end VTR, makes
col like USB or Ethernet. FireWire moves use of basically the same computational
dense packets of data at extremely high brain. And as for the many differences,
rates, and that makes it perfect for mov- don’t worry about the underlying technol-
ing DV data between camcorder and com- ogy. Whether your DV comes in the form
puter. The DV/FireWire one-two punch of a pro camera with a giant lens, a port-
has created a real revolution in consumer able deck with an LCD screen or a palm-
video, enabling all-digital desktop video size camcorder for travel, there’s a digital
production. heart in all of these devices.
Sidebar 1
Standards
FireWire, like DV, is an international standard (IEEE-1394) that technology manufacturers have
agreed to abide by in the interest of compatibility. But that doesn’t mean that everyone agrees
on what to call the standard. Apple Computer, which played a large role in developing the
technology, named it FireWire and Sony dubbed their version i.LINK.
Sidebar 2
Longevity
Anyone who’s used analog formats has seen dropouts and other signs of signal loss resulting
from faults on the magnetic tape or from recording problems. When it comes to longevity,
expect analog tapes to last at best 15 years before they start to degrade. Error correction built
in to DV eliminates many dropouts, but what about longevity? Since DV tapes use magnetic
material to record data, you’ll see gradual deterioration of these signals, too, though error
correction can make up for some loss. Fortunately, it’s easy to make perfect backup clones of
DV tapes via FireWire.
4
Dissecting a Digital
Camcorder
Scott Anderson
Dooley may be a little crusty, but he’s the he had the back off the camcorder and was
kind of guy you can trust with your cam- pulling its guts out.
corder. So when mine broke, he was the “Here’s where it all starts,” he said, hold-
man to fix it. This was the perfect chance ing up my precious zoom lens. “The lens
to learn the inside story about this amaz- is one of the most important, and expen-
ing piece of technology, from the moment sive, parts of the camcorder. No amount
that the light hits the lens to the final TV of electronic wizardry can make up for a
output (see Figure 4-1). crummy lens.”
“There’s a lot of technology crammed He pointed at two small gray cylinders
into this little thing,” said Dooley, who alongside the lenses. “See these? These are
actually seemed to glow when he talked little motors to control the autofocus and
tech. “It has lenses, motors, gyros, micro- the zoom,” he said. “Essentially, this is a
phones, a clock, a tape deck, a compu- sophisticated robot eye that responds to
ter and a TV. Not to mention a dozen what the camcorder brain tells it to do (see
input and output jacks. It’s a robot-oper- Figure 4-2). Yours has an optical stabilizer
ated entertainment center in the palm of built into the lens; a squishy prism that uses
your hand. So, how did you break it?” he a tiny gyroscope to keep the image steady.”
asked. “What’s that?” I asked, pointing to a
“I didn’t break it; it just stopped work- chip the size of a postage stamp on a tiny
ing,” I said, somewhat defensively. circuit board.
“Well, let’s crack ’er open,” Dooley replied.
“And don’t worry, I won’t hurt your baby.
Now hand me that tool kit.” Shaking Hands with My CCD
I passed him a large kit containing
everything from a basic screwdriver to a “That’s the CCD,” he said, “a chip that
space-age remote control. In a few seconds converts light to electricity. These things
15
Figure 4-1 Video Out—This greatly simplified diagram may give you some idea of the
complexity of getting a picture from the world at large to a place where we can see and edit it.
red, green and blue,” Dooley said. “One

technique uses prisms to split up the light
and send it to three different CCDs. That’s
hot stuff, but expensive and bulky. Your
camcorder just has one CCD, and it puts
different-colored filters over the pixels,”
he said, handing me a diagram of a colored
grid (see Figure 4-3).
“But this thing is mostly green,” I replied.
“Won’t everyone come out looking
seasick?”
“Actually, the eye sees better in the
Figure 4-2 The Lens—More than just glass for green part of the spectrum, so that grid
concentrating light, modern camcorder lenses
have complex servos and gears for zooming works great. But if you think about it, this
and focusing. technique cuts into your resolution. You
need to combine three mono-colored pix-
els to get one colored pixel. Software helps
have been around for almost 25 years, but to smooth things out, but the more pixels
they keep getting better. It’s a grid of tiny you can get in your CCD, the better your
light sensors that engineers call photo- final resolution. Typically, a camcorder
sites and computer folks call pixels. The has 300,000 to 500,000 pixels, but some
new ones are more sensitive for low-light new ones have a megapixel (1 million pix-
situations and have more pixels for higher els). You could shoot HDTV with that kind
resolution. The more light that hits a of resolution.”
photo site, the greater the voltage output.” “I want one!”
“But won’t that just give you black “Save your money, bud,” Dooley growled.
and white? How do they see in color?” I “Most megapixel CCDs are just for still
asked. images and HD cams ain’t cheap. Now pay
“Well, there are basically two ways, but attention. These CCDs are scanned just like
they both work by splitting the light into a TV, pixel by pixel, row after row. The
Dissecting a Digital Camcorder 17
opposite direction to cancel the motion.

That uses up some pixels around the bor-
der though, which dings your resolution
a bit. The image is also used to determine
exposure. There are at least two ways to
do that. One electronically changes the
amount of time that the CCD is allowed to
gather light. The other way is to control a
physical iris with another tiny motor.
“Your camcorder also uses this digital
image to focus,” he continued. “It has
software that checks on the contrast of the
image and controls the focusing motors.
As long as the contrast increases, it will
keep shifting the focus. But as soon as the
contrast starts to go down, it knows it just
passed the sweet spot, and it backs up a
notch for perfect focus. There are other
focusing methods; the most common uses
an infrared beam. It just measures how
long it takes light to bounce off your sub-
ject and then calculates the distance from
that. It works just fine, but other infrared
sources can fool it, like candles or fires.
“Finally,” he went on to say, “another
software program compresses the image by
a factor of five before it gets saved to tape.”
Figure 4-3 The Retina—The CCD records the
light that is focused by the lens in discrete
pixels.
The Tape Deck
output creates a varying voltage that travels Dooley reached into the camcorder and
through an analog-to-digital converter. Can pulled out the tape deck. I fervently hoped
you guess what that does?” he knew how to put that thing back.
“Converts analog to digital?” I asked “That brings us to the tape deck part of
with a smirk. the camcorder,” he said. “Here, tiny write
“You’re smarter than you look, pal. That heads spinning at high speed lay down the
digital signal gets stored in what they call digitized image track, along with the cap-
a memory buffer, which is really just like tured audio. The heads are little electro-
computer RAM,” Dooley said. “Once you magnets, and as the pixels are read out of
have it in the buffer, you can use all kinds the buffer, the signal magnetizes the tape
of software tricks on it. Some camcorders (see Figure 4-4).
even throw in digital special effects, but “That’s really the end of the camcorder
I see yours doesn’t.” story,” Dooley said, “except for how you
“Naw, I like to do my effects on the com- get the video out again. For that, you need
puter,” I said. to read the tape back. This is just like the
“Your camcorder uses optical stabiliza- write process in reverse. The tape goes
tion, but some camcorders also use this by the read head and every little mag-
buffer to stabilize the image,” he said. “The netic spot on the tape converts back into
software finds a feature and tries to keep it bits of data. This is digital data, which
nailed down. If the camera shakes, the soft- is very robust stuff. Since a bit of data is
ware electronically moves the image in the binary—on or off—it’s difficult to swamp
Figure 4-4 The Head—The play/record head Figure 4-5 In and Out—The interface between
spins at a high rate of speed and is divided the analog world and the camcorder is most
into a number of horizontal tracks. often bi-directional on many modern DV
camcorders.
it with noise. Even if noise does manage to hybrid, with a lot of conversion going on
destroy a bit, there are extra bits reserved between the analog and digital worlds.
for error correction, which means that “Pretty soon, you can expect a fully
you can count on a reliable, 100-percent digital signal path, which will give even
perfect recording and playback. It is this better results. In the end, you’ll still need
fact that makes digital so remarkable. No to convert to analog for standard viewing,
matter how many times you copy it, there but soon, even the TVs will be digital.”
is no generation loss like there is with ana- Dooley surveyed the entrails of my cam-
log video. corder strewn across the table. “Well, that
“On the way out, the video image is about sums it up,” he said. “Except for one
again stored in the buffer. Now, you can thing. Your camcorder has something you
run it into a computer with a FireWire con- don’t see very often.”
nection and edit it if you want. But if you Dooley held up the tape unit. “This thing
just want to display it on a TV, you need seems to have a toaster in it. Or at least
to convert the digital image back to analog, someone must have thought so. Otherwise,
the only thing a typical TV can handle (see why would there be a piece of bread in the
Figure 4-5). What do you suppose they use cassette holder?”
for that, my friend?” “What?” I yelped. “No way, unless the
“A digital to analog converter?” I twins got into it…”
proposed. “You should keep your kids away
“Right again, genius. That same circuit from this thing, Anderson. Hand me the
can also send a signal to the LCD view- tweezers.”
finder on your camcorder. It’s interesting Dooley fiddled around a bit and then tri-
that although both CCDs and LCDs come umphantly plucked out a hardened chunk
from the computer world, they are both of bread squished into the shape of a DV
usually wired for analog inputs and out- tape. “It should work a whole lot better
puts. So, your digital camcorder is really a now,” he said.
Dissecting a Digital Camcorder 19
Sidebar 1
Quality Issues
The Lens
Lens Quality: This is the most important part of your camcorder and usually the most
expensive. It doesn’t matter how many lines of resolution you have if the image is out of
focus. Premium optical coatings do a better job of preventing color fringing and reflections.
Zoom: An important aspect of a lens is its zoom capacity. Modern optics are computer-
designed and incredibly complex. Keep in mind that big zoom ranges may sacrifice optical
quality and speed, and long zoom settings will require a tripod or an image stabilizer.
Stabilizer: Optical stabilizers let you use those zoom settings to the max, and they don’t
sacrifice CCD resolution the way electronic stabilizers might.
Speed: Faster lenses capture more light, so you can take shorter exposures. This is espe-
cially important for shooting sports events and low-light situations.
The Microphone
We tend to concentrate on the video parts of a camcorder, but the audio is just as important.
Fortunately, audio is much easier and cheaper to deal with. Audio data is just a fraction of the
size of the video data.
It’s difficult to put a high-quality microphone on such a small object. Nevertheless, cam-
corder makers have done a decent job within a tight budget and even tighter spaces. If you’re
looking for better quality, look for an input jack for an external microphone. Then you can
hook up whatever you want, including remote mics.
The CCD
There are two things to look for in a CCD: the resolution and the sensitivity. The resolution
depends mostly on how many pixels the CCD has, but is reduced somewhat if electronic
image stabilizing is used. The more CCD chips you have, the better. For sensitivity, choose a
low-lux CCD that can see well even in low light conditions.
Sidebar 2
WARNING! Don’t Try This at Home!
The editors of Videomaker do not recommend opening your camcorder’s case under any cir-
cumstances. Doing so will certainly void your warrantee, and may cause permanent damage
to the camera or personal harm to you. We recommend that you always (and only) have your
video camera repaired by a trained professional.
5
All about Lenses
Jim Stinson
Without passing through a lens, the light the water line seemed to bend. The math-
falling on your camcorder’s CCD would ematician Euclid described this effect in
be as empty of information as a flash- 300 BC. But it wasn’t until 1621 that the
light beam. The camcorder’s lens converts scientist Willebrord Snell developed the
incoming light from a gaggle of unreada- mathematics of diffraction. Diffraction is
ble rays to an ordered arrangement of vis- the principle stating the following: when
ual information—that is, a picture. It’s the light passes from one medium to another—
lens, then, that makes video imaging pos- say from water to air or air to glass—it
sible. Without it, your camcorder would changes speed. And when light hits a
record an image of blank white light. junction between two media at an angle,
All videos are successions of individual the change in speed causes a change in
images, each made by forcing light to form direction.
a recognizable picture on a flat surface. Lenses, which refract light in an orderly
You can do it with just a tiny hole in the way, were perhaps unintended side effects
wall of a darkened room, but it’s easier to of glass blowing: if you drop a globule of
use a lens. molten glass onto a smooth, plane surface
A lens does far more than just render it will naturally cool into a circle that’s
light into coherent images; it also deter- flat on the bottom and slightly convex
mines the visual characteristics of those on top—an accidental lens. Look through
images. For this reason, every serious vid- this piece of junk glass and behold: things
eographer should know how lenses work appear larger.
and how to use them to best advantage. Now, hold the glass between the sun
and a piece of paper and you can set the
sheet on fire—but only if the glass-to-paper
A Little Background distance is such that all the sun’s rays
come together at a single point on the
As long ago as ancient Greece, people paper.
noticed that when they put a straight pole At some unknown moment somebody
into clear water, the part of the pole below thought, “Hmmn, if it works with the sun,
20
All about Lenses 21
maybe it’ll work with other light sources, the light rays converge is the focal point
too.” In a darkened room, this someone and the distance from the focal point to
held the glass between a piece of paper and the axis of the lens is the focal length.
an open window. Sure enough, at a certain Note: Contrary to common belief, the focal
lens-to-paper distance, a pinpoint of light length is not the distance from the lens to
appeared. the focal plane.
But then a bizarre thing happened. Your camcorder’s image-sensing chip
When the experimenter slowly increased sits at the focal plane of the system, behind
the glass-to-paper distance, an actual pic- the actual lens.
ture of the window appeared, small, to be Notice also that Figure 5-1 shows an
sure and upside down, but so detailed that additional measurement: maximum aper-
he could see that tree outside, framed in ture, or, in plain language, the lens’s abil-
the opening. (You can try this yourself ity to collect light. Get comfortable with
with a magnifying glass.) lens aperture, focus and focal length, and
you’ve got everything you need to know
about camcorder lenses. So let’s run
Back to the Present through ’em.
If you’ve ever seen a cutaway diagram of

a modern zoom lens, you have a grasp on Open Wide
how far we’ve come from that first acci-
dentally dropped blob of glass. The aperture of a camera controls how
The camcorder zoom may contain a dozen much light enters the lens. In one way, a
pieces of glass or more. Some of these permit lens is just like a window: the bigger it is,
the lens to zoom, some make the lens more the more light it admits. But a lens isn’t
compact by “folding” the light rays inside quite as simple as a window, because the
it and some correct inescapable imper- amount of light that gets in is also gov-
fections called lens aberrations. erned by its focal length (the distance from
But since you didn’t sign up for an the lens to the focal point).
advanced physics seminar here, we’ll pre- For this reason, you can easily deter-
tend that the camcorder zoom is a simple, mine maximum aperture—the ability of a
one-element lens. We can do this because lens to collect light. Use this simple for-
the basic idea is exactly the same: when a mula: aperture focal length divided by
convex lens refracts light, the light’s rays lens diameter.
converge at a certain distance behind the For example: if a 100 mm lens has a
lens, forming a coherent image on a plane diameter of 50 mm, then 100 divided by
still farther back. 50 is 2. The lens’s maximum aperture is
The plane on which the focused image 2, expressed as “f/2.” Lens apertures are
appears is the focal plane, the place where “f stops.”
Lens Axis
Subject Focal Point
Optical Axis Maximum

Aperture
Lens Focal Plane

Lens-to-subject Distance Focal Length
Figure 5-1 The geometry of a simple lens.

Since the amount of shooting light varies point and the focal plane are all in a fixed
from dimly lit rooms to bright sunshine, all geometrical relationship. That is, you can’t
lenses have mechanical iris diaphragms change one without affecting the others.
that progressively reduce the aperture in You can’t move the lens closer to the sub-
brighter light. Your camcorder’s auto expo- ject without changing the path of the light
sure system works by using this diaphragm rays. And if you do that, you change the
to change the lens’s working aperture. In position of the focal plane.
other words, the iris is changing the effec- In Figure 5-2a, the subject is a long dis-
tive diameter of the lens. tance from the lens, and its image appears
These changes occur in regular incre- sharply on the focal plane. Since the cam-
ments called “stops,” as noted. Each one- corder’s CCD is on that plane, the recorded
stop reduction in aperture size cuts image is in focus.
the light intake in half. Most consumer Figure 5-2b shows what happens when
camcorders fail to indicate these f stops. you move closer to the subject. The geom-
But some units—as well as most familiar etry of the light rays moves the focal plane
single-lens reflex film cameras—indicate f forward away from the CCD. The result?
stops by a string of cryptic digits: 1.4, 2, When the rays do hit the CCD they no
2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22. longer form a sharp image. You’re out of
Why use these peculiar numbers to label focus.
f stops? Simple: long ago, lenses with max- The solution: change the position of the
imum apertures of f/2 were very common, lens to compensate for the shift in subject
so f/2 became the starting point. F/1.4 is distance. As you can see from Figure 5-2c,
the square root of f/2; and if you look at the doing this returns the focal plane to the
other f stop numbers you’ll see that each CCD’s position and the image is back in
is a multiple and/or root of another. (Some focus again.
figures are rounded off: f/11 is not precisely This is exactly what happens in your
a multiple of f/5.6.) camcorder lens. Lens elements move for-
Just as confusing, these strange num- ward and backward to focus the incoming
bers appear to work backward. As the f light on the CCD. Most camcorder zoom
stop number gets bigger, the aperture gets lenses feature internal focusing: the lenses
smaller. F/22 is the smallest common aper- move inside a fixed-length lens barrel.
ture and f/1.4 (or even 1.2) is the largest. Most still cameras use external focusing:
Why should you care how big the hole is you can actually see the lens grow longer as
in your camcorder lens? Because the work- its front element moves forward for closer
ing aperture has important effects on image focusing.
quality and depth of focus. For critical
applications, lenses create better images in
the middle of their range of apertures. But What’s in Focus?
for videographers, the crucial concern is
the effect of aperture on focus. If you adjust the lens to focus on a subject
near the camera, then the distant back-
ground will often go soft. That’s because
Lookin’ Sharp! every lens at every aperture and focusing
distance has what’s called a certain depth
Before we can explain how aperture affects of field. Here’s how it works. Strictly speak-
focus, we need to see what focus is and ing, the lens focuses perfectly only on
how the lens does it. one plane at a certain distance from it.
To start with, remember that the focal Objects receding from that plane—or
plane is the one and only plane on which advancing from it toward the lens—are all
the light rays create a sharp (focused) technically out of focus.
image. If you look at Figure 5-1 again, you’ll But in reality, objects up to a certain dis-
see that the subject, the lens axis, the focal tance behind or in front of this imaginary
All about Lenses 23
(a)
Distant object forms a

sharp image on the focal
plane at the CCD.
(b)
When the camcorder is

closer to the object, the
image is out of focus
because the focal plane
is now in front of the
CCD.
(c)
Increasing the lens

distance from the
CCD moves the focal
plane back to the
CCD and brings the
image back in focus.
Figure 5-2 How (and why) a lens’s focus is changed.
plane still appear sharp to the human again, the higher (smaller) the f stop, the
eye. This sharp territory from in front of greater the depth of field, and vice versa.
the focal distance to behind it is depth of As noted above, depth of field is also gov-
field. erned by the focal length of the lens. But
Two factors govern the extent of the first, we need to see what that geometrical
depth of field: 1) the focal length of the abstraction focal length really means to
lens and 2) the working aperture. Since practical videographers.
we’ve already covered aperture, let’s see
how it affects depth of field. The Long and Short of It
Each drawing of Figure 5-3 represents
a picture made with the same lens, at The focal length of a lens affects three
the same distance from the subjects, and important aspects of the image: angle of
focused on the same person, the woman. view, depth of field and perspective.
The only variable is the aperture. As you The angle of view gives the lens its
can see, the higher the f stop, the greater name.
the depth of field. In Figure 5-4, a wide-angle lens (here an
In Figure 5-3a, the stop is very high angle of 85 degrees) includes a great deal of
(f/22) and all three subjects are sharp. In territory. A normal lens (here 55 degrees)
Figure 5-3b, the aperture widens to the is less inclusive, and a telephoto lens has
middle of its range (f/5.6). Now the depth a very narrow angle of view indeed (here
of field is more shallow and the man and 12 degrees). So, at any distance from the
the tree are at its front and back bounda- subject matter, the wider the lens angle, the
ries. They’re starting to lose sharpness. wider the field of view.
Open the aperture all the way to f/1.4 Incidentally, the angles selected for
(Figure 5-3c) and the depth of field is quite Figure 5-4 are only typical examples.
narrow. Though the woman remains sharp, Each category—wide, normal and narrow
the man and the tree are just blurs. Once (telephoto)—includes a range of angles.
(a) As you can see in Figure 5-5, the wider

the angle, the greater the depth of field.
In bright sunshine, a wide-angle lens
f/22
will hold focus from a couple of feet to the
Depth of
horizon. At the other extreme, in dim light
Field a telephoto lens may render sharp subjects
through only a few inches of depth. Notice
At high (small) lens apertures, depth of field
that we include the light conditions because
is deep. aperture and focal length working together
always govern depth of field. But the rule
(b)
is, at any aperture, the wider the lens angle,
the greater the depth of field, at any dis-
tance from the subject.
f/5.6 Take special note of that last phrase, at
Depth of Field any distance from the subject. When some
photographers can’t get enough depth of
field they think, “Hey, no problem: I’ll
At medium lens apertures, depth of field is increase my depth of field by going wide-
reduced. Foreground and background are now
slightly soft.
angle.”
Wrong! If you widen the angle you will
(c) increase depth of field, but you also reduce
the size of the subject in the frame. To
return it to its former size in the wide-angle
f/1.4 view, you must move the camera closer.
What’s wrong with that? There’s one last
Depth of
Field rule of focus we haven’t mentioned yet:
at any focal length (and any aperture too),
At low (large) lens apertures, depth of field is
the closer the lens is to the subject, the less
quite shallow. Foreground and background are depth of field in the image.
now very soft.
See the problem? Moving closer to com-
Figure 5-3 Lens aperture affects the depth of pensate for the smaller image effectively
field (all shots made at the same focal length wipes out the depth gained from going
and focused on the woman). wide-angle. It’s a wash.
We said that widening the angle decreases
the subject size, and that leads us to the
So while 12 degrees is a narrow angle, most dramatic effect that focal length has on
9 degrees is also a narrow angle, though the image: perspective.
slightly more extreme.
As a videographer, you exploit the dif-
ferences in lens angle of view all the time. Perspective and Focal Length
For example: shooting a birthday party
you may zoom out to your widest angle, to Perspective is the depiction of apparent
include more of the scene when the small depth—a phantom third dimension in a
room won’t let you move the camcorder two-dimensional image.
farther back from the action. In the real world, even people with only
one functional eye can gauge distance,
because the farther away objects are, the
Going Soft smaller they appear. Moreover, they dimin-
ish in size at a certain rate because of the
Earlier, we noted that lens aperture affects geometry of the human optical system.
depth of field. Now let’s see how lens But other optical systems, such as cam-
focal length also affects depth of field. corder lenses, may have very different
All about Lenses 25
(a)
Tree
Woman
Man
85°
Wide-angle lens
(b)
Tree
Woman
Man
55°
Normal lens
(c)
Tree
Woman
12°
Man
Telephoto lens
Figure 5-4 Lens focal length affects angle view (camera is the
same distance from subjects in all shots).
(a) Wide-angle (b) Normal (c) Telephoto
Depth of
Field
Depth of
Field Depth of
Field
Depth of field is comparatively deep. Depth of field is not as deep. Now Shallow depth of field. Foreground
Here, the man in the foreground and the foreground and background and background objects are now
the background tree are also sharp. objects are somewhat soft. very soft.
Figure 5-5 Lens focal length affects the depth of field (all shots made at the same aperture
and focused on the woman).
geometries, and objects may shrink much Background objects look much bigger
faster or slower than they do in human and the space between them and the fore-
vision. The perspectives of different lenses ground appears compressed.
depend entirely on their focal lengths. As the ground plans beside the draw-
As you can see, wide-angle lenses exag- ings in Figure 5-6 show, you have to move
gerate apparent depth. the camera in order to achieve these dif-
Objects shrink quickly as they recede. ferent effects. As you change from wide-
Normal focal lengths imitate the moder- angle to telephoto, you must pull back so
ate perspective of human vision (which, that the reference figure in the foreground
of course, is why we call them “normal”). (the man) remains the same size and in the
Telephoto lenses reduce apparent depth. same position in the frame. If you simply
(a)
Tree
Woman
Wide-angle lens
Man
Objects shrink rapidly
as they recede; (Camera is repositioned
distance between to keep the man at the
objects is exaggerated. same size and position in
every shot)
(b)
Wide-angle
camera
position
Normal lens
Object size and
apparent depth
correspond closely to
human vision. Normal
camera
(c) position
Telephoto lens
Objects shrink slowly Telephoto
as they recede; camera
apparent depth is position
compressed.
Figure 5-6 Lens focal length affects relative object size and
apparent depth (man, woman and tree are all the same height).
zoomed in from the first camera position, arrive. In one suspenseful telephoto shot,
you would instead get the effect shown in Ferris runs straight toward the camera—
Figure 5-4. and runs, and runs, and runs—without
Wide-angle lenses can deliver very dra- seeming to make any progress. It’s the
matic results. People and vehicles moving telephoto focal length lens, of course,
toward or away from the camera appear to that compresses the distance he’s actually
hurtle past. A roundhouse punch swoops covering.
toward the lens like an incoming meteor.
But since they exaggerate depth, wide-
angle lenses have drawbacks as well. Get What’s What Here?
too close to people’s faces in wide angle and
their noses will grow to elephant size. So far we’ve talked about wide-angle, nor-
On the opposite side, telephoto lenses mal and telephoto focal lengths without
can make great compositions on the actually naming any. So what’s a wide-
screen by stacking up pictorial elements. angle lens, anyway: 8 mm, 28 mm, 90 mm,
For instance, if you want to dramatize 200 mm? The answer: all of the above. For
congestion and pollution, get an extreme a full-size VHS camcorder, wide angle is
telephoto shot of a freeway at rush hour, 8 mm; for a 35 mm still camera it’s 28 mm;
viewed head-on. Because you’re squeez- for a 4 5 studio view camera it’s 90 mm;
ing a mile’s worth of cars into 100 yards of and for an 8 10 behemoth it’s 200 mm. In
apparent depth, you make a bad problem other words, the perspective delivered by
look ten times worse. a certain focal length lens depends on the
Telephoto shots are great for suspense. size of the image it creates.
Near the climax of Ferris Bueller’s Day If you draw a picture of it, it looks like
Off our hero must make it home through another dose of geometry; don’t worry,
neighborhood backyards before his parents it’s really just common sense. The image
All about Lenses 27
created by a lens has to fill the camera’s 8 mm would be wide-angle, about 15 mm

frame, right? But the frame is rectangular would be normal and 80 mm would be
and the lens is round. That means that the telephoto. But regardless of what’s normal
lens diameter must slightly exceed the for a given lens, the smaller the number
diagonal of the frame. (8 mm in this case), the wider the angle.
Conveniently, lens designers discovered The larger the number (here 80 mm), the
long ago that for any size format, “normal” tighter the angle.
perspective is produced by a lens focal Today many compact cameras use
length slightly greater than the frame diag- 1/3-inch CCDs, so their zoom lenses feature
onal. That’s why a 15 mm lens is normal shorter focal ranges. In this format, a nor-
on a camcorder with a half-inch chip, but mal focal length is around 10 mm, a wide-
a 35 mm still camera takes a 50 mm lens angle setting would be 5 mm, and a strong
instead. (On the larger camera a 15 mm lens telephoto would be 50 mm.
would be an ultra-wide.) For example: the Canon XL1 Mini DV
What does this mean to you and how do camcorder has a 16:1 zoom that ranges from
you interpret the lens markings on your 5.5–88 mm. By contrast, the Fuji H128SW
camcorder? To understand the answer, you Hi8 camcorder’s 12:1 lens ranges from
need to know what your camcorder lens is 4.5–54 mm. Both have 1/3-inch CCDs.
and how it works. As you can see, knowing what focal
lengths mean can affect your choice of
camcorder. The Canon offers you a longer
Zoom! telephoto; the Fuji a wider wide-angle.
But to interpret the numbers, you have to
Unless you’re using an older style, C-mount start with the size of the CCD. 10 mm is a
lens camera, or a surveillance camera “normal” focal length for a 1/3-inch CCD,
discarded from a convenience store, your while 15 mm is considered normal for a
camcorder comes with a zoom lens. A 1/2-inch CCD. Once you figure out your
zoom lens allows you to shift between normal focal length, you can roughly cal-
focal lengths without changing lenses. culate wide-angle and telephoto lengths as
In addition, it possesses two critical percentages of normal:
characteristics:
You can set the zoom lens at any and every • 35 percent of normal: extreme wide-
focal length between its extremes. That angle.
means, if your camcorder lens ranges from
8 to 80 mm, you could, theoretically, set it • 50 percent of normal: wide-angle.
at a focal length of 43.033 or 78.25 mm. • 70 percent of normal: mild wide-angle.
The zoom lens remains at the same focus
throughout its zoom range. Focus on your • 200 percent of normal: mild telephoto.
subject at any focal length and the subject • 400 percent of normal: telephoto.
will stay in focus if you zoom in or out.
Note: some inner focus lenses do not have • 500 percent of normal: long telephoto.
this capability.
Okay, so your zoom lens is marked, say, As you can see, even the simplest lens on
8–80 mm. What does that mean? What’s the simplest camcorder is a miracle of mod-
wide-angle, normal and telephoto in that ern optical technology. A long, long way
range? from that accidental glop of molten glass.
6
Image Stabilizers:
The Technology That Steadies
Your Shots
Robert J. Kerr
If you want steady pictures, use a heavy Matthew Brady cursed the artillery
camera. Unfortunately, today’s small for- shells shooting past him during his long
mat camcorders fly in the face of this gen- exposures.
eral rule of thumb; they’re so light, the Getting a steady image has been a prob-
slightest external vibration can affect the lem for artists, photographers, cinematog-
quality of their images. raphers and videographers for as long as
Enter the image stabilizer. Developed these arts have been practiced.
specifically to address this problem, these In the earliest days of photography, the
nifty gadgets now grace many small, light- size and weight of the camera and the long
weight camcorders. In this chapter, we’ll exposure time made the tripod de rigeur; it
examine the types of image stabilization was the only way to achieve steady images.
systems and how they work. As film speed increased, so did portabil-
ity; cameras such as the hand-held Kodak
Brownie brought portable photography to
A Short Stability History every family. The relatively wide-angle lens
further reduced the sensitivity to small
I suppose that even the cave artists back camera movements. Still, the motion to
at the dawn of pre-history had trouble depress the shutter trip lever required a
freezing images of fast-moving antelope steady hand for a steady picture.
in their minds before they attempted to That was then, this is now. Today’s very
draw the beasts accurately on their cave fast film and electronic flash make steady
walls. Portrait painters, too, have dealt still photographs the rule.
with the problem of fidgety subjects; per- On to the silver screen. The first cin-
haps even famed Civil War photographer ematographers also used heavy cameras
28
Image Stabilizers 29
mounted on tripods. Later, the shoulder of the portable color camera/recorder and
supported 16 mm cameras also proved camcorder industries. Light weight was
heavy enough to provide steady images— a priority; the introduction of the CCD
if the cinematographer stood still. camera chip made video cameras smaller
Filmmakers got around this limitation than ever. The palmcorder overtook the
by mounting cameras on automobiles and steadier, larger shoulder-mounted mod-
airplanes to capture moving shots. They laid els; its small size—coupled with a zoom
down dolly track, much like train rails, to lens—made steady pictures a problem.
allow smooth camera movement in action Fortunately, the same technology also sup-
scenes. In the 1970s, Garret Brown invented plied the microcircuit advances needed to
the Steadicam™, a stabilization device cin- provide the solution.
ematographers on the move used to keep About this time, Garret Brown invented
shots steady via an elaborate counterbal- a smaller, lighter version of his Steadicam™
ance. Again, the success of the Steadicam™ stabilization device. The ever-popular
depended on its significant mass. Steadicam JR™ helps to stabilize the
The story was much the same for early images of camcorders weighing less than 5
television cameras, whose weight and size pounds. It completely isolates the camera
also required tripod mounting. Resourceful from rotational body movements, thanks
engineers developed massive camera to a delicate balancing system featuring a
mounts that panned and tilted effortlessly low-friction gimbal between the camera
and glided smoothly across studio floors. and the support handle.
With the late 1970s came the intro- This device, although useful, is not one
duction of lightweight battery-operated you’d carry with you on vacation. It will
videotape recorders. Getting steady video fold to a shoulder mount configuration,
pictures with these early models—shoul- but is best applied to specific shooting
der-mounted or hand-held—was a prob- problems you can plan in advance. When
lem. A problem aggravated by addition of properly deployed, the Steadicam JR™
the zoom lens with its telephoto capabil- can yield steady video pictures.
ity some time later. Various “body brace” Not too long ago, numerous manufac-
mounts appeared on the market for those turers including Panasonic, JVC, Hitachi,
who wanted to improve the steadiness of Sony and Canon introduced different sys-
their videos, but the light weight of the tems that reduce image jitter problems.
cameras made them very sensitive to body Unlike the Steadicam JR™, these systems
or other external motion. are integrated into the camcorder itself and
The next major coup: the appearance do not employ any external hardware.
of the solid state electronics color camera There are two main image stabilization
for broadcast news gathering. This 25- systems: optical stabilization and elec-
pound shoulder-mounted camera could be tronic stabilization.
held reasonably steady at moderate focal
lengths of the zoom, but required great
stamina on the part of the cameraperson. The All Electronic System
Not to mention that long focal length shots
were a real problem. The electronic system operates by first
The Steadicam™ mount developed reducing the area of the CCD chip from
for the movies could be used for video which the video image is read (see Figure
cameras, but television applications 6-1). This smaller image then increases
proved infrequent. Advances in solid in size to fill the whole screen. The exact
state electronics made studio cameras area scanned then shifts electronically to
smaller and lighter; the addition of hous- compensate for unwanted external move-
ings and heavy zoom lenses kept them ment of the camera. Since this system
heavy enough to provide smooth opera- does not actually sense the movement of
tion. Enter the 1980s and the rapid growth the camera it must sense camera shake
Figure 6-1 Electronic Image Stabilization.
from the image only. The trick is to tell CCD being scanned then shifts in the oppo-
camera movement from movement of the site direction to cancel the movement.
subject. Changes in fewer than all quadrants
Some manufacturers use a motion indicate subject rather than camera move-
detection method based on fuzzy logic. ment and no compensating action occurs.
How much to compensate for movement If quadrant analysis indicates that both the
is a decision based on comparing the two subject and the camera moved, fuzzy logic
images. An image freezes in computer calculates the image shift needed just to
memory and divides into numerous quad- compensate for the camera movement.
rants. A processor compares the differ- One criticism of this system: the loss in
ences between the individual quadrants of image quality brought about by reducing the
the frozen image and the current image. If number of pixels used to create the picture.
all quadrants change in the same direction, This loss is noticeable to varying degrees
the processor deduces that camera move- on most camcorders, virtually invisible on
ment caused the differences between the others. By the time the video signal goes to
current and stored images. The area of the the tape and back, especially on standard
Image Stabilizers 31
8 mm and VHS models, image loss is neg- Recording without compensation

ligible. Most videographers will find the
added stability to be worth the tradeoff.
Incident light
Recording lens
CCD
Optical Image Stabilization Variangle prism
Recording with compensation

Optical stabilization operates very differ-
ently from the electronic system. Instead
of sliding an undersized image around Incident light
the CCD camera chip, the optical system
corrects for camera movement before the
Optical axis CCD
image reaches the chip. This way, the full
resolution of the CCD occurs at all times.
The result: no image degradation. Incident light
The key optical component is a variable CCD
bend prism. As light passes through a prism,
it bends in the direction of travel. The Figure 6-2 Optical Stabilization System.
amount of bending—known as refraction—
is a function of the angle at which the light
strikes the “in” side of the prism, the rela- design consisting of two glass plates joined
tive angle of the “exit” side and the refrac- at the circumference by a flexible bellows.
tive properties of the prism material. A silicone fluid with controlled refrac-
Refraction is what you see when you look tive properties fills the space between the
at an object at the bottom of a pool or stream. lenses (see Figure 6-2).
If you look straight down on the object, When the two plates are parallel, light
the light reflected from it passes straight passes through undisturbed. If, however,
through the surface of the water. No bend- the plates contract at any point on the
ing or refraction occurs, and you see the perimeter, the light path bends away from
object in its actual position. If you view the the compressed area. Thus the system can
object in the pool or creek from an angle, actually steer the optical image by manip-
thanks to refraction you’ll think the object ulating the prism.
is considerably higher than it really is. If The next step: how the system can tell
you’ve ever been spear fishing you’ll know when to perform such steering.
what I mean. Try to spear fish from above The optical system requires two motion
the water, and you’ll have to aim the spear sensors, one for pitch (tilting up and down)
below the spot where you “see” the fish. and the other for yaw (panning side to
Back to the prism. When you think prism, side). The sensors amplify and process the
you probably think about how it breaks up motion signals to determine where and
light into the color spectrum. Like how how to move the image. The results con-
raindrops make a rainbow. You see the rain- vert to electric current applied to two drive
bow because different colors of light bend actuators, one for pitch and one for yaw.
by differing amounts as they pass through These actuators adjust one of the glass
the prism. plates in the prism relative to the other,
Rainbows may be pretty, but they’re not directing the image back to its proper posi-
so desirable in image stabilization systems; tion on the CCD sensor.
to eliminate any potential rainbow problems
manufacturers choose prism materials care-
fully and restrict the angle of refraction to Field Testing the Two Systems
no more than 1.5 degrees.
The prism used in the optical stabili- The easiest way to show how effective
zation system is a unique variable angle these two image stabilization systems are
is to test them under adverse conditions. adjust. This makes it somewhat slower
In this case, the test consisted of video to respond to quick jolts, but this does
recorded on a road of moderate roughness not adversely affect normal operation.
by one camera equipped with electronic A happy by-product of the mechanical
image stabilization and then by a second, system: its remarkable smoothness.
fitted with optical stabilization. The electronic system is very fast, and
I did the videotaping from the passenger tried to compensate for even the most
side of a car, while my business partner instantaneous bumps in the road. Some
drove. We completed one complete trip image jump occurred, as though the elec-
over the test course for each camcorder. tronics eventually gave up on fixing the
We used a medium telephoto zoom setting jump and instead started fresh with a new
to exaggerate the effects of camera motion. image.
Then we brought the tapes back to the stu- An interesting test result with both sys-
dio and compared results. tems’ pan or tilt actions, with the stabiliz-
Both systems provided extraordi- ers engaged, the movement of the image in
nary improvement in the stability of the the viewfinder lagged behind the camera
image. With either type of camera, shots movement, or “floated.” The effect is only
of the cars ahead of us stayed steady in the noticeable when moving the camera while
picture—even as the dashboard of the test looking in the viewfinder; I didn’t notice it
vehicle shifted up and down at the lower when viewing the recorded videotape. This
part of the picture. Certainly video from simply tends to demonstrate that two dra-
moving vehicles proves much more usable matically different approaches provided
when you engage the image stabilizers. almost exactly the same satisfactory result.
The optical system makes no use of Cynic that I am, I tend to view a lot of
video information, so it cannot wrongly “features” on the higher priced camcord-
interpret moving objects as camcorder ers simply as opportunities for the video
motion. The same is not true, of course, for department salespersons to move custom-
the digital system. The question was, how ers to higher priced models.
well would its fuzzy logic compensate for Not so, however, for the two image stabi-
an actual moving subject combined with lizers described here. They work, and prove
camera pitch and yaw? The answer: fuzzy very useful in many situations, particularly
logic did an excellent job; road images hand-held “shots of opportunity.”
remained steady—even when the car Image stabilization is a feature well worth
dashboard bounced up and down in the having, particularly on today’s small, light-
lower part of the picture. weight camcorders. Use it, and your images
Being almost completely mechanical, will be easier to watch; shoot hand-held
the optical system experiences some inev- telephoto shots without it, and—well, just
itable delay as its components move and try it. You’ll see what we mean.
7
Solar Panel Imaging:
Secrets of the CCD
Loren Alldrin
Buried deep within your camcorder lies a regions on an N-type substrate. Every 1/60th
fabulous image sensor that sets it apart from of a second, a transfer pulse triggers a verti-
most other image-capturing devices. This cal transfer CCD lying between pixel rows
image sensor is called a charge-coupled to sweep accumulated charges out to the
device—that’s CCD to you and me. horizontal transfer register (H-CCD) and
If you’re like most videographers, you output amplifier. Newer designs employ
probably don’t know much about this hid- an additional P embedded photodiode to
den treasure. And that’s a shame. Knowing improve signal-to-noise ratio by controlling
the hows and whys of CCDs can help irregular dark currents (see Figure 7-1).
make your videography more effective. It Don’t worry—that definition went over
can help you differentiate one model from my head, too. Try this: imagine a huge
another and decide which camcorder to grid made up of rows of solar panels. Each
buy. Moreover, CCD sensors benefit from square-foot panel sits atop a small battery.
some of the fastest-advancing technology Only a few inches separate each panel from
in camcorders; know the future of sensors those to its north and south. About a foot
and you can peek into the very future of of space lies between one column of pan-
camcorders. els and the next; within that space you’ll
find a small pathway running next to each
column, as well as along the bottom of the
The Short Explanation grid. The grid encompasses hundreds of
panels in each direction, stretching for
Defining the CCD is, uh, simple: a CCD, or about 1/4 of a mile on a side.
interline transfer charge-coupled device, is When light strikes the panels, they charge
a tightly packed array of tiny photodiodes their individual batteries. Panels exposed
consisting of silicon oxide and alternat- to more light charge faster, while those in
ing P and photosensitive N semiconductor the dark build up little or no charge. After
33
tiny speck of dust, harmless enough to us,

can actually shut down the CCD manufac-
turing process.
The batteries represent the buildup of
charges in the pixel. Since CCD pixels
are photosensitive, they create a charge in
proportion to the light striking them. Lots
of light makes for a greater charge, while
darkness leaves them with little more than
the small random charges we call noise.
Smaller pixels gather less light and gen-
erate weaker charges, a principle manu-
facturers must address to produce smaller
chips and pixels. More on that later.
The trucks mimic the action of the verti-
cal transfer registers, electronic roadways
that carry charges out of the active sensing
area of the CCD. These registers are neces-
Figure 7-1 Three-chip designs from Sony sary because the record electronics do not
and Panasonic use three CCD sensors arrayed read charges directly from individual pix-
around a light-splitting prism. els. Instead, charges move en masse down
the vertical transfer registers until they
a given period of time, tiny trucks drive reach the edge of the chip.
down between the vertical rows of panels The conveyor belt is like the horizon-
to measure each battery’s charge. The trucks tal transfer register, which unloads the
then quickly discharge the battery they’re charges from its vertical counterpart. The
measuring and move on to the next panel. horizontal transfer register carries charges
When the trucks reach the end of the row, off the CCD along the edge of the sensor.
they dump their information onto a con- Their destination: the amplifiers and spe-
veyor belt. This belt carries the data from cialized circuits that process the signal
the panels back to a central station. It’s here before recording (see Figure 7-2).
that high-paid managers combine the indi- The high-paid managers represent the
vidual measurements, evaluating the elec- camcorder’s record electronics, process-
trical output of the grid. Their final report ing and modifying signals for recording on
looks a whole lot like a video image. magnetic tape. Specialized chips combine
To relate this rather loose analogy to an color and brightness information into one
actual CCD, first we need to reduce the size signal, boost its level and then send it on
of the solar grid by a factor of about 75,000. to the record heads.
Most of today’s CCDs measure a mere 1/6 Generating a final report on the status of
inch from corner to corner, though most the solar grid could take hours—depending
higher-end camcorders have much larger on the speed of the trucks and whether
image sensors. or not those high-paid managers get stuck
In our little analogy, solar panels serve in an important meeting. In a camcorder,
as the individual pixels. Today’s sensors however, videotape records a “final report”
actually boast hundreds of thousands of from the CCD sensor sixty times per second.
these pixels, etched onto the top of a sili- If only our government worked that fast.
con wafer by chemical and photographic
processes. The machine tolerances and
cleanliness required for making sensors is Sensor Overload
truly superhuman; most CCDs come from
completely automated factories where When a solar panel receives too much
humans play minor supporting roles. A light, it overcharges its battery. The truck
Solar Panel Imaging 35
Pixel
Vertical
transfer
register
Signal
output
Output amplifier Horizontal transfer register
Figure 7-2 In a standard CCD sensor, pixels feed charges to

vertical transfer registers. These in turn feed the horizontal transfer
register. From there, signals move through an amplifier to the record
electronics.
tries to read this abnormally high value, Shutter Shenanigans

only to cook its tiny charge meter in the
process. When the truck gets to the bot- Although you’ve heard the term high-
tom of the row, it picks up a new charge speed shutter tossed about, there’s actu-
meter, but until then severe damage can ally no such component in the lens/sensor
occur. All the readings it currently holds, assembly. This term comes from the sen-
as well as all subsequent measurements, sor’s ability to mimic the effects of a film
are wrong. They all read maximum on the camera’s fast shutter speed. In a film cam-
charge meter. era, opening the shutter’s blades for a very
Something similar occurs when a given short period of time exposes the film to a
area of a CCD receives too much light. The brief snippet of light. Thus a film camera
vertical transfer register overloads, mud- can freeze even the fastest motion.
dling all the charges for that row. This cre- To understand how this works in a video
ates a bright, vertical smear in the image, camera, let’s go back to the solar panel sce-
extending out above and below the offend- nario. In just minutes, it will be time to
ing spot. You’ve probably seen this before, measure the grid. But instead of letting the
especially when shooting a bright spot of panels finish gathering a complete charge,
light against a dark background. the trucks sweep through the grid to dis-
This type of image smear is unique to charge all the batteries. When the trucks
CCD sensors. Complimentary Metal oxide return to collect measurements, the panels
semiconductor (CMOS) sensors read each have been charging for just a few minutes.
pixel directly, doing away with the need Output is lower, but management can still
for vertical transfer registers and their asso- get a picture of the grid’s status.
ciated image smearing. CMOS sensors had This is what happens with a camcorder’s
fallen out of favor with manufacturers, but high-speed shutter. No mechanical blade
have recently experienced a renaissance assembly snaps open and shut; instead,
with the advent of HD camcorders. New the camcorder gives the pixels less time to
CCD designs address the bleed problem, charge before whisking their signals off to
resulting in chips less prone to streaking. the recorder. If you select an extremely fast
shutter speed, say 1/10,000th of a second, panels to build up a greater charge, boost-
the pixels charge up as usual during the ing the resulting values. Since the batteries
first 99 percent of the record cycle. Then, retain some residual charge, each reading
just 1/10,000 of a second before recording, includes some values from the previous
the sensor discharges the pixels. What’s cycles. In the same way, a camcorder in
recorded on tape is a brief slice of time, low-speed shutter mode allows the pixels’
representing only the last tiny bit of the charge to build up for longer than just one
record cycle. Since most subjects don’t record cycle. It effectively “averages” the
move very far in 1/10,000th of a second, light, making fast-moving subjects smear
a high-speed shutter freezes the action. and bleed.
Whereas a single frame of an airplane pro-
peller made at 1/60th of a second might
show a blur, a single frame of the propeller Shrinking CCD Panels
made at 1/10,000th could show it standing
still, each blade distinct. Let’s say that the owner of the field that
Two matters to keep in mind when shoot- contains the solar array wishes to sell
ing with a high-speed shutter: off some of his land, leaving the panels
with about 40 percent less area. We can’t
1. Lighting. Since pixels have so lit- reduce the number of panels, so there’s
tle time to charge, the intensity of the only one solution—make them smaller. To
light must be greater to produce a usable pack the same number of panels on our
image. The higher the shutter speed, the now-shrunken plot of land, we must cut
brighter the light required. Shooting at them down to just over 7 inches per side.
1/10,000th of a second requires strong We buy new, smaller trucks and a shorter
daylight. A more conservative setting of conveyor belt and fire up the new array.
1/2,000th of a second still requires sun- The managers are not happy.
light or strong indoor lighting. Seems the scaled-down array now puts
out about 40 percent less energy. These
2. Depth of field. Because it needs are lean times, and a cut in output sim-
more light, high-speed shutter forces the ply won’t do. The high-paid managers hire
camcorder’s iris to open up. This in turn a few high-paid engineering consultants to
reduces depth of field, a boon to creative increase the panels’ sensitivity.
videographers whose camcorders lack There you have it: the plight of the
manual iris control. shrinking CCD. Like a tiny solar panel, a
pixel’s output is a function of its surface
If you want to soften the background area. Shrink the pixel, and its sensitivity
behind your subject, reduce your depth of suffers. When sensitivity falls, so does the
field by increasing shutter speed. camcorder’s low-light performance and
Some camcorders offer a slow-speed resistance to video noise. But manufactur-
shutter, which has the exact opposite ers can’t ignore the benefits of smaller
properties of high-speed. Slow-speed shut- sensors—they achieve the same depth of
ter delivers an image in less light, though field with smaller lenses. Smaller lenses
much more image smear results. If you’re in turn make for smaller camcorders, and
shooting a stationary subject in extremely smaller camcorders seem to sell better.
low light, slow-speed shutter may deliver The solution: the microlens. Basically
an improved image. At the very least, you a tiny, translucent bubble formed over each
can use it as a unique special effect. pixel, the microlens gathers incident light
Here’s how it works: The trucks ser- that would have otherwise missed the pix-
vicing our solar array still sweep through el’s active sensing area. CCD makers form
the panels to gather readings; they simply microlenses into the CCD itself, increasing
don’t discharge the batteries completely the effective area of the pixel without actu-
before reading the charge. This allows the ally making it any larger. Thanks to the
Solar Panel Imaging 37
microlens, 1/3-inch CCDs are now a reality. Color Blind

This microlens technology is so effective,
in fact, that a 1/3-inch sensor with micro- Some of you may remember from your
lenses may outperform the larger 1/2-inch high school science class that solar panels
designs—like realizing even more output respond only to the amount of light strik-
from our solar array after placing a glass ing them, not the color of the light. In
canopy over each panel. the same way, CCD pixels are colorblind.
Another way to offset the effect of So how does a camcorder record a color
smaller pixels is through better amplifi- image?
cation. Noise is an enemy to any kind of Camcorders with a single CCD sensor
electrical signal, and smaller signals are use a mosaic color filter placed over the
the most prone to it. Amplifying a signal pixels. Imagine a huge stained-glass win-
just as it leaves the pixel reduces noise dow lying over our solar panel array. This
and strengthens output. At the time of this window alternates panes of color—either
writing, manufacturers are experimenting red, green and blue or their complements,
with a new type of CMOS (complemen- yellow, magenta and cyan. Each solar
tary metal oxide semiconductor) sensor panel sits directly under a colored pane,
invented by NASA/JPL called the APS and responds only to that color of light.
CMOS (Active Pixel Sensor) that places When the managers tally up the charges,
an amplifier at each photosite. they make note of each panel’s color.
These technologies have led to sensors By tracking which pixels see which color,
a scant 1/4-inch across—a big step toward a camcorder extracts both a luminance
the next generation of ultra-compact (brightness and detail) and chrominance
camcorders. (color) signal from a monochrome sensor.
Color filters are relatively easy to add to a
CCD, though they compromise both color
Smaller or Better and brightness portions of the video sig-
nal. Because there are a limited number of
The same technology that allows sensors pixels responding to a given color, chromi-
to shrink allows advances in the other nance has only about 1/4 the resolution of
direction as well. If pixels offer improved the luminance signal. Placing a colored fil-
sensitivity at a smaller size, then CCD ter over the pixels also reduces their sensi-
makers can pack more pixels on the same tivity and low-light performance.
size chip. Once manufacturers increase There are better, albeit more expensive,
the pixel count of a given sensor, they ways to coax color information out of
face a tough decision. They can use the monochrome sensors. The best system is
additional pixels for a higher resolution the one professional cameras have used for
video image, or they can employ them years—three sensors, or chips, with one
for special image effects at the standard sensor devoted to each of the three primary
resolution. colors. Just behind the lens, a precision-
Electronic Image Stabilization (EIS) made prism splits the incoming light into
is a good example of such an effect. An its red, green and blue components. Some
increase in pixel count from 410,000 to manufacturers use an array of dichroic
470,000 allows the camcorder to use just mirrors to sift the light; these coated mir-
the central 90 percent of the chip for imag- rors reflect only a certain color, letting the
ing without resolution loss. Move this rest pass.
region in opposition to the camcorder’s Because there’s no color filter clouding
movement, and you reduce shake on hand- the sensors in three-chip designs, resolu-
held shots. Whereas previous EIS schemes tion does not drop. With a chip “special-
resulted in an inevitable loss of resolution, izing” in each primary color, hues are very
this system shows no noticeable softness accurate and natural. The result: a better
of the image. picture than a single CCD can deliver.
Future CCDs the market toward ultra-high-resolution

sensors. HDTV cameras already have
The trend toward smaller CCDs will most 2/3-inch sensors with over two million
likely die with current 1/6-inch designs. pixels.
Sensors of this size will work with incred- Advances in sensors drive other areas
ibly small lenses, making the transport of the video market as well. Camera res-
and tape medium itself the biggest obsta- olutions are already much greater than
cles to further camcorder downsizing. those of camcorder transports. As sensors
Manufacturers will undoubtedly con- evolve far beyond the recording ability
tinue in the other direction, toward larger of camcorders, consumers will push for
sensors with increased resolution. Chips new video signal formats. Sensor evolu-
with pixel counts measured in the millions tion shows no sign of slowing. As long
allow for special effects and electronic as there’s a sun in the sky sending light
stabilization without resolution loss. The to CCD pixels and solar panels alike, bet-
advent of HDTV and the growing popu- ter sensors will be here to capture it. The
larity of today’s 16:9 formats will drive future of sensors is bright indeed.
8
Sifting the Light:
A Look at Lens Filters
Dave Welton
Did you know that Ansel Adams used share some of the insights that Buzz and
a lens filter in virtually all of his photo- I discussed that morning—insights that
graphs? It’s true. If lens filters can do won- could help any videographer in their quest
ders for black-and-white photography, for high-quality images.
just imagine what they can do for your
videos.
Lens filters offer a simple way to get What’s in a Filter?
better images. These wafers of glass can
soften the face of a bride, fake a sunset at According to Buzz, “A lens filter is little
high noon or add sparkle to the chrome on more than a piece of glass that attaches
a vintage car. to the front of a camcorder’s lens.” Two
I asked professional videographer basic types of filters are available: round
Myron “Buzz” Buzzini to help guide us filters that screw onto the front of the
through the world of lens filters. With lens, and square filters that slide into a
30 years of image-gathering experience— special housing attached to the lens.
in both photography and video—Buzz was The round variety is available in many
the perfect man for the job. different sizes. Make sure the lens filter you
Buzz is a firm believer in the power of purchase will fit your camcorder’s lens—
lens filters. He first used them with film, not all camcorders have threads the same
but didn’t forget their usefulness as he size. Generally speaking, palm-sized cam-
made the transition to video. corders have smaller lens thread sizes, and
On a bright Northern California morn- full-sized camcorders have larger sizes.
ing, Buzz visited my office with a big Common camcorder lens thread sizes
bag of filters. We pointed my camcorder include 34, 37, 43, 46, 49, 52, 55 and
out the window and experimented with 72 mm. The thread size is often marked
each one. In the article that follows, we’ll on the front of the lens. If you can’t find
39
it there, check the specifications page of focus on your subject with a neutral density
your owner’s manual; it’s typically listed filter attached to your camcorder, and—just
under “lens diameter.” like magic—the background obscures into
Square filters that slide into a special a pleasant fuzzy smudge. The filter forces
holder—called a matte box—offer an advan- the camcorder to open its iris wider, which
tage over the round variety: the filters are reduces the depth of field, leaving the back-
all the same size, so only the matte box ground out of focus. Naturally, this works
need be fitted to a particular camcorder best when the background is some distance
lens. This aspect is handy if you have two away from the subject.
different camcorders, or even a camcorder A polarizing filter eliminates reflections
and a 35 mm still camera. You simply buy from shiny surfaces like water or glass.
a matte box for each camera, then use the These filters rotate in a specially designed
filters with either unit. housing; the videographer simply looks in
Both the matte box and round filter sys- the viewfinder and twists the filter until
tems allow a videographer to use multiple the reflections diminish. It’s quite an
filters. With the threaded type, you simply amazing effect, when you see it for the first
screw one filter onto another. With the time. They really work.
matte box variety, just slide another square Polarizing filters are also great for dark-
filter into the housing. ening the sky while making it appear
slightly bluer.
Color correction filters perform the same
Filter Types function as your camcorder’s white balance
circuits; they correct the color tempera-
With Buzz’s help, we’ll sort through the ture of the incoming light so your colors
different types of lens filters and explore will look right, indoors and out. Since
applications for their use. Let’s start with all camcorders now include white balance
basic filters and work our way to the more circuits, there’s not much need for these
exotic species. filters in videography. They’re still com-
“If you only have one filter, make sure monly used in film cameras, though.
it’s a skylight filter,” Buzz says. “And keep Creative uses for colored filters abound.
it attached to your lens, always.” After all, they’re available in almost every
To the human eye, a skylight filter (also color of the rainbow. For example, a blue
called a haze or UV filter) looks like a clear filter helps simulate a moonlit night; a sepia
piece of glass, but don’t be fooled. This filter adds an old-time, historical look to
filter does its magic by reducing the ill an image. Have fun, and experiment with
effects of both ultraviolet light and atmo- plenty of different colors.
spheric haze on an image. Equally as
important, this filter will protect your
expensive camcorder lens from fingerprints, Exotic Varieties
dust, grime and damage. When you buy a
new camcorder, get a skylight filter, attach The center spot filter is great for portrait
it and leave it attached—permanently. shots because it creates a sharp center image
Neutral density (ND) filters reduce the surrounded by a soft, fuzzy border. It’s per-
amount of light that enters a camcorder’s fect for romantic wedding images.
lens. They prevent exposure problems in The fog-effect filter creates “mist” where
very bright scenes—like a white polar bear none previously existed. These filters will
on a snow bank on a sunny day, for exam- also enhance the appearance of existing
ple. Available in various densities, these fog. Like many filters, fog filters are availa-
filters work like a pair of sunglasses. ble in different grades, or “strengths,” that
“Neutral density filters are great if you alter the intensity of the effect.
want to blur the background of a portrait- A soft-focus filter gives a soft look to
type image,” says Buzz. To do this, simply an entire image. They’re perfect for facial
Sifting the Light 41
Figure 8-1 Fog Effect Filter.
Figure 8-2 Star Effect Filter.
close-ups because the filter actually blends to any scene. Be careful not to overuse this
away tiny lines in the skin. A warm color filter; the effect will lose its punch once
is sometimes added to soft focus filters to you’ve seen it a few times.
enhance skin tones. This combination can
actually make people look better than they
do in real life. Avoiding Grime
Graduated filters are transparent on the
bottom and very gradually change to an After placing an accidental fingerprint on
opaque color on top. A classic application one of Buzz’s filters, I decided to ask about
for a graduated filter is enhancing, or out- cleaning. “Don’t use window cleaner!” he
right faking, a sunset. With the camcorder quickly said. According to our expert, the
mounted on a tripod and a graduated amber chemicals in a typical glass cleaning solu-
filter attached, carefully frame the image so tion can actually dissolve the coating on a
that the colored portion of the filter over- lens or filter. Ouch!
laps the sky. Since the bottom portion of “Also, be sure not to use facial tissue,”
the filter is clear, the lower portion of the he added. “Blow off the dust before you
scene is unaffected, while the sunset glows begin. You wouldn’t want to ‘sand’ your
beautifully. If you’re using a matte box filter lens, would you? That’s precisely what
system, it’s easy to adjust the filter’s effect happens when you use a rough facial tis-
by simply sliding it up and down within sue on a dusty lens.” Special lens tissues
the housing. and cleaning solutions are available at
A star filter transforms points of light video and photography stores.
within an image into brilliant star shapes. To remove dust from a lens, either use a
These filters add glamour and excitement special brush designed for that purpose, or
a blast of air from an aerosol lens cleaner. space they would occupy if each filter was
Buzz makes a final lens cleaning admo- in its own case.
nition: “Avoid using eyeglass cleaning What can you do if you can’t unscrew
products because they might be too abra- a filter because it’s too tight? Use a lens
sive—eyeglass lenses are usually tougher filter wrench. These devices are similar
than camcorder optics.” to a jaw-type jar opener, and they have
Unfortunately, life sometimes throws us the same purpose—to help loosen stuck
challenges—like when your niece graces threads. Is there a better solution? “Yes.
your lens with a chocolate-coated thumb Don’t over-tighten the threads, and keep
print. Of course, you don’t have any lens them clean from grime,” says Buzz.
cleaning supplies handy. What to do? Buzz recalls a harrowing experience he
Hopefully, you have a skylight filter pro- had while on a back-country shoot. A cou-
tecting your lens. If so, simply remove it ple of filter cases fell out if his shirt pocket,
and continue shooting—this time, out of rolled down the hill and vanished into
reach of your niece. a fast-moving stream. He never saw the
But what if you don’t have a skylight cases—or their contents—again. The moral
filter? In a pinch, Buzz says it’s OK to run of this story? Always stow your gear safely
tap water over a filter to clean it. Use a soft and securely.
cotton-fiber cloth to dry. Another option is
the time-tested technique of breathing on
the glass, then wiping with a soft cloth. But Let’s Go Shopping
limit these emergency procedures to lens
filters—not expensive camcorder lenses. A quick glance at a deceptively simple fil-
You can always buy another lens filter, but ter could give you the mistaken impres-
replacing the lens on most camcorders is an sion that one brand is as good as another.
expensive and complicated proposition. “Not so,” says Buzz. He instructs video-
If you’re reading this and simultane- graphers to look for filters that use a
ously kicking yourself because you’ve bro- threaded metal retaining ring to hold the
ken Buzz’s cleaning rules for years, hold glass inside the metal housing. The retain-
on before you pitch your expensive optics ing ring holds the glass against a small
in the trash heap. Scratched optical coat- flange on the other side of the housing.
ings are salvageable—it’s possible to remove Some filters use a plastic device to hold
the coating and spray on a new one. This the glass in place; Buzz doesn’t like this
service is available through good video type because the plastic often becomes
or photography retail outlets and repair loose with wear.
facilities. Avoid filters with housings made entirely
of plastic; these housings may not retain
their shape. Also, be careful to check the
Filter Care quality of filters pitched as an add-on sale
to a camcorder purchase.
Most filters come packaged in round Shop for filter housings painted matte
plastic cases. These cases are great for black; these help to reduce unwanted reflec-
protecting filters when they’re not on tions. And look for filters that come with
a camcorder. But don’t expect a filter to last storage containers. Shop around—the price
if you’re in the habit of slipping them in can vary widely on the exact same filter.
your pants pocket or throwing them into A wide range of manufacturers offer a
a camera bag. They’ll become scratched countless variety of lens filters. There are lit-
and useless in quick order. erally too many different brands and types
Buzz offers a space-saving alternative for to mention here. A quick glance through
lens filter storage: screw all filters together one company’s catalog revealed over 30
and put a lens cap on both ends. This pro- different filters available in 14 different
tects each filter, and reduces the amount of sizes—and that’s just the screw-in variety.
Sifting the Light 43
Generally, the larger the filter, the higher First off, there’s an optical price you
the price. pay when using lens filters. Each addi-
If you’re feeling overwhelmed by the tional lens distorts the image and reduces
huge selection of lens filters, fear not. the intensity of the light that enters your
Some filter companies have selected a few camcorder. Better filters offer less chance
of their most popular filters and assembled of these ills, but even the best glass distorts
them in pre-packaged kits; these are worth the light passing through it a little bit.
checking out. While lens filters won’t affect the accu-
One filter manufacturer makes it easy racy of a camcorder’s external white bal-
to sample the world of lens filters before ance sensor, through-the-lens (TTL) white
you buy. Tiffen makes their Hollywood/FX balance systems may require that you man-
Demo Kit available on loan from participat- ually adjust the white balance after adding
ing dealers. The comprehensive kit has 30 filters (if manual white balance is available).
different filters including center spot, polar- If you don’t have a color viewfinder, use a
izing, color-graduated and star filters. Also color monitor so you can see the effect of
packaged in the kit is a selection of Tiffen’s the filter on your image. This is good advice
versatile Pro-Mist and Soft/FX filters that no matter what filter you’re using.
combine a warming filter with fog and soft The matte box filter system is great, but
focus effect. The kit comes with adapter before you buy, make sure it won’t interfere
rings to fit popular camcorders: 49, 52, 55, with your automatic focus system. This is
58, 62, 67 and 72 mm. Call to see if your more likely to happen with older camcord-
dealer is participating in this program. ers without inner focus lenses. You may
Cokin offers their Optilight filter kit in have to resort to manual focusing.
37 and 46 mm sizes ($32 regular kit price; Ideally, you should use lens accesso-
$52.99 with polarizing filter). Four differ- ries that directly fit your camcorder’s lens
ent configurations are available to fit your threads. But when that’s not possible, a
videography needs. All kits include a sky- myriad of threaded filters are available to
light filter and two other assorted filters solve the problem. If you must adapt, start
which may include neutral density, polar- with filters that are bigger than your lens. A
izing, warm color or soft focus filters. smaller filter might cause undesirable dark-
ening at the corners of the image (called
“vignetting”). This effect is most noticeable
No Free Lunch when you zoom to a wide-angle setting.
There’s no doubt that videographers
So far, all we’ve talked about are the love their high-tech electronic toys. But
wonders of lens filters. Is there a down- don’t forget there’s a simple way to improve
side? Yes. images without circuitry—lens filters.
9
Dissecting a Video Editing
Computer
Joe McCleskey
Ever wonder what exactly makes a video Software

editing computer work? Ever want to
know what separates the ordinary, game- Editing software is the interface between
playing, document-creating PC from the your ideas and a finished product.
kind that can easily pump out hour-long, Software used in video editing covers a
professional-looking home videos? No wide range of different types and capabil-
matter if you already own a video editing ities, including nonlinear editing, photo
computer or plan to buy one—it still pays and graphics manipulation, audio editing
to know exactly what makes this special and special effects creation, to name just
breed of machine tick. We’ll discuss PCs a few. Once you’ve got the basic system
here, since they are much more dissectible together, the software provides the means
than Macs, but the concepts are the same. to make your video dreams a reality. It’s
In this article, we’ll take apart a typical what you’ll spend the most time learn-
video-editing computer piece by piece, ing to operate—and the most time blam-
much the same way you might have taken ing when things don’t work properly—so
apart a hapless frog in junior high science don’t skimp here; be sure to find the soft-
class. Why? To help you troubleshoot ware that works best for your needs.
problems, increase performance, and make
more informed purchasing decisions.
So without further introduction, let’s
put on our rubber gloves, grab our scal-
pels, and get busy.
44
Dissecting a Video Editing Computer 45
CPU
The CPU (central processing unit) is the heart of any com-
puter. A computer can really do only two things: 1) perform
calculations and 2) move or copy information. The CPU
does these things; in essence, it is the computer itself on a
single chip. A video editing computer needs the fastest CPU
available for rendering. Some use two or more CPUs; video
editing machines greatly benefit from an added CPU to Motherboard
share the task of rendering video files, even if the software The motherboard holds the CPU, connecting it to the other
doesn’t explicitly support multiple CPUs. parts of the machine. The part of the motherboard that
ships info back and forth between the components is called
the bus. Video editing machines require motherboards
with fast bus speeds in order to handle the immense flow
of information that takes place while editing. Faster bus
speeds result in faster rendering times. Also located on the
motherboard are places to connect peripheral devices—
hard drives, video capture cards, FireWire cards and
memory. In video editing machines, the motherboard should
have a number of open PCI slots for peripheral devices, lots
of room to expand RAM, connections for high-speed hard
drives and a bus speed of at least 100 MHz.
RAM
RAM (random access memory) is a computer’s temporary
storage place for information. It’s the place where the soft-
ware stores and moves pieces of information for processing.
A video editing computer typically has lots of high-speed
RAM available—at least 1 GB for starters, but often several
times that. Both speed and quantity of RAM will have an
effect on the rendering speed of your computer: the more,
and the faster, the better.
Hard Drives
The hard drive of a computer is the place where informa-
Video Capture/FireWire Card tion gets stored in the long term. (Contrast this with RAM,
To edit video on a computer, you need some way to get the which stores information only until you turn off the com-
video from the camera or VCR onto the hard drive. This is puter). When you capture a clip, it writes onto the hard
the role of the video capture card (or, more commonly, the drive. Note that editing computers should have two hard
FireWire or IEEE 1394 card). A digitizer card can take an drives—one for the operating system and software, and
ordinary analog video signal and digitize it (change it to a another solely for video and audio capture and storage. The
series of ones and zeroes). A FireWire card allows transfer separate video/audio drive should be the largest, fastest
of digital video from a digital camcorder or VCR to the hard drive you can afford, should spin at 7,200 RPM and should
drive. Video capture cards vary widely in price and per- minimally support a true sustained data transfer rate of at
formance, but the only real concern with a FireWire card is least 5 MB per second in order to handle the rigors of video
whether or not it works and continues working—the result- editing. And always remember: the amount of storage space
ing video will look exactly the same as it did when you shot on the video capture drive directly relates to the length of
it, regardless of the quality of the FireWire card. Some cap- video clips you can work on at any one time. You can never
ture cards have special hardware that improves rendering have too much space and good drives can be found for as
speed and performance during editing. little as $0.25 per gigabyte.
10
Battery Basics
Michael Fitzer
Does this sound familiar? You’re running a cathode—connected via an electro-

out of daylight but you only have one lyte, that converts chemical energy into
more shot to get off before you “call it a electricity.
day.” There are still two ticks left on your
camera’s battery indicator and then sud- Eenie, Meenie, Minie, Moe
denly … everything goes black! A dead
battery on your camera and no charged There are a number of durable and
spare in your bag means … no shot. dependable batteries on the market. As
Knowing more about the type of batter- for manufacturers, it’s difficult to call one
ies on the market and how they work will better than another. Canon, Sony, Fuji,
allow you to find the right one for your Kodak, JVC, Panasonic, Kyocera, they all
needs and hopefully keep you from miss- make quality products. Knowing which
ing that golden moment. type of battery best suits your needs will
allow you to make the right choice, at the
right price.
What Is This Little Thing? When thinking about your next battery
purchase, there are three different battery
Everyone knows what a battery is … right? types you will want to consider, NiCd,
Okay, before reading on, see if you can NiMH, and Li-Ion.
come up with a definition for the word.
You have 10 seconds. • NiCD—Nickel Cadmium is an older
Okay, time’s up. Coming up with the cell technology. However, it has a good
correct definition was probably more weight to energy ratio and a good service
difficult than you thought, right? Put lifetime, which makes it a good choice
simply, a battery can be any kind of tool for portable devices. A drawback to the
that stores energy for later use. However, NiCD battery type is it is well known for
in this context, the word battery refers suffering memory effect. Therefore, it
to any electrochemical mechanism that is best to let Nickel Cadmium batteries
uses two electrodes—an anode and completely discharge before recharging.
46
Battery Basics 47
“Memory effect,” more accurately des- uninterrupted but are unsure about which
cribed as voltage depression, refers to the one of your batteries has the most charge.
understanding that when a battery is not In the old days you might swapout bat-
completely discharged between recharg- teries on your camera or other portable
ing cycles, the battery “remembers” the device, to reveal which one is up to the
shortened energy cycle and thus deliv- task. However, many batteries today are
ers a reduced run time. Voltage depres- now equipped with complex “fuel gaug-
sion does not mean your battery has low ing” technology that allows users to read
storage capacity nor will it permanently a built-in lighted meter that indicates how
damage your battery. Fully discharg- much battery life remains on the current
ing and then recharging the battery will charge.
often correct the problem. Batteries that utilize fuel-gauging micro-
processor technology are more expensive
• NiMH—Nickel Metal Hydride is the
than those without, but some consider the
most common battery type available on
increased user friendliness worth the extra
today’s market. While other cell types
cost. While they are efficient mechanisms,
are more popular because of their abil-
no battery can hold a charge indefinitely.
ity to hold a charge, NiMH cells are rel-
Just like single use batteries, rechargeable
atively inexpensive to produce and that
batteries, when left unused for long peri-
low production cost transfers to you,
ods, will de-charge on their own. As previ-
the consumer. While NiMH cell types
ously stated, to avoid problems with voltage
do experience memory effect, it is not
depression it is best to de-charge and then
nearly as prevalent in this type as it is
recharge or “cycle” your battery. You might
in the NiCD batteries. NiMH batteries
think that in order to de-charge the bat-
can also be charged many more times
tery you have to use it until it quite sim-
than NiCD batteries.
ply quits or pay more for a battery charger/
• Li-Ion—Lithium Ion is one of the de-charger. While those solutions ensure a
most recent advances in battery cell full de-charge, depending on what you’re
types now on the commercial mar- doing at the time, that former scenario
ket. Advances with Li-Ion cell types could prove to be rather inconvenient and
make these batteries lighter than their the latter is more expensive. While it’s best
counterparts, saving users the physical to cycle your batteries at least once every
wear-and-tear of transporting and using month to ensure maximum performance,
heavier battery types. Additionally, the you do not necessarily have to be using
Li-Ion cell type provides more power your battery to make sure it de-charges.
and suffers no real problems with mem- You can leave it unused for a long period
ory effect. As for price, advanced engi- of time and achieve the same results. Just
neering costs associated with the Li-Ion be sure when you store your batteries that
technology mean a much higher cost they have attained a full charge and keep
for you, the consumer. them in a cool, dry place.
When used under normal conditions (i.e.,

no extreme heat, moisture or excessive Alternative Fuel “Sell”
physical abuse), any of these cell types
will provide you 2 to 3 years of dependable With all the talk about new ways to ener-
operation. gize the country, the potential doesn’t
stop at the car in your driveway. Someday
very soon you will be able to walk into
Smart Batteries your local retailer and purchase a handy
little fuel cell for your home video cam-
So, you’ve been out in the field for era. In fact, if current research is any indi-
most of the day. You’d like to continue cation, fuel cells that use methanol as
their primary renewable source of energy your battery or have to hunt down an
could be available for portable consumer A/C outlet to recharge. Instead, your cam-
devices in a few years. era (or other portable device) will house a
While these new sources of energy fuel cell capable of accepting a liquid or
pack up to 60 percent more energy than gaseous “injection” in order to recharge.
the most reliable battery on the consumer Whether you’re next battery purchase is
market, the chance that they’ll immedi- driven by need, desire or price, there’s a
ately replace your standard batteries is battery on the market for you. Just remem-
slim. Nevertheless, the possibilities are ber, no matter what type you buy, following
very exciting. When the technology finally the rules of good care will ensure you get
comes into play you will no longer replace the best performance out of your battery.
Sidebar
Compact Chargers
If you want to charge your batteries but hate packing and unpacking the standard charging
plate and AC adapter cord, a number of manufacturers are making compact wall chargers.
There’s no cumbersome plate and no long cord to manage. Simply snap your batteries into
place, flip up the AC plug and let the action happen.
Conventional AA Approach
Many digital cameras on the market can use the conventional AA-size batteries. While very
affordable to stock, the standard alkaline batteries are no match for the video world. A cou-
ple of zooms, some recording, a playback and “poof” you’re out of juice. But there are some
rechargeable AA NiMH cells that do well to serve short-term needs. Just make sure you’re
packing a quality brand and a darn-good charger.
Michael Fitzer is an Emmy award-

winning commercial and documentary
writer/producer.
11
Data Storage Devices:
Room to Move
Charles Fulton
There are a lot of considerations for stor- to do with it.) You can add another drive
age when you’re dealing with video. You fairly easily if you know what interface
need room on a hard drive to capture foot- your machine uses.
age. You need a scratch drive for render-
ing effects. You need an optical drive for
outputting your projects. You might need I Need More Space—Quick!
an archive system too.
With all the need for storage, where do The most common interfaces that data
you start? Well, by reading this sentence, moves through on its way to or from
you’ve taken the first step in realizing that storage media (on the type of computer
storage is a vital part of your video work- system most of us use) are ATA, SATA,
flow. We’ll try to take you through the rest eSATA, FireWire and USB 2.0. ATA and
of the way. SATA are internal interfaces. eSATA is an
external version of SATA—the primary
difference is the use of a different connec-
On the Inside tor that is more tolerant of abuse. All of
the speed that SATA offers is duplicated
Your editing computer has at least one with eSATA.
hard drive. This drive is used to boot your FireWire and USB 2.0 are popular for
computer and also to store your applica- their ease of use and portability, though
tions. You could capture video to this neither has the raw performance of ATA,
drive, but the better way is to capture to a SATA or eSATA. While FireWire and USB
different hard drive. (A lot goes on behind 2.0 are both fast enough to handle DV
the scenes on your computer, all requiring streams, the performance hit will rear its
a lot of hard drive writes. These writes ugly head when you’re rendering effects
accumulate and degrade the performance or your final project. That said, if you find
of the drive for anything else you need yourself needing more hard drive space
49
right now and there’s no eSATA port and apps that you’ll come across. If the drive
you don’t have room for another internal includes LightScribe, the ability to burn a
drive, it’s hard to go wrong with a FireWire label directly to the reverse side of special
or USB 2.0 drive. discs, labelmaking software is generally
There are also some benefits to using a included as well.
network-attached storage (NAS) device. If Most drives sold today burn both DVD-R
you have a gigabit Ethernet switch between and DVDR, along with their rewrite-
this device and the computers you edit able variants. A handful of drives can also
with, you can get some remarkably high handle DVD-RAM as well. CD burning is
data transfer rates. The added benefit is pretty much a given as well, but a nota-
that you can access the same files from any ble drive that lacks CD reading or writing
computer on your network. capabilities is Pioneer’s BDR-101A Blu-
What should you look for on a hard ray burner.
drive? Capacity is the first thing that Speaking of Blu-ray, this is the most
usually comes to mind, naturally. The common HD disc format for burning at
sweet spot for price vs. capacity (low- the moment. Toshiba, however, has finally
est cost per gigabyte) is moving toward announced the first HD DVD burners, the
500 GB drives, now that the big manu- SD-H903A (desktop) and the SD-L902A
facturers are shipping 750 GB and 1TB (mobile). It’s worth noting that most disc
drives. You’ll also see a reference to cache authoring software titles that are aware of
size—8 MB is most common, but anything HD burners are aware of Blu-ray drives
above 2 MB is generally fine. Big caches and not HD DVD at this point, but we’d
give you a speed advantage for dealing half-expect some software developers to
with a lot of small files, not a handful of offer patches to allow burning of formats
really big files. Spindle speeds of 7200 rpm they don’t already support. It’s still too
are the most common you’ll come across, early to declare a winner to the format war,
for good reason: they’re fast and they’re a but the entrant of an HD burner to the fray
good value. While you can get 10,000 and certainly makes things more interesting.
15,000 rpm hard drives, they’re pricey and As magazine editors and as fellow con-
they run hot. But if you need to render sumers, we just hope the war draws to a
something really fast, this is one potential conclusion—the sooner, the better.
place where you could get a speed advan-
tage. We think the best place to implement
a drive with a spindle speed above 7200 rpm Not-Too-Cold Storage
is as a scratch drive, though we’ve seen a
few computers that have them installed as Now that you’re done with your project,
boot drives. what do you do with the raw footage and
all of your project files? If you logged your
tapes with your editing software, you won’t
Out with It need to keep the original capture files
around, since you can re-capture from tape
Once you get your project just the way you if necessary. If you’d rather not re-capture,
want it, you need to output your project. you can burn everything in your project to
If you’re operating in standard def, this DVD (you’ll probably need several DVDs
means writing a DVD (see the January 2007 for bigger projects) or onto Blu-ray or HD
issue’s DVD Authoring Software Buyer’s DVD. Another option for really big projects
Guide for more on this). DVD burners have or recurring clients would be simply copy-
become nearly a commodity item, but there ing all of your project files, including
are some differentiating factors. First, check video clips and audio clips, onto to a new
out the software bundle. OEM versions of a hard drive, then removing the hard drive
popular disc authoring program and a DVD- and putting it into a padded box and onto
Video player app are the most common a shelf with a label. This is a somewhat
Data Storage Devices 51
expensive option, but it’s an extremely dust down if at all possible. The general
convenient one. recommendation is 68 degrees Fahrenheit
As far as long-term storage of any type at 40% relative humidity. There are some
of media goes, the maxim “if you’re com- good discussions of best practices for
fortable, it’s comfortable” can be safely fol- archiving your media online—do a little
lowed. Avoid wild fluctuations or extremes searching and you’ll find the information
of temperature and humidity, and keep the you need.
12
Sound Track:
Microphone Types
Robert G. Nulph
Has the selection of microphones offered Impedance is the resistance to the flow of
by your favorite electronics store ever electrical current in a circuit or element.
overwhelmed you? Have you stared in We measure impedance in ohms, a unit of
awe at the vast array of silver or black, resistance to current flow. The lower the
big or small, expensive or cheap micro- impedance, the better the microphone or
phones available to you? Have you won- recording device.
dered about HiZ versus LowZ, dynamic Most older consumer camcorders have
versus condenser, cardioid versus omni- a high impedance (HiZ) microphone jack
directional or shotguns and lavaliers meant to be used with high impedance
versus handheld and boundary mics? microphones. These microphones range
Throughout this chapter, we will take a in impedance from 600–1400 ohms. HiZ
look at impedance, the two major ways microphones are very sensitive and require
microphones work, microphone pickup very little amplification, which is why
patterns and microphone styles. So sit less sophisticated consumer equipment is
back, relax and proceed through this designed for them. They are, however, sus-
quick look into the sometimes confusing ceptible to hum and electronic noise and
world of microphone choice. can be used only with a very short micro-
phone cable.
Low impedance microphones, with an
HiZ and LowZ impedance level of 100–600 ohms, have
become the norm in video production. Even
Before you choose the style of micro- much of today’s consumer equipment now
phone you’d like to use, you have to know has low impedance inputs to allow you to
what impedance of microphone is com- use professional microphones. Using these
patible with your camcorder. Your system professional microphones with low imped-
might require a HiZ microphone input. ance gives you two advantages: (1) They
52
Sound Track 53
are not as affected by electronic hums and The dynamic microphone has a number
noises that can be caused by fluorescent of attributes that you need to take into
lighting or electric motors and (2) you can account when deciding on the type of
use long cables without worrying about microphone you need. This type of micro-
outside interference. phone is extremely durable. Dynamic mics
If you buy a microphone and plug its can tolerate wide temperature ranges and
cable into your camcorder and nothing humidity as well as take a great deal of
happens, it may be due to an impedance abuse. I have seen them dropped, banged
mismatch. If your camcorder requires around, used in the dead of winter, in the
a HiZ microphone and all you have are high heat of a tropical rain forest and even
professional mics, don’t despair. You can (believe it or not) used as a hammer (not
purchase an inexpensive LowZ to HiZ recommended), all without affecting the
transformer. Plug your microphone cable mic’s ability to record high quality audio.
into the transformer and the transformer Dynamic mics are also fairly inexpensive.
into your camcorder. You should now be Good quality dynamic microphones like
able to use any professional microphone the Shure SM58 costs around $200. Lower
with your system. Now that we’ve gotten quality dynamics run as low as $77. Even
impedance choice out of the way, we can the extremely good dynamics rarely cost
move on to the other mic variables. more than $350.
Another attribute of the dynamic mic
is its ability to provide a warm, rounded
Inner Workings
sound for vocals and yet take the abuse
of recording high impact sounds such as
Most microphones fall within one of the two
drums and screaming voices. Many lead
major families: dynamic or capacitor (con-
singers in rock bands use the handheld
denser) microphones. The dynamic micro-
dynamic because of its ruggedness and its
phone has a fixed magnet, a diaphragm
ability to pick up a wide range of sounds
that moves when sound hits it, and a coil
from screams to whispers. However, the
attached to the diaphragm. When the dia-
dynamic microphone has a less accurate
phragm moves, the coil moves, making
sound reproduction than the condenser.
changes in the magnetic field. These changes
A final advantage of the dynamic is that
generate voltage through the microphone
it requires no outside power. Plug it into
cable to the recorder, amplifier or speakers
your recorder or sound system and go.
(see Figure 12-1).
No batteries or power supplies needed.
In video work, the dynamic microphone
Diaphragm
is ideal for on-camera interviews, record-
ing very loud sound sources and crawling
Coil around the toughest terrain.
The capacitor or condenser micro-
phone uses variations in voltage within a
capacitor. The capacitor, which is capable
Magnet of holding an electrical charge, is made
up of two parallel plates, one fixed and
one moving, separated by a small space.
When sound waves hit the movable plate,
it vibrates and causes a change in the
amount of voltage held by the capacitor.
This change in voltage is sent down the
wires to be recorded or amplified through
Figure 12-1 Dynamic Mic—In a dynamic
mic, a vibrating diaphram moves a magnet speakers (see Figure 12-2).
and coil past one another to create an The condenser microphone has a number
electrical signal. of attributes that are important for the
videographer to consider. The condenser decide the best pickup pattern for your
mic is not so rugged as the dynamic, and production. There are four primary pickup
the more expensive models are downright patterns to choose from: omnidirectional,
delicate. They range in price from around cardioid (or unidirectional), hypercardioid
$100 for a basic condenser to well over (or shotgun) and bidirectional (see Figure
$5,000 for a high-end studio mic. Although 12-3).
the condenser is usually more expensive, The omnidirectional microphone picks
its frequency response and true sound ren- up sound in every direction—front, back and
dering make it ideal for the videographer sides (see Figure 12-3a). This microphone is
seeking the best fidelity. good if the sound source comes from a wide
You will have to consider one other variety of directions and is moving from
attribute when purchasing a condenser one side to another in front of the mic.
microphone: its need for an additional The cardioid or unidirectional micro-
power source. A battery, or AC power phone picks up sound primarily in a heart
source can provide this additional “phan- shape from the front of the microphone,
tom” power. If you have a mixing board including a little from the sides, but does not
with phantom power built into the inputs, pick up from the back (see Figure 12-3b).
it will supply power to any mic you plug in. This pickup pattern is excellent for voice
You can purchase a condenser microphone mics and miking musical instruments.
and begin using it right away. However, The hypercardioid microphone picks up
if you plan to plug a phantom-powered only sound from the front and is very direc-
microphone into your camcorder, you’ll tional (see Figure 12-3c). You must point it
need to purchase a phantom power unit to at the sound source to get a good pickup.
supply juice for your mic. Fortunately, most This type of pick-up pattern is excellent
microphones that you would use for field for isolating sound sources like bird calls,
production have a battery space built in. individual actors talking in a drama, or
You just have to remember the batteries. isolating one voice in a sea of voices.
The bidirectional microphone picks
up sound from two distinct sides of the
Pickup Patterns mic (Figure 12-3d). You would use a mic
Whether you choose either a dynamic or

condenser microphone, you must also
(a) (b)
Diaphragm
Omnidirectional Cardioid Pattern

Backplate
(c) (d)
Hypercardioid Bidirectional
Figure 12-2 Condenser Mic—A condenser mic Figure 12-3 Pick It Up—Microphones come
uses changes in capacitance in the element to with various pick-up patterns. You need to
turn sound waves into an electrical signal. know how to use the one you have.
Sound Track 55
with this pickup pattern primarily to near his or her mouth. You can hide these
record two voices talking into the same microphones in costumes or weave them
microphone. into an actor’s hair. If you ever get bored
You can find all of these pickup patterns during a live play or musical, try to find the
in a variety of microphone styles. Some mics on the main actors. Costume design-
of the more expensive microphones even ers and makeup artists are very ingenious
have switches that enable you to choose in finding places to hide the mics and
multiple patterns from a single mic. power packs. Lavaliere microphones usu-
ally have an omnidirectional or cardioid
pickup pattern and closely mic a single
Styles of Microphones talent. You can also use the omnidirec-
tional lavalier to mic various acting areas
After you make the choice between dynamic by hiding them in plants, furniture and
and condenser, and select an appropriate other set pieces. Just be careful that the tal-
pickup pattern, you have to choose what ent doesn’t touch or bang into their hiding
style of microphone to use. This choice is place. You will definitely hear it.
entirely dependent on the type of produc- The boundary microphone is a fairly new
tion you are doing and whether or not you style of mic that has really made a name for
want to see the mic on screen. The major itself lately. This mic is mounted on a flat
types of microphone styles are: handheld, surface and usually has an omni-directional
shotgun, lavalier or lapel mic, boundary pickup pattern. These are great for miking
or PZM (Pressure Zone Microphone) mic conferences where you have a flat table
and parabolic mic (Figure 12-4). with people sitting all around. You can use
The handheld microphone is just that, a them extensively as stage mics (not placed
microphone that you hold in your hand. directly on the stage where footfalls would
This mic is usually flat black or metallic create heavy interference) to enhance thea-
and generally has either an omnidirectional tre sound levels; or use them to record a
or cardioid pickup pattern. It is ideal for group of people in a closed environment
direct addresses to the camera by your like a class or seminar.
talent. It looks good and the talent can han- The parabolic microphone is for long-
dle it quite easily. It is the mic of choice distance audio pickup. This extremely
for TV news reporters, singers, politicians directional microphone looks like a small
and talk-show hosts. handheld satellite dish which reflects all
The shotgun microphone is a long slen- of the sound to a center-mounted micro-
der mic that usually has a hypercardioid or phone. This mic is primarily used to record
even a supercardioid (extremely focused) the sound at sporting events or to pick
pickup pattern. You would primarily up the sounds of wild animals. Both this
use this microphone in field production, microphone and the shotgun microphone
mounted on a suspension mount at the are ideal for picking up middle to high fre-
end of a long fishpole. The boom opera- quency ranges but are not suitable for high
tor who manipulates the fishpole keeps quality, total range sound recording.
the microphone out of the frame about 18
from the talent’s mouth so that they can
pick up a consistent voice level. You can Microphone Accessories
use this mic to record sound effects and
other sound sources because it picks up As with all equipment, once you find the
sound only from the direction it is point- microphone you want to use, you have to
ing, cutting most of the sound from its accessorize. A friend of mine who runs a
sides and back. recording studio is constantly explain-
The lavalier or lapel microphone is a ing the need for the strange looking ring
very small microphone that the talent with what looks like panty hose stretched
can wear on his or her lapel or someplace over it. This is an extremely important
(a) (b)
Shotgun Lavaliere
(c) (d)
PZM Handheld
Figure 12-4 Mic Types—Different mics work better in different shooting situations; you
may need more than one in your kit.
microphone when he or she says words

with hard “P”s and “B”s (see Figure 12-5).
Windscreens come in a variety of shapes
and surfaces. If you ever see a microphone
with a gray or other colored foam ball
covering its end, you are seeing one type
of windscreen. Another popular wind-
screen used with shotgun microphones is
a zeppelin or blimp (these names coming
from their resemblance to the early 1900s
aircraft). These windscreens completely
enclose the microphone and are attached
directly to the fishpole or mic stand. If you
see someone using a big hairy microphone
Figure 12-5 Things That Go Pop—A pop filter outdoors, he is using a blimp with a wind-
reduces the intensity of popping Ps and Bs in jammer cover. This cover is extremely
narration. effective when you are shooting in windy
conditions.
Shock mounts or suspension mounts are
microphone accessory called a windscreen another extremely valuable microphone
or more precisely, a pop filter. He places the accessory. Suspension mounts prevent
mesh surface in front of the microphone sounds traveling through the mic stand
so that the talents’ breath does not pop the or fishpole from being picked up by the
Sound Track 57
microphone. Soft elastic materials like depend on the type of production you do.
rubber or nylon suspend the mic so that the Look at your needs and compare them
sounds created by your hands rubbing the with the instruments described above.
fishpole or something hitting the mic stand There is a microphone designed for every
are not heard. It is extremely important that type of production. It is up to you to
you use a suspension mount when using a decide what your production require-
shotgun on a fishpole. ments are and the microphone that will
best fit your audio needs.
Mic Check
When buying microphones and accesso-

ries, the kind of equipment you buy will
13
Putting Radio to Work:
The Low-Down on
Wireless Mics
Larry Lemm
A wireless microphone system can be a

videographer’s best friend or worst enemy. Cable Modulated
to recorder
Learn how wireless microphone systems from signal Antenna
work and you’ll be able to choose and use mike via airwaves
the best system for your needs, so you can Antenna

DEMODULATE
get the best audio possible.
Cable signal
Receiver
MODULATE
The Basics
There are a few different types of wire- Transmitter

less microphone system setups. They all
require three separate parts to make them
all work as one: a microphone, a radio
transmitter and a radio receiver (see Figure 13-1 The transmitter modulates the
Figure 13-1). signal coming from the microphone onto a
Some wireless systems have hand-held radio frequency carrier wave and transmits it
microphones with built-in transmitters. through the air. The receiver demodulates this
signal back into a form your camcorder can
Others use lavalier microphones with record.
small transmitter packs strapped to a per-
son’s belt. These are very popular and pro- have the same frequency response range
vide a discrete method of miking a subject. as a moderately priced wired microphone.
It is important to note that a moderately Some of the frequency range is sacri-
priced wireless microphone often won’t ficed in the transmission from transmitter
58
Putting Radio to Work 59
to receiver. This signal loss may not be Re

fle
noticed when miking a person speaking, ct
ed
si
however, because the human voice falls in
Di
gn
a
rec
l
the middle of the frequency range.
ts
ign
Wireless microphone systems operate in
al
two different radio frequency ranges. These
acronyms, also used in TV, will probably
seem familiar. The FCC licenses wireless
mics to operate between 150 to 216 MHz
in the VHF (Very High Frequency) spec- Transmitter
trum. It also licenses operation between
Receiver
400 and 470 MHz and again between 900
and 950 MHz in the UHF (Ultra High Fre-
quency) spectrum. Much lower frequency, Figure 13-2 Multipath interference results
and usually much cheaper, mics, operate from the transmitter’s signal bouncing off
objects in the environment. When a signal and
between 41 and 49 MHz where they are its delayed reflection enter the receiver, they
subject to interference from all kinds of may be recorded at a reduced quality—or may
other devices. result in no signal getting recorded at all.
VHF wireless microphone systems are
generally less expensive than UHF sys- densely populated shoot, where several
tems. Much like VHF TV stations, VHF other videographers are using wireless
wireless mics have less range and power mics, you may encounter interference
than their UHF counterparts. with another mic operating on the same
radio frequency. With more and more
Your Own Tiny Radio Station radio devices in use, it’s more and more
likely for that to happen. Most wire-
A wireless microphone system’s transmit- less systems, however, offer a few differ-
ter pack is essentially a tiny radio station. ent channels to work with, so hopefully
The mic attaches to a tiny transmitter, you’ll notice that type of interference
which has a tiny antenna and a tiny power before you roll tape.
supply (in the form of a battery). This usu- The next type of interference, multipath
ally means tiny signal strength too, which interference, is an inherent flaw of using
is why your signal won’t stretch across radio frequencies (especially indoors), and
town like a high-powered radio signal. often requires wireless microphone manu-
Instead of calculating your range in miles, facturers to double-up on the electronics
the range of the tiny radio station within in a system (see Figure 13-2).
your wireless mic is measured in feet. And Multipath interference occurs after a
it’s usually less than a few hundred feet for transmitter sends out a radio signal. Some
VHF and less than 1,000 feet for UHF. of the signal goes directly to the receiver,
On the other end of this cozy little micro- but other parts of it bounce around and
phone system is the receiver. It works much sometimes hit the receiving antenna with
like a car radio, except it only tunes into just enough delay to cancel out the signal
the channels that your transmitter uses. or cause interference. Multipath interfer-
For most videographers, wireless systems ence is the reason developers had to come
that use small battery-powered receivers up with diversity and true-diversity wire-
are often favored over larger table-top sys- less systems.
tems that cannot attach to a camcorder.
Breaking up Is Easy to Do Truly Diverse
Using a wireless microphone system What’s diversity to a wireless micro-

presents some potential dangers. On a phone? Well, there are two answers, and
Figure 13-4 An “ersatz” diversity system has

two antennas, but only a single receiver.
Figure 13-3 A true diversity receiver contains
two antennas, two receivers and a switcher.
both are aimed at eliminating the effects receiver’s output. There are three types
of multipath interference. of outputs: mic level, consumer line level
A true diversity system has two anten- and professional line level.
nas, each leading to a separate receiver. Small, portable systems that attach onto
A kind of switcher monitors these two for your camcorder and plug into its micro-
signal strength and makes sure the strong- phone jack use mic-level outputs. The
est of the two is sent out to the recorder on a output of consumer line-level units, how-
moment-by-moment basis (see Figure 13-3). ever, measures 10dB and the output of
A good diversity system does this quickly professional line-level receivers measures
and seamlessly, introducing no static or 4dB. Be sure to add the correct attenua-
switching noise into the signal. tion and adaptation to either of the latter
On the other hand, we have “ersatz” before trying to plug the output into your
diversity mics. From the outside these camcorder’s mic jack.
look like the true variety, as their receivers Consider a wireless system that has
also have two antennas. The difference, mic-level inputs that you can strap onto
however, lies within. If you cracked one your camcorder and go to town. You
open, instead of finding two receivers and may consider a more expensive wireless
a switcher, you’d find that both antenna microphone system, designed with musi-
wires lead to the same receiver (see Figure cians in mind. But you may also need a
13-4). The single receiver receives the sig- soundboard to use one of these to get best
nals from both antennas all the time. This results. No matter what type of video you
type of system is not as effective as the true make, understanding how wireless mics
diversity type at eliminating the effects of work will help you be a better shopper
multipath interference. and a better video producer.
On the Level
The last thing you should understand

about a wireless microphone system is the
Putting Radio to Work 61
Sidebar
Wireless Audio Advice
Here are several tips for getting the best sound from any wireless microphone system:
• Keep it close. Keep the distance between transmitter and receiver as short as possible.
Every wireless system has its limits. The shorter the transmission, the stronger the signal.
• Don’t stray too far. The goal of a wireless microphone is usually to unhook your talent
from cables. You may be able to accomplish this with an extremely short distance between
microphone and receiver. Try putting the receiver near the talent, just out of the camera’s
view, and run a longer cable to the camcorder (wherever it may be).
• Reposition the receiver. If you just can’t get a clean signal, especially indoors, try moving
the receiver. RF signals bounce around in strange ways, and a movement of just three or
four feet could make a huge difference.
• Reorient antennas. Sometimes, simply cocking an antenna can reduce dropouts (that’s
why antennas are usually hinged). Try laying the receiver’s antenna horizontal instead of
vertical, try a 45-degree angle or try spinning the receiver itself 90 degrees.
• Watch those batteries. Wireless systems eat batteries quickly, and can get rather flaky as
the battery voltage drops. If all else fails, try new batteries.
• Try a different environment. If all else fails, you may need to try a completely different
shooting location. Some locations are not friendly to wireless systems, while the room
down the hall may pose no problems. As a rule, wireless microphones fare better outdoors
than in.
14
Monitoring the Monitors
Edward B. Driscoll, Jr.
As recently as ten years ago, choosing a more than capable of responding to those.
video monitor essentially meant picking And they’re also quite affordable, espe-
some flavor of cathode ray tube technology. cially these days.”
But that was before digital TV and, espe- There are always tradeoffs of course:
cially, HDTV. The burdens these newer CRTs have a large desktop footprint, and
technologies place on monitor design have can generate a fair amount of heat. “But
caused new successors to emerge to chal- from a color, refresh and cost standpoint,
lenge the time-tested CRT format, and there’s absolutely nothing wrong with a
those successors are making quite a splash. good 19 to 22-inch CRT for these types of
Since monitors are no longer a one size applications” Pollitt adds.
fits all technology, let’s look at some of
the decisions involved in choosing a new
Plasma and LCD: Thin Profiles
monitor. Grow in Popularity
CRT: An Old Standby Soldiers On When plasma TVs debuted in the mid-
1990s, they represented a new archetype
“CRT technology is quite mature, is in television design: flat, sleek and wide.
declining in sales, but absolutely is not They could be hung on a wall, like a
dead” Chris Pollitt, product marketing painting. And just as the first mass-
manager for PC displays at Philips (www produced TVs of the late 1940s and ’50s
.philipsusa.com) says. But “when you’re once did before they were banished to dens
looking at editing video, one of the things and bedrooms, they helped to reintroduce
you want is the most accurate color. the concept of the TV as the focal point of
CRTs, even though it’s old technology, the upscale living room. And like early TVs
still have the highest color gamut, cov- they are expensive—a real luxury item.
ering pretty much the entire NTSC spec- In recent years though, plasma has had
trum, And they don’t have any refresh stiff competition in the flatlands battle
issues: there’s never any motion blurring. from LCD monitors. LCD technology actu-
If you have fast moving objects, a CRT is ally dates back to the 1970s (remember
62
Monitoring the Monitors 63
when digital calculators and watches Buying an LCD monitor is becoming

began to first appear?), although by the increasingly affordable. “Wide panel LCDs
mid-1990s, upstart plasma TVs wound up have traditionally been very expensive, but
capturing the lion’s share of publicity and there’s a lot of good news on that front,”
sex appeal. But because of the popularity notes Pollitt. “There are three sizes that
of LCDs in the computer monitor industry, are coming into play at very, very attrac-
an impressive LCD manufacturing infra- tive end-user price points. You’ve got the
structure has been built up, particularly in 23-inch and 24-inch wide displays. These
Asia. Since the start of the 21st century, to are typically 1,9201,200, so 2.3 million
maximize investments in that technology, pixels. So you’ve got great pixel density
LCD manufacturers have also turned to and a 1610 aspect ratio. Those products
producing televisions, dramatically low- which were in the $1,500 to $2,000 space,
ering their costs in recent years. are now in the $900 to $1,200 range.”
For those using LCDs as computer mon-
itors, and/or in the video editing work-
Newer Formats Co-Exist Nicely space, in addition to allowing for viewing
of 169 HDTV footage without letterbox-
LCDs fill a niche: plasma TVs cannot be ing, these monitors also make it possible
produced in sizes smaller than 32 inches, to have multiple documents open side-by-
and most LCDs are smaller than that side, making them highly flexible worksta-
screen size, so are perfect for desktop tions. In the Philips line, these products
computing applications. Pollitt of Philips include the 23-inch 230WP7 (which streets
adds, “tests have shown that an LCD is for around $1,200) and a 20-wide 200WB7,
easier on the eyes than a CRT. It doesn’t streeting for $499.
create as many negative effects over a long The CRT technology of standard TVs has
period of time,” because of the absence of worked effectively for over 60 years. But as
flicker. Douglas Woo, president of Westinghouse
Matt Foust, regional sales manager Digital Electronics (www.westinghouse
of Princeton Graphics (www.princeton digital.com) once told me, “When you move
graphics.com) says, “in the past, when to digital television and high-resolution
the contrast ratios of LCDs were not as displays, CRTs, while they can do it, are
good as they are now, there were some not going to be the product that carries
color differences” between LCD and CRT. that burden further into this century.”
“Nowadays, with contrast ratios going That doesn’t mean that a high quality CRT
above 500 to 1 and 700 to 1, they’re able might not still be more than adequate for
to change the settings inside the LCD dis- the task you assign it. It’s a safe bet though,
play to avoid that problem. Technology that at some point, its successor will be
has caught up.” flat and thin.
But Foust is quick to mention that older, But will it be LCD or Plasma … or even
and even brand-new, but inexpensive LCD a soon to be released technology such as
displays can have poorer contrast ratios, SED (Surface-conduction Electron-emitter
such as 300 to 1, or 450 to 1, making this Display) pioneered by Canon and Toshiba?
a key feature to check when buying, espe- Well, that’s up to you and the need your
cially if you are using it for editing. new monitor will fill.
15
Screen Time
Charles Fulton
There’s nothing like a nice, big display. your projector, you will need a tuner of
A big display on your computer means some kind, as there are no projectors that
more screen real estate for timelines, pre- we know of that include RF inputs or tun-
view windows, audio mixers and meters, ers. A VCR makes a fine tuner for off-air
scopes and more. A big TV lets you sit broadcasts or unscrambled cable, but you
further back and fills your field of vision will need a cable box to tune in scram-
with your program. A video projector bled analog cable or any flavor of digital
takes your viewing (whether your source cable. A few companies (notably ADS
is a computer, a camcorder, a DVD player, and Hauppauge) make computer-based
a VCR or a satellite receiver) to the next TV tuners, and there are a bunch of video
level, allowing you to show your produc- cards based on ATI and NVIDIA chipsets
tion to hundreds of your closest friends that include TV tuners as well.
all at once, on the same screen.
Going HD
Plugging In
If you’ve got HDV on your mind, a pro-
You can plug practically any video source jector offers a price-competitive way
into a projector. The vast majority of for displaying HDV video, along with
modern projectors have at least compos- pretty much any other kind of HD signal
ite, S-Video and VGA inputs; but compo- that you want to show. A set of compo-
nent video (YPrPb/YCrCb), DVI (with or nent video inputs on your projector will
without High-Bandwidth Digital Content allow you to view the output from any of
Protection, or HDCP) and HDMI (High- today’s HDV camcorders. It’s possible that
Definition Multimedia Interface) inputs future HDV camcorders may add a digital
are becoming increasingly available, at video output such as HDMI or DVI; or that
ever decreasing price points. future projectors may be equipped with
Note, however, that if you intend to tune FireWire inputs and have the appropriate
local off-air broadcasts or cable feeds with codecs for playing back DV or HDV.
64
Screen Time 65
While projectors that can handle 720p do have small speakers that are usually
video without having to scale the picture acceptable for small boardroom settings,
are relatively common, unscaled 1,080i but generally won’t satisfy the audio
is still hard to find at a reasonable price needs for most other applications. If you
point. On the computer side, 1,024 768 are presenting the premiere of your lat-
is the most common native resolution est video, you’ll definitely want to make
available; but native 1,280 1,024 pro- sure you have access to good hardware
jectors are becoming common—although such as a home surround sound system
they’re still a bit on the expensive side. and a larger venue, or you’ll want to make
arrangements to rent a sound system.
Bring It with You

Big Time
Like everything else in the video universe,
projectors are continuing to get smaller A projector makes a fine addition to the
and lighter. It’s not hard to find projectors toolkit of any videographer. Like so many
that can easily fit in a briefcase, for tak- other items of technology, we’re excited
ing your show on the road on a moment’s to see where projectors are heading, as
notice, or otherwise traveling light. prices continue to become more reason-
One thing to consider, though, is that able and projectors become more durable
bulbs are rather pricey and fragile—but and portable. The continuing adoption
thankfully, the life span of bulbs seems to of HDTV will certainly help in price
be improving somewhat. You’d probably decline, and the increased competition in
want to have a spare on hand if you are the consumer electronics arena will keep
going on the road, but keep it in some- this delivery option interesting.
where safely padded.
Don’t Forget Audio
Projectors’ is design, first and foremost, is

for video reproduction. Most projectors
16
Resolution Lines
Bill Rood
With video equipment manufacturers When a Line Is Not a Line

increasingly engaged in spec wars over
lines of resolution it seems appropriate While the number of scan lines is fixed
to investigate those figures, what they and can be counted, the number of
mean and why they’re so often mislead- “lines” in the term “lines of horizon-
ing. Knowing how to measure resolution tal resolution” is in fact strictly a unit of
will help you make a smart purchase the measurement. There are no actual lines
next time you look for a camcorder, VCR you can count, except with a special test
or monitor. chart (see Figure 16-1). You can put your
Much of the confusion centers around face right up to the picture tube and see
the use of the term “lines.” Lines of hori- the scan lines, but you can’t see lines of
zontal resolution should not be confused resolution.
with scan lines. In America, the National We should actually refer to horizontal
Television Standards Committee (or NTSC) luminance resolution as “video frequency
television system mandates that the tel- response.” It’s expressed in megahertz
evision picture will consist of 525 vertical (MHz), usually with a tolerance, just as with
scan lines, each scanning from left to right audio equipment. Unfortunately, consumer
on the screen. This fact does not change, no video equipment manufacturers appar-
matter how sophisticated the video gear. ently believe this is too complicated for the
So when a manufacturer boasts that a average consumer to understand, so they
device features “400 lines of resolution,” use the questionable lines method instead.
the reference is not to vertical resolution, Measurements stated in lines also sound
or the number of scan lines. What’s under more impressive than those expressed in
discussion is horizontal resolution, or, megahertz. Three hundred lines sounds
more specifically, horizontal luminance better than three-and-a-half megahertz.
resolution. The chroma resolution in the So how does this frequency response
NTSC system is as little as one tenth that differ from vertical resolution? You can
of the luminance, depending on the par- measure video frequency response by
ticular hue. So for our purposes, I’ll dis- examining just one of the 525 scan lines,
cuss only luminance resolution. provided you are displaying a test signal
66
Resolution Lines 67
Figure 16-1 Horizontal Resolution Test Chart. Credit: Thomas Fjallstam.
of vertical bars. The frequency response of Specs Game

the entire picture should be the same on
every line. So how do we measure video frequency
As an example, let’s examine one scan response, or obtain horizontal resolution
line of a black-and-white picture. As the specifications?
scan line traces from left to right, we’d see For equipment handling video signals
that the brightness of the line at any given in a purely electronic form, use a test sig-
point is a function of the picture content at nal known as “multiburst.” This signal
that point. If the picture consists of a white contains a series of bursts, nothing more
picket fence against a dark background, the than white/black/white transitions. Tiny
line would start off dim, then brighten as picket fences, if you will, each higher in
it reproduced one of the pickets. It would frequency than the one previous. When
go dark as it passed between pickets, then viewed on an oscilloscope, each burst
brighten again when it hit the next one. should offer the same amplitude.
And so on. This sequence would continue If the signal drops off as the frequency
until the end of the line. rises, you know you’re seeing high-
What happens if we make the pickets frequency response roll-off. The frequency
on the fence closer together? The line of each burst is fairly standard; usually
still must switch between light and dark, 0.5 MHz, 1 MHz, 2 MHz, 3 MHz, 3.58 MHz
but faster. In effect, we’ve upped the fre- and 4.2 MHz. The beauty of this method
quency of the input signal we’re trying to is its extreme precision, with no sloppy
reproduce. At some point, a given piece of guesswork.
gear cannot make the changes fast enough; For devices which pick up or display
thus, we arrive at the limits of its resolu- images, like cameras and monitors, virtu-
tion. As the pickets got closer, they would ally the only way to determine horizontal
begin to appear less bright. Finally, you resolution is to display a special resolution
would no longer distinguish a picket from chart (see Figure 16-2). This chart features
its neighbor. The black and white pattern little wedges: a series of converging black
will melt into a neutral gray. lines on a white background. As the lines
Figure 16-2 Resolution and Frequency Response Test Charts.

Credit: Earl Talken.
come closer together, you again begin to Along the outer edge of the wedge at
encounter a point where the change from regular intervals are line numbers, reading
black to white to black occurs so quickly 200, 250, 300, 350, 400 and so on. This is
the lines become indistinct. where “lines of resolution” comes from.
Resolution Lines 69
As you might guess, it’s a rather inexact With an off-air broadcast, video fre-
method at best; the scale is quite coarse, quency response cannot rise above
and open to interpretation as to where 4.2 MHz. Using the above formula, we
exactly the lines blur together. It also could then say that TV broadcasts feature
doesn’t take into account the fact that while 336 lines of resolution. The reason for the
black/white/black transitions may be visible, limit? The design of the television trans-
they may appear at a substantially reduced mission system from way back when. It
level, indicating high-frequency roll-off. places the audio carrier at 4.5 MHz; picture
Unfortunately, this method is used to information must vanish by that point.
spec virtually every piece of consumer Most TV broadcasts originate from dig-
video gear, be it camera, VCR, disc player ital video, stored either on hard drives or
or whatever. This means you should take from digital videotape, such as D-1. These
any stated resolution spec with a grain of machines also master virtually every-
salt the size of Nebraska. There’s much thing seen on pre-recorded home video,
room for error, interpretation and fudging. from VHS, to DVDs. These digital mas-
ters are a “full” 480 lines of resolution, or
6 MHz of “flat” video frequency response.
Lines to Megahertz Unfortunately, the best resolution figure
you can hope to see from broadcast is 360
Approximately 80 TV lines equals 1 MHz lines—80 “lines” 4.5 MHz.
of video bandwidth. So a piece of equip- Until all manufacturers come clean and
ment rated at 300 lines would feature start stating horizontal resolution in terms
a video frequency response of roughly of megahertz, and within a certain toler-
3.75 MHz. This is all well and good, ance, we’ll never have a reasonable stan-
except the 300 lines figure most likely dard with which to compare products.
came from observing the wedge pattern, Until then, read the specs if you will,
and may be less than accurate. Also, it’s but don’t make judgments based upon
impossible to tell by this method if the them alone.
response is flat at 3.75 MHz, or even if
there’s any response at all.
17
Switch It!
Edward B. Driscoll, Jr.
Choosing a video switcher is a significant Swiss Army Knives Don’t Always

decision for most video producers. While Make the Best Weapons
a video project’s cinematography deter-
mines what it looks like, it’s the video Although a few manufacturers might give
switcher that gives a multiple camera you the impression that their switchers
shoot its overall professional sheen. Video can do everything, it’s always best to have
switchers (or video mixers, as they’re some idea ahead of time what the main
also known as) are particularly essential type of production you’ll be using the
for a live production. A talented opera- unit for. Some units will be more flexible
tor can use a switcher to blend on the fly and allow you to work on different types
individual video cameras with dissolves, of projects. Others are more limited, but
wipes, and other effects, and frequently— may be perfectly suited for the type of
but not always, as we’ll discuss in a few production you do every week.
moments—the sound as well. For a video Are you going to use the switcher at a
director, the switcher is practically like live performance on location? Then con-
a musical instrument, and shot timing and sider one with its own custom-fitted travel
dissolves are often timed for an almost case. Unless the switcher is going to be fit-
rhythmic feel that’s subliminal, but ted into a studio control desk and never be
palpable. transported, buying the case could be well
For someone new to this aspect of video worth the extra cost to protect the deli-
production, the switcher’s myriad of cate circuitry inside. In addition, for those
knobs, faders, T-bars, inputs and outputs location jobs, you might want to consider
can appear overwhelming at first. But a unit like the Datavideo SE-800, which
each video input has the same controls as has its own optional small bank of attach-
all of the others, so there is a great deal able video monitors.
of duplication. In other words, once you But if you’re working in a studio, then
understand what’s going on with one row, external monitors will give you a better idea
you’ll understand what goes on with the what the audience is seeing, and small pro-
other rows. prietized monitors become less important.
70
Switch It! 71
I/O Silver! beat of the music that’s playing. Others

also include a MIDI-input, allowing the
Of course, planning your input and out- switcher’s effects to be remote-controlled
put needs ahead of time is necessary. How using MIDI, the common language of elec-
many cameras will you need to switch? tronic musical instruments.
Are you mixing sound as well? All of these Lower-end machines often lack chroma
questions should be answered up front. key, but typically have luminance control,
Most switchers will have a mixture of allowing them to at least insert simple titles
composite and S-video inputs. Higher-end into a project. These types of low-end mix-
switchers will have bayonet-style BNC ers also occasionally lack preview outs,
inputs. Whether these are worth the price but then they typically offer very simple
depends again on your use: if you’re work- effects, and thus little need to preview.
ing in a high-traffic area, a bayonet mount’s Focus Enhancement MX-4 is a well-
protection against accidental un-plugging equipped mid-priced switcher capable
is worth the price. of producing a myriad of video effects. It
Not all video switchers are set up to includes a T-bar control, which, as we’ll
also do audio. Again, ask yourself where discuss in a moment, may or may not be
the work is going to be done. If you’re an important feature for your needs.
doing location work, a combined unit
may make transport easier. A stand-alone
audio mixer will probably have more fea- The T-Bar Debate
tures, and can provide somewhat better
sound quality than combined units. If all- Finally, what many consider the most
in-one sound and video is valuable to you, important control on the switcher
make sure the unit has a sufficient quan- requires a decision. Although to some it
tity of audio inputs and outputs for your might just be a lever, whether a switcher
needs. has a T-bar control or not is often high on
High definition switchers are an even many users’ list of priorities. Some low-
newer beast. Check out a switcher such as end switchers lack a T-bar, which doesn’t
Edirol’s V-440 HD if high def is definitely mean a T-bar is always what you want.
a high concept requirement. But be pre- First of all, T-bars are infamous for being
pared to pay a fair chunk of change as an bumped if the switcher is in a crowded
early adopter. area. And, some users, especially when
they are doing VJ-style productions, pre-
fer the quicker response of a fader, as
Check for Effects opposed to the slow, but more precise feel
of a T-bar. Obviously, again, it helps to
Effects are another big consideration. know what types of material the switcher
Generally, the greater the cost of the will primarily be used for. Numark’s
switcher, the greater the number of AVM01 streets for less than $1K, and
effects it has built-in, but this isn’t always lacks a T-bar, but is an extremely popular
true—with some switchers, you’re pay- switcher with the V-J set.
ing for durability, not a myriad of flashy As a rule, you’ll benefit the most hav-
effects. Typically, video switchers allow ing some idea of what most of the projects
for chroma key effects, a variety of wipes you’ll be using your switcher for entail. But
and pattern dissolves, and the ability to also try to leave some room for expansion.
do titles. Some mixers allow for a vari- And don’t forget to consider the environ-
ety of chroma colors, others less so. Also, ment that it will be used in, as well. That’s
some units feature a beats per minute a fair amount of decision making that will
(or “B.P.M.” as all the cool hip-hop guys go into your purchase, but it will pay off
like to say) display to allow V-Js in clubs with a switcher with features that are built
to sync-up transitions and effects to the for the long run.
18
Try a Tripod:
Some Valuable Features
in the Three-Legged Race
William Ronat
Few pieces of video support equipment karate expert, or an offensive lineman. Or,
are as useful as the tripod. Simple in con- for that matter, a tree.
cept, elegant in function, the tripod has a
long history of bringing needed stability Why a Tripod?
to the world of photography.
In pre-video days, tripods served still I know what you’re thinking. “What do
and motion picture cameras. As far back I need with a tripod? It’s just one more
as the 1860s, people like Matthew Brady thing to tote around.”
were lugging tripods onto battlefields to Maybe you’re right. If you have a steady
help steady huge still camera equipment. hand, and/or a lens stabilizer, you may never
And before tripods became popular for encounter a situation requiring a tripod. But
image gathering, they supported the if you shoot professional video and work
surveyors’ levels used to map out the with heavy equipment, you know that work-
countryside. ing hand-held for any length of time can
Why, you may wonder, a tripod? Why get darned uncomfortable. Just try holding
not a monopod, or a quadrapod, or an your hand on top of your head for a couple
octopod? This question doesn’t require an of hours to simulate the experience.
Einstein to answer. One leg: camera falls Aside from avoiding pain, tripods are
down. Two legs: camera falls down. Three handy if you want to be in your own shot.
legs: camera stands up. Four legs: one Say you’re shooting a news story for a
more leg than you need. cable access show and you want to do a
The triangle is one of the most stable stand up. This is the shot where you appear
configurations for a support device. Ask a on camera, looking solemn, finishing up
72
Try a Tripod 73
with, “for Cable Access, this is John Smith, You position the bubble either inside a
reporting from Bosnia.” circle or between two lines on a tube. By
Using a tripod, you can stop somebody moving the bubble to its correct position
passing by, make him or her stand in the your camera becomes perpendicular, rela-
spot where you’ll be standing when you tive, I think, to the gravitational pull of the
talk to the camera. You can then compose Earth (but don’t hold me to this). The result:
the shot using this surrogate John Smith. you can pan your camera 360 degrees, the
Lock down the tripod. Take the passerby’s horizon staying straight in the frame.
place and say your piece. You can position the bubble by raising
or lowering the tripod legs or by adjust-
Three S Theory ing the tripod’s head—if the head attaches
to the tripod with a claw ball. The latter
A tripod’s purpose can be described in the allows you to loosen the head and posi-
famous Three S Theory, which I just made tion the leveling bubble without touching
up. Tripods keep it Steady, keep it Straight the legs. A nice feature.
and keep it Smooth. The last S in the Three S Theory is keep
Put a camera on a tripod and it will be it Smooth. The part of the tripod responsi-
steady. It won’t bob, wave or float, assum- ble for this action is the head. Some tripods
ing it’s locked down. It will sit there like a don’t have heads: cameras attach directly
rock until you get ready to move it. That’s to the tripod. But on more sophisticated
steady. tripods the camera attaches to a plate,
Keeping your shot straight is a little trick- the plate attaches to a head and the head
ier. Let’s say you’ve set your camera on the attaches to the tripod.
tripod so your shot is looking out across a Using smooth resistance, a head helps
flat desert. The horizon is that line where make camera movement smoother. This
the sky meets the earth. In a standard shot, resistance, known as drag, is usually
the horizon should be kept parallel to the adjustable. With a small amount of drag
top and bottom of your frame. Cancel this the camera pans or tilts easily. Add more
if you’re trying for the Dutch angle so pop- drag and moving the camera becomes
ular in the old Batman TV shows, where more difficult.
everything is tilted. It’s possible for a shot If you don’t want the camera to move at
to start out looking straight, horizon paral- all, you engage the locks. There are sepa-
lel to the top of the frame. But when you rate drags and locks for both the pan and
pan, the horizon will start to go downhill. tilt functions of the head. If you want a pan
This happens because your tripod legs but no tilt, you can lock the tilt control and
stand in such a way the camera isn’t level the camera will only pan. And vice versa.
to the horizon. Your tripod is sitting with
two legs on either side of the front of the
camera; the third leg points behind the Heads and Legs
camera, and is shorter than the front two
legs. Even though your shot looks level Heads come in two flavors: fluid head and
when the camera’s pointed straight ahead, friction head.
when you pan, the camera begins to lean A friction head creates resistance by
in the direction of the third leg. pushing metal against metal. A fluid head
Or, as I like to put it: look out, the world’s floats on a bed of oil or some other viscous
tilting. fluid. Friction heads aren’t as smooth
as fluid heads, but they’re also cheaper,
On the Level which is the way things usually work in
this world.
Some tripods come with a leveling bub- Tripod legs generally extend by tele-
ble, a handy gizmo that is nothing but a scoping. This is necessary to position a tri-
bubble floating in liquid. pod level on a hill or stairs. With tripods
that extend you can get your camera high want to go hand-held in a hurry, you flip
up in the air, useful when you must ascend a switch or push a button to immediately
to eye-level with NBA players. Some tri- release the camera.
pods have a center column that cranks If the head screws into the bottom of the
even higher. camera, it will obviously take a lot longer to
A word of caution here: if you get up turn, turn, turn the knob to get it off again.
too high, your camera, tripod and every- Most professional model tripods feature
thing else can tip over. So put a sandbag quick release.
in the center of the tripod to make it more
stable.
Some tripods allow the legs to straighten The Envelope, Please
out until the head is resting almost on the
ground. Good for low shots. Good angle Before leaving the subject of tripods, we
for your remake of Attack of the Fifty Foot should explore the Steadicam™. You may
Female Mud Wrestler, featuring a point of say, “Say, that’s not a tripod!” And you’d
view shot from the terrified town’s perspec- be right. But it performs some of the same
tive. Coming soon to a theater near you. jobs, so we’ll give it a glance.
The Steadicam JR™ is a system that bal-
ances your camera so completely the image
Wheels seems to float on air. It eliminates shaki-
ness, allowing a camera operator to walk
With a nice smooth floor you may be up stairs or run along the ground without
interested in tripod dolly wheels. applying objectionable jiggle to the image.
What’s a dolly? That’s a movement of the It’s a slick little system, creating videos
camera and tripod. These moves can take that look like feature film.
the camera around the subject, or the cam- But a Steadicam™ is not the same as a
era can follow people at the same speed tripod. Although it has a stand, you can’t
as they move. They require your tripod to lock it down on a shot. Also, some people
have wheels or they require you to place think a Steadicam™ is like a gyroscope,
your tripod on a wheeled device. These forcing your shot to remain horizontal.
shots are very pretty, but they’re also very Wrong. There’s a bubble level on the mon-
difficult. If you don’t have a smooth even itor to show the operators when the shot
surface every little dolly bump will trans- is level, but it’s up to the operator to keep
late into a very big video bump. it there. My conclusion: Steadicams™ are
Wheels are handy, however, as transpor- great tools, but should supplement a tri-
tation. Just leave your camera, extension pod, not replace it.
cords, a grip bag and a light attached to If you’re in the market for a tripod, shop
the tripod and roll on to the next location. around. Try the model before you buy. As
Sure beats carrying them. you test drive the tripod think about the
Another feature you may want is quick three Ss: keep it Steady, keep it Straight,
release; a plate or shoe attached to the keep it Smooth. If you watch your Ss, you
bottom of the camera. The plate fits into should be O.K. And if at first you don’t
the head to secure the camera. But if you succeed, try another tripod.
PART II
Production Planning
Every minute spent in planning saves ten in execution. Here’s help in getting yourself
organized.
19
Honing Your Ideas:
From Concept to
Finished Treatment
Stray Wynn Ponder
If you’re like most videographers you the concept as your destination. A treat-
probably have more project ideas than ment is a written summary of the vid-
you can shake a camcorder at. So with eo’s purpose, storyline and style. It will
a little talent and the right equipment, become your road map. These tools will
you should be able to produce top quality help you maintain solid and continuous
video work, right? contact with the video’s intended direc-
Right. Then why do so many great ideas tion every step of the way.
fizzle out somewhere between that first These are probably the most overlooked
blinding spark of inspiration and the final steps of pre-production, but if you consci-
credit roll? entiously pursue them on every project—
The answer is simple: before the lights no matter how simple—you’ll save time
come up, before the cameras roll, even and add polish, propelling your work to
before you write the script, you must take new horizons of quality.
two essential steps if your video is to find
and follow its true course:
Developing the Concept
Step One: clearly define your concept.
How does a concept differ from a raw
Step Two: write a concise treatment. idea? Let’s look at a couple of ideas and
watch how they change as we develop
A concept nails down your program’s
them into concepts:
primary message, and the manner in
which you will deliver it to your primary
1. The Trees of New England; and
audience. Later, as you navigate the wind-
ing curves of production, you’ll think of 2. Car Repair.
77
Each of these has possibilities as a video How about our second wannabe video—
project; but if we were to pick up a cam- Car Repair? This one offers a multitude of
era, or to start writing a script at this point, development possibilities. But remem-
we’d suffer a false start. Before we can set ber, you can’t please all of the people all
out on our creative journey, we need a the time. Avoid the temptation to create a
clear understanding of our destination. “do-all” video. As producers, we always
Admittedly, many ideas don’t deserve want the largest audience we can get—up
to survive. Who among us hasn’t pulled to a point. Create a repair program that
the car off a crowded freeway to jot down appeals equally to master mechanics and
a “great idea”—only to read it later and interior designers, and you’ll get a show
find that great idea somewhat less than without a specific destination. In other
overwhelming. words, your project could end up running
Take our first idea: The Trees of New out of gas in the wrong town.
England. This sleeper might die right on Your first move: define the audience.
the drawing board. Why? Because, for Let’s find a target group who could use
the videographer trying to earn a buck, it some information about car repair.
lacks profitability. And for most hobbyists,
it involves too much time and effort. The
visual effect could no doubt be stunning,
but who would purchase (or finance) a Brainstorm A-comin’
video about trees when public television
carries a variety of nature shows that fea- Here’s where brainstorming becomes
ture similar subjects every week? indispensable. There are as many ways to
To succeed in the marketplace, your brainstorm an idea as there are people, so
work must effectively deliver a pri- there are no hard and fast rules. Basically,
mary message to a primary audience. To you need to distract the left (logical) side
prove worth the effort, The Trees of New of your brain so that the right (creative)
England would have to distinguish itself side can come out to play.
from similar programming through style Here’s what works for me: I speak my
or content to appeal to existing markets. thoughts aloud, no matter how silly they
Another option: The Trees of New England sound, while bouncing a rubber ball off
could deliver its message in a way that the concrete walls of my basement office.
would captivate audiences in a new mar- This technique gets the creative hemi-
ket niche. Note: if you can see a way to sphere of my brain churning; my subcon-
make money with this tree idea, please scious coughs up ideas from a well much
feel free to run with it. deeper than the one serving my logical
You may find yourself shelving many hemisphere. I write down the more coher-
ideas that survive this kind of initial scru- ent mutterings on a dry erase board as
tiny; these ideas typically lack some ele- they erupt. All in all, it’s probably not a
ment necessary to a profitable video, such pretty sight, but you’re welcome to adapt
as reasonable production costs or a viable this method to your own brainstorming
market. Or through research you may dis- technique.
cover that someone else has already pro- Here’s a condensed version of my brain-
duced your idea. That’s okay; you can storming session for the car repair idea.
always generate more ideas. Don’t get I flip the ball. It hits the floor, the wall
too caught up in creative decisions dur- and then slaps back into my hand.
ing these first stages of exploration. In the “Repair,” I say to myself, as I continue
process of transforming a germ of an idea to bounce the ball. “Maintenance …
into a viable concept, necessity will make mechanics … men … women … children
many decisions about a project’s direction … women … smart women … independ-
for you. ent women … car maintenance … where’s
Honing Your Ideas 79
the need? … when would they have the • Glitz and glamour
need? … college! … BINGO!
• Comedy
When young women go away to college,
they no longer have Mom or Dad around To decide which combination of elements
to watch the oil level and check the belts. will work best for our car maintenance
The same is surely true of young men, but video, we need a better understanding
I decide to target women as the larger of of our target market: 18- to 22-year-old
the two potential audiences. Should I go females needing to perform simple car
after both in hopes of selling more tapes? maintenance themselves. As with many
Absolutely not. Since the buying charac- aspects of concept development, most of
teristics of the two groups will be different, our decisions are made for us as we dis-
I must tailor the style of the production to card what will not work—which leaves
one audience or the other. us with what will.
Through brainstorming, the original idea My gut says to skip shock value in a pro-
“car repair” has now become its simpler gram that deals with cars. Self-interest is
cousin, “car maintenance.” Do we have a definitely an important consideration for a
real concept now? Not yet, but we’re getting young lady who is both: 1) trying to assert
there; we know our target market and our her independence for the first time (ego
message. Still to be considered: the produc- self-interest); and 2) living on a budget
tion’s style, or the best manner in which to (financial self-interest).
convey our message. This will eventually Visual stimulation? Our target group
encompass shooting style, lighting style, comes from a generation accustomed to
acting, wardrobe, makeup and dozens the kaleidoscopic imagery and lightning
of other factors. For now, however, we’ll fast cuts of beer commercials and music
break style down into two parts: 1) getting videos. Let’s use this one.
the viewer’s attention; and 2) keeping it. Glitz and glamour are obvious shoo-ins
for this age and gender. Comedy can be an
excellent tool for communicating many
subjects, as long as you execute it well.
Hook, Line and Profit Let’s keep humor in mind, too.
Simply being aware of these tools is not
A hook is the attention-getting element that enough. More important is an understand-
yanks viewers away from their busy day, ing of the ways they will impact our target
and into our product. The need for a good audience. If we can effectively use one or
hook is the same in every communication more of them in our production (and our
medium, whether it’s an advertisement, a marketing package), we may just have a
popular song or a training video. Human moneymaking project on our hands.
beings are frenetically busy creatures; you To recap: we need an eye-catching (visu-
must seduce them into giving their atten- ally stimulating) presentation that offers
tion away. After delivering this interest- college-aged females something they
ing hook and convincing them to look our clearly need (self-interest) in a manner
way, we must follow through and give consistent with their accepted versions of
them a storyline that will hold their inter- self-image (glitz and glamour). If we can
est for the duration of the program. There discover ways to enliven this delivery
are a number of ways to engage and keep through the use of comedy, all the better.
the viewers’ attention: Even if we are unable to meet all these
criteria, we must be aware of them, so at
• Shock value the very least we avoid working against
the psychology of our target audience.
• Self-interest
More ball bouncing is probably called
• Visual stimulation for at this point to help us predict how
we’ll apply these general ideas to our There’s no established manuscript for-
intended audience. But rather than put you mat for a treatment. Just try to tell a story
through that again, I’ll just tell you what in as readable a way as possible. The treat-
I came up with for our sample project: ment for our car maintenance video might
A Young Woman’s Guide to Minor Car begin like this:
Maintenance. The package resembles that Project Name: A Young Woman’s Guide
of a concert video or a compact disc more to Minor Car Maintenance.
than an instructional videotape jacket. Statement of Purpose: The main goal of
Lots of neon colors surround a snazzily this project is to provide information about
dressed college-aged woman, who leans basic car maintenance to female college
confidently over the open hood of a small students under the age of twenty. These
automobile. Her posture says, “I have the young women face the full responsibilities
world by the tail, and so can you if you of car care for the first time in their lives.
take a closer look at this.” In the interest of hooking and keeping
The back of the jacket explains that the attention of the target audience, we’ll
you’ll need no tools to perform most of the present this information in a series of three
tasks covered in the program. These tasks music videos. Cuts will be as short as pos-
are simpler than you ever thought possi- sible. A different actor/musician with a
ble, even fun once you give them a chance. distinct personality will demonstrate each
Best of all, you’ll feel an exhilarating new automotive maintenance task.
sense of independence after you master Most important, the tasks will not be
these simple skills. overly technical in nature. Our audience
needs to understand only the basics of
car care: how to check belts, check the
Writing the Treatment oil and other fluid levels, change a tire,
fill the radiator, replace a burned-out fuse
We’ve come a long way from the original and so on. The frequent use of common-
idea. By asking the right questions, we’ve sense metaphors will remove any feelings
developed a potentially viable concept. of intimidation this subject may arouse in
We understand it in terms of: viewers.
The video jacket layout resembles that
of an album cover rather than an instruc-
• to whom the video speaks,
tional videotape. The songs contained in
• how the video will speak to them and the program will be remakes of popular
rock-and-roll songs, with lyrics pertinent
• what the video will say.
to the mechanical tasks.
Now we can write a treatment, which

will help us pursue our project without los- Summary
ing sight of our concept. By clearly defin-
ing our direction in this way, we can hold The opening credits emulate the digital-
true to our original vision for the project. animated effects common to music video
Depending on the complexity of a pro- TV stations. These lively visual effects are
duction, its treatment may be long or choreographed to heavy guitar and pow-
short. Some in-depth treatments resemble erful drums. The monolithic CTV (Car
scripts; others simply document mood Television) logo vibrates in time with the
changes and/or visual effects, with techni- music.
cal annotations along the way. Regardless, Cut to a perky female vee-jay who says,
the treatment should always move the as if continuing a thought from before the
reader chronologically from the beginning latest station break, “We’ll hear more of
to the end of the program. the latest tour information soon, but first
Honing Your Ideas 81
let’s take a look at this new release from budgets financed by outside investors. The
Jeena and the Jalopies….” treatment then becomes a sales tool for
Cut to close-up of female lead singer communicating the project’s value to
in the middle of a concert. We hear the potential investors.
giddy cheering of a large crowd as she Depending on the type of video you’re
introduces the next song. Her tormented producing, other uses for a treatment
expression prepares us for a tale of love’s include:
cruelty; but when she speaks, it’s about
how her car has done her wrong. The • seeking client approval,
hand-held cameras circle like vultures on
• giving a “big picture” of the program to
the fog-drenched stage. Her dead-earnest
the technical and creative staffs and
performance mocks the lyrics, which seem
comically out of place. • making sure that you can arrive at your
Cut to a dressing room interview with destination.
Jeena. “Yeah,” she says, “almost every song
I write is taken from my own life. I hated Perhaps the most important benefit of
that car.” (She takes a drag from her ciga- writing a treatment comes as a result of the
rette.) “And I loved it. Know what I mean?” writing itself. In moving from the general
Music from Jeena’s live performance fades concept to the specific steps to develop
up as the camera holds on her face. that concept, your treatment will pass
(Music continues.) Cut to Jeena standing through many incarnations. Problems will
next to her car, a late model import. She crop up at this stage of the video’s devel-
wears the demeanor of a child instructed opment; you’ll solve them by revising the
to shake hands with an enemy, but stub- treatment. In overcoming each of these
bornly refuses to do so. She casts occa- obstacles on paper, you will save yourself
sional guilty glances at the camera, but from facing them later on the shoot itself.
refuses to look at the car, with which
she is obviously quite angry. “My old car
wasn’t like this,” she claims, shaking her
head. “I could see the dip stick—easy. Production Planning Tools
Check the oil and be done with it. So, you
know, easy.” Video dissolves to a memory Videographers have traditionally used
sequence of Jeena opening the hood of an several tools to help them navigate the cir-
older automobile. cuitous pathways of production. In film-
That gives you an idea of how the begin- making, there’s the storyboard, a comic
ning of our treatment might read. It paints book style layout of sequential drawings
a much more complete picture than the that tell the visual story of a movie. Some
words Car Repair. This video will probably videographers use storyboards as well; but
be around 30 minutes in length; its treat- for many low-budget productions story-
ment will run about ten pages, typewritten boards prove too expensive a luxury.
and double-spaced. If that sounds like a This is certainly true for our car repair
lot of writing, compare it to the amount of video. For this production, our treatment
money and work required to reshoot even must do the storyboard’s job—by creat-
one minute of video. ing compelling, descriptive images with
words. The treatment must clearly map
out the avenues we’ll travel without nec-
essarily describing every fire hydrant and
More Treatment Tips & Tricks blade of grass along the way.
A general rule of thumb: gear the sophis-
Some productions, like our car main- tication of your treatment to the purposes
tenance video, will involve fairly hefty it must serve. If you need to impress the
board of trustees at a major cable network Planning Counts

and feel you are out of your league in terms
of writing skills, hire a freelance writer to The worst mistake: skipping these crucial
prepare the treatment. The earlier in the planning steps altogether.
creative process you bring this person in, Even the simplest video can flounder if
the more benefit you can gain from his or you neglect the proper planning process.
her experience. The meticulous development of concept
Don’t sell yourself short, though. If you and treatment allows you to cut and polish
feel reasonably sure that you can tell your your rough project. The goal is to move
video’s story from the beginning to the end, into the later phases of the work with a
in a readable way that your colleagues will crisply faceted jewel that will withstand
understand, do it. the rigors of scripting and production.
20
Budgeting Time
William Ronat
Let’s say that you’ve planned a loca- saying in the biz, “Everything takes longer
tion shoot at a restaurant so you can get than it takes.” That means that no matter
some shots for a production. You told how well you plan, something will hap-
the owner you would be there at 3 p.m. pen that you didn’t anticipate.
Suppose you have some other shots to You can minimize the pain by doing your
do in the morning at several locations. If homework. Many professionals spend
you didn’t prepare a schedule, you have as much as 90 percent of production time
no idea how long any of them will take. in the planning process. Alfred Hitchcock
Each shot will undoubtedly take longer was famous for planning his films in such
than anticipated, you forgot to allow for minute detail that he found the shoot-
travel time, the crew is hungry (don’t for- ing process dull. He had already seen the
get time for lunch!) and when you finally movie in his head and the rest was mere
get to the restaurant, you are two hours mechanics. You may say, “Hey, I don’t
late. The owner now has to take care of want to be bored when I’m shooting,” to
the dinner crowd and you’re out of luck. which I say, “Is your name Hitchcock?”
You didn’t get into video to become a All right, then.
bureaucrat. You bought your camcorder
and gear to watch your visions material-
ize, to breathe life into ideas, to create a
piece of truth where moments before there In the Beginning
was merely air. These are laudable goals.
The problem, however, is actually achiev- If you’re serious about choreographing a
ing them. And that takes planning. video production from start to finish, you
Your time is valuable. Spend it like you will need a script. It doesn’t have to be an
would spend money. To make sure you get elaborate document. In fact, it can be an
the most value from your effort, you have outline scribbled on a napkin (although
to do some preparatory work before your they have a habit of disappearing dur-
finger hits the Record button. There is a ing lunch). Just make sure that the script
83
(a)
(b)
Figure 20-1 Shot lists can be formatted in any

word processing program. The top example
is typical of a video production, while the Figure 20-2 While you shoot, keep your
bottom is more commonly used for film. shooting schedule with you (along with the
script). And stick to it.
helps you understand what needs to be

shot and it will do the job. script down into shots. In our example, we
Work with “split-format” (audio/video) have three shots: one, a mailman walks up;
scripts and “film-style” scripts. Split-format two, close-up of a dog; and three, the dog
scripts are ideal for short projects, like attacks the mailman. Now it’s time to cre-
30-second commercials or industrial vid- ate the next document in our bureaucracy
eos, while film-style scripts lend them- of video, the production schedule.
selves to dramatic productions. You can Using the schedule will help you dur-
easily use your word-processing program to ing planning in many ways. You will
set up a table and create a script that looks know approximately how long it will take
like Figure 20-1a. The same script done to shoot shot sequences, what props and
film-style would look like Figure 20-1b. equipment you will need, how many crew
If you plan to write for the film indus- members to bring and when to break for
try, this format must be absolutely perfect lunch (see Figure 20-2).
or your manuscript will be tossed without It can be helpful to take the split-format
a second look. There are software programs script table we illustrated earlier and add
available that can make this process easier some more columns to it. As you can see,
(See the Film Script Software sidebar). planning is all about detail. The script
should tell you everything about each
Shot by Shot shot. Using this information, you can cre-
ate a production schedule to illustrate
Once you’ve written your script, you can how much time it will take to achieve
begin to plan like a pro. First, break the the script’s needs. The far-right column
Budgeting Time 85
indicates times for each shot. Here are Stop or I’ll Shoot
some rules of thumb to help you put num-
bers like this to your own schedule. Once you have a script and production
schedule, you’re ready to shoot, right? Nope.
You need to create a shooting schedule.
• The first shot of the day always takes Shooting schedules look a lot like pro-
the longest to set up. People need to get duction schedules except for one crucial
into the rhythm of the shoot, people are difference. All shots from one location are
still groggy and equipment needs to be grouped together. This simple phase can
checked and prepared. Because of this, potentially save you more time than any-
try to schedule your most difficult shot thing else in this article. Why is group-
first. The rest of the day becomes a down- ing shots so important? Because returning
hill slide. to a location not only wastes time, it also
• The first shot in a new location takes sends a signal to your crew that you are
longer than the rest of the shots in the not in control. And that’s a real confidence
same location. If you use lighting gear or buster. Let’s say you are shooting at a loca-
other special equipment such as wireless tion and trying to remember all the shots
microphones, you probably pack them you need in your head. You finish, strike
away carefully as you move from place to the equipment, get in the vehicle and start
place. This means unpacking them at each to drive away. Then it hits you. You didn’t
new location. But after you are set up, get the closeup. Arrrgh! Turn around,
each shot will take less time, because you unload everything, set up the gear and get
are ready to go. the shot. Now look at your crew’s faces. Do
they love you for the extra effort that you
• Complex shots take longer than easy have just caused them to endure? Or are
shots do. This is common sense, which their faces black with smoldering hatred?
does, occasionally, have a place in video If this scene is repeated over and over, a
production. If you set up a shot that volunteer crew will probably not return
involves moving the camera, changing the for more. And a professional crew will not
focus and having the talent juggle bowl- trust your judgement on other aspects of
ing balls all at the same time, it will take the production.
longer than a static shot of a flower. Don’t Now you have a script, a production
ask why; it’s a mystery. schedule and a shooting schedule. Keep a
copy of each of these documents in a sin-
• Wide shots take longer than close- gle notebook when you go into the field
ups. This is true, because there is usually (see Figure 20-3). You will probably work
more going on in a wide shot. Not always, mainly from the shooting schedule. Cross
but it’s a good rule of thumb. off shots as you finish them and keep
• It takes time to change locations. track of the best ones by writing down
Besides tearing down and setting up the time-code number next to the shot on
equipment, you have to move it to the the shooting schedule. This will help you
next shooting location. If this is across the find the shot when you sit down to edit.
county, you have to allow for the time that If your recording device doesn’t have time
it will take to get there. code, you can note which tape (or digital
media) the shot is on and the amount of
• Shots either take 30 minutes or 15 time that has been used on that media.
minutes to capture. For scheduling pur- This is not as precise as time code (where
poses, you can usually assign these times each frame has a unique number) but can
to your shots. Some shots take longer and be helpful.
some are done in a heartbeat. But by con- Keep a copy of your script with you
sistently using 30/15, your schedule will in the field; just carrying the shooting
even out by the end of the day. schedule is not enough. On the shooting
Figure 20-3 Electronic PDAs can also help

you manage your time and take notes.
schedule, the shot’s location is the most

important element, but you often need
to know how the shots are going to work
together in the real script. This way, you
won’t shoot two shots that are too similar
to each other (a head-to-waist shot of the
talent, for example) and try to edit them
together later. Such an edit can make the
talent appear to jump from place to place
(which was fine on Bewitched, but might
not be the effect you’re looking for). Figure 20-4 Better planning of your shoots
will ultimately save time in post-production
editing.
Put It All Together
of finished program will take you about
If you have done your homework and kept an hour of editing time. If you plan to
good notes during shooting, your editing use wipes and special effects, double the
process should go much more smoothly estimate. If you want to experiment while
(see Figure 20-4). This is harder than it editing, triple it.
sounds, because working in the field can Make sure you have everything you need
be like being in battle, with problems and when you go into an edit. Will you use a voice
unforeseen obstacles flying like bullets. talent to narrate the show? Have it done
(You’re trying to get audio while in the before you start. Are you identifying on-
flight path of the airport; or you need blue camera interviewees with titles? Make sure
skies and it’s starting to rain.) However, that you know how to spell their names.
let’s pretend we live in a perfect world Taking a video from start to finish is a big
and all has gone well. undertaking. It’s best to know what you’re
Editing is like putting together a jigsaw getting into before you invest your money
puzzle. If you know where all the pieces and time. With a good plan, you will not
are before you start, you will save yourself only have more fun during the process,
a lot of trouble, which translates into time. you will have a good chance of actually
If you create a simple show with straight getting the darn thing done—and that’s the
cut edits, you can figure that each minute best plan you can make.
Budgeting Time 87
Sidebar 1
Quick Tips
To plan effectively, you need to create the following:
• Script—Put on paper what you are trying to achieve.

• Production Schedule—Break the script down into shots and plan what props, talent and
time each shot will need.
• Shooting Schedule—Similar to the production schedule, but with the shots grouped by
location.
21
It’s All in the Approach:
Creative Approaches for
Video Productions
Jim Stinson
Some informational programs use gim- and full script. As we look at each method
micks like butter on popcorn, to hide the in turn, remember that most informational
bland taste of the subject matter: “Hi! I’m videos use them in various combinations.
Percy Peatmoss, and we’re gonna meet
some exciting lichens!” (Suuure, we are!)
Though spokes-mosses like Percy went Documentary
out with 16 mm projectors, promotional,
training and educational programs still A documentary purports to capture and
need what you might call a presentation display a subject as it really is, allowing
method. viewers to draw their own conclusions
As the term implies, this is a systematic from their impressions of the material. In
approach to laying out the content of a pro- some programs, they’re assisted by nar-
gram. Mr. Announcer on the sound track, ration or commentary, while in others
Julia Child behind the cooktop, the talking the edited footage appears to speak for
head in the interview—each of these is a itself. (We say “purports” and “appears”
presentation method, deliberately selected because no documentary is a truly pas-
because it’s well-suited to the program’s sive, neutral pipeline of information. For
subject. What are some of these presenta- more on this, see Liar, Liar! in the October
tion methods and how do you select the 2000 issue of Videomaker or at www
right one(s) for your show? Step right this .videomaker.com).
way, folks; the tour starts here. The documentary method works well
When you come right down to it, there’re where you want to convey a free-form
only a few basic presentation methods: impression of your subject. Beautiful
documentary, interview, expert presenter Downtown Burbank, Recreation in Bigfoot
88
It’s All in the Approach 89
County, Where Your Sales Tax Goes—

these are good subjects for documentary
programs.
The most rigorous documentary form
(represented by the films of Frederick
Wiseman) uses no verbal commentary to
organize the presentation and point the
message. The entire effect comes from the
selection and juxtaposition of shots. To
the newbie, this may seem like the easiest
form of program (“Hey kids, let’s showcase
Fillmore High!”) but it is in fact, the hard-
est to do successfully. Without the guid-
ance of voiceovers and titles, the result is
often an inexpressive jumble of footage.
That’s why many professional docu-
mentarians (notably Ken Burns) use multi-
ple voices on the sound track—often a mix
of narration, dramatized voices and inter-
view quotes. This method is easier because
it allows you to comment on the footage as
you display it. However, juggling multiple
audio sources is a sophisticated process.
For fail-safe simplicity, try mating docu- Figure 21-1 Single & Dual Interviews—
mentary footage to voice over narration. Single interviews, the most popular form in
By scripting a single stream of commen- professional TV show, look spontaneous, but
tary, you can control your presentation dual interviews are easier to manage.
more precisely.
conversation by the subject (see Figure
Interview 21-1). The interviewer is never seen or
heard, and the questions (dropped on the
Interviews offer ways to get variety into cutting room floor) are phrased to elicit
your presentation, especially if you include statements rather than answers (“Tell us
several people. Interviews are great for about the Boston branch of the family”).
subjects that are essentially verbal and Because they omit the overhead of ques-
require some expert input. tions, single interviews are the most pop-
As the sidebar, Pictures, Words or Titles? ular form in professional programs.
explains, some topics are difficult to visu- However, the dual interview is easier to
alize. No matter how many photo albums manage. In this form, viewers see the inter-
you have, they don’t display family his- viewer and hear the questions. Replies can
tory, but only moments from that history. be free-form in this approach. For exam-
For the actual narrative, nothing beats ple, “Where were you born?” “Cleveland”
Great Grandmother on the sound track. is fine in a dual interview, but the answer
Other good interview subjects include Our would be meaningless in a single interview.
Corporate Five Year Plan (interview with Two-person interviews also offer built-
the CEO) and Coping with Depression in cutaway material in the form of the
(interviews with sufferers and therapists). interviewer.
As these examples suggest, interview pro- A more complex interview form is multi-
grams come in different flavors: single, plevoice. Using man-on-the-street vignettes
dual and multiple. or short sessions with the many people
The single interview doesn’t look like connected with the topic, you weave
a Q&A session, but like spontaneous together a composite audio track that adds
richness and variety as well as informa-

tion. If people you know have some per-
forming ability, you might try dramatized
“interviews” with historic figures or peo-
ple otherwise unavailable. Be cautious,
however, because voice-only acting is a
highly specialized skill and amateurish
results sound frankly embarrassing.
Expert Presenter
If you’ve watched a David Attenborough

nature video (“The vegetation [wheeze]
here at 15,000 feet [gasp] is, understand-
ably [rattle] sparse.”) then you’ve seen an
expert presenter. This method has many
things going for it. First, the expertise of
the spokesperson lends authority to the
whole enterprise. Secondly, he or she
can often be relied on to flesh out a skel-
etal content outline by ad-libbing material
(see Figure 21-2).
The expert is best in the field—whether Figure 21-2 Expert Presenter—The expert
that field is a studio cooking show kitchen presenter lends authority to your subject and
or a construction site or the Sonoran desert. can ad-lib to expand on outlined program
If that isn’t possible, you can establish the material.
expert on camera in interview mode and
then shift his or her remarks to voiceover format pioneered by Siskel and Ebert.
narration. This approach combines the virtues of the
The simplest approach is commentary: expert and interview methods, especially
the experts react to whatever is presented if one of the presenters serves as prompter/
to them. At its best, this method elicits straight man to the other.
priceless observations that would never The next level up is a full-fledged lec-
occur to a script writer. At worst, it delivers ture, either scripted or ad-lib. Since even
the DVD prattle of movie directors reacting the most dynamic expert is still just a talk-
off-the-cuff to screenings of their films. ing head, it’s good to cut away as much as
One step more formal is the demonstra- possible to visuals of the subject matter. In
tion, anything from a construction project fact, a project like this often starts with the
to a science experiment to a cooking show. taped lecture; then appropriate visuals are
A demo is more clearly sequenced (by scripted and shot after the fact.
the steps in the project or recipe) but it Sometimes, the effect of a lecture can
still offers ample opportunity for ad-lib be created by a skillful one-person inter-
expert commentary. A demonstration for- view. The questions select and sequence
mat works best when the project can be the material, and then drop away, leaving
completed at a single place in real time a seamless narrative.
(except for the 45 minute baking period)
and when the personality of the presenter
adds interest to the show. Full Script
A popular variation seen on home
repair, gardening and cooking shows is An expert isn’t necessary when read-
the dual (and sometimes dueling) expert ing narration that’s been fully scripted.
It’s All in the Approach 91
There are several reasons for going to the

trouble of a wall-to-wall script. In some
cases there are issues of legal or technical
accuracy. You don’t want to misrepresent
details of Employee Benefit Packages or
Self Administration of Insulin, and the
best way to avoid doing so is by writing
down (and getting approval for) every
image and word.
In training and similar how-to programs,
you want the clearest camera angles and
the simplest language possible. In highly
controlled situations like this, you’ll want Figure 21-3 In some situations you may want
every sentence written and every setup to script the narration for your talent in clear
storyboarded (see Figure 21-3). simple language.
A scripted program can use any mixture of
presentation forms, including an on-camera organizations are reluctant to spend good
spokesperson, a voiceover narrator and money unless they can see (or at least think
superimposed title buildups. You can even they can see) what they’re getting.
use interviews if the questions are closely As we’ve seen, the presentation method
coordinated with the script. (In real world chosen depends first of all on the nature of
situations, the script is often revised after the topic. But real-world constraints also
the interviews are completed, in order to play a large role. What if you don’t have
bring it into line with whatever was said.) an expert? Worse, what if you do have
Full scripts and/or storyboards are almost an expert who’s a droning bore but still
always prepared for professional commer- wants to be in the program? In situations
cials, infomercials, video press releases like this, you need to know the alternative
and training programs, for one overwhelm- methods available to you and their suit-
ing reason: the client. Most people and ability to your topic.
Sidebar 1
Pictures, Words or Titles?
Different types of information want different presentation media. Some things are impossible
to describe but easy to show; others are the opposite. Here’s a quick rundown on choosing the
best medium for each type of content.
• Pictures
If you can show it, do so. Images should always be your first choice, when appropriate,
because video is inherently a visual medium. Through slow or fast motion, split screen
shots and other formal devices, the medium can also display things in ways that can’t be
seen in real life.
• Words
If it’s an abstraction, then talk about it. “Good citizenship” can be shown by examples
(voting, picking up litter) but the concept itself is impossible to visualize. That’s where
narration does its best work.
Words also work well for summarizing because they deliver meaning so efficiently.
“Your one-stop transmission and tire service since 1966” takes five seconds to say. You
could show transmission work, tire installation and maybe a wall plaque proclaiming
“Founded 1966” but these visuals would be time-consuming and lame.
• Titles
Titles make wonderful labels and organizers. Cliche that it is, a bulleted agenda that builds
up line by line (via PowerPoint or titling software) is still the best way to orient (and peri-
odically re-orient) viewers to the content of the program.
If the list is short, you can also display all the lines at once, color-highlighting whichever
one is the current topic.
Combo Platters
Different viewers have different learning styles, visual, aural or textual; so try to deliver impor-
tant points in at least two ways, or even three if necessary. For example, you could cover one
step in a construction project like this:
• Visual: big CU of tab A inserted into slot B.

• Aural: NARRATOR (V.O.) Now insert tab A into slot B.
• Textual: Subtitle supered over the shot:“Insert Tab A in Slot B.”
When delivering information redundantly, avoid varying its form. If the narrator says, “Now
complete the assembly of the sub-widgit,” viewers have to make a mental connection between
this line and Tab A and Slot B. This effort can be distracting or even confusing.
22
Put It on Paper First
Gene Bjerke
Is it a dream or a nightmare? You finally your ideas to the other people who will
have it made—full production facilities be involved with the production. If you’re
for your project. The crew is looking at going to edit in-camera, you’ll know exactly
you expectantly, the talent is standing what to shoot and how much. Finally,
around waiting for direction, and behind when you’re on the set and everybody is
you is a producer looking at all these looking at you, it allows you to take charge
expensive people and demanding to and look good.
know what you are going to do. This is no A good script describes everything that
time to be considering your alternatives. the viewer will see and hear in the order it
Perhaps your vision is less grand. You will be seen and heard. A script consists of
turn on your camcorder in a room full of words; videos consist of pictures. To visu-
tenth-reunion college chums and realize alize what they will shoot, many people
that you have no idea what you should use a storyboard. A storyboard consists of a
shoot. picture that shows what the camera will see
Whether you’re a professional working along with words that describe the shot.
against a fast-running meter or you make
video for fun, everything goes a lot easier
when you figure out what you’re going to Types of Scripts
do ahead of time. The two best tools for
this are the script and the storyboard. It’s The script is the primary document that the
true, some people can make videos with videographer uses to create all the video
only a few notes written on the back of an and audio raw material and keep it organi-
envelope; but the more detail you have, zed. This last point is important, since it
the faster and easier production will go. is sometimes not possible to shoot a video
There are good reasons why success- in the order in which the viewer will see
ful videographers use these tools. First, it. For instance, it is easier to shoot every-
they help you to organize and clarify your thing that takes place in one location at
thoughts. Then they allow you to transmit the same time. You then put all the shots
93
in their proper sequence when you edit— The Dramatic Video

again, using the script to help you keep
everything straight. Dramatic videos are stories told by action
For our purposes, we can break videos and dialog for the audience’s entertain-
down into two general categories: dra- ment, such as feature films and television
matic and informational. The purposes shows. The film format script is preferred
and techniques of each are different, and in Hollywood for dramatic film and tele-
so are the script formats that have been vision productions. In this format, the
developed for them. See the accompany- writer sets the location of each scene,
ing sample scripts for a look at how these describes the actions and interactions that
simple rules can help you create effective take place, and writes out the dialog. This
documents. kind of script does not indicate individual
Figure 22-1
Put It on Paper First 95
camera shots or moves. The basic format is a voice-over narration. The camcorder
as follows: documentarian frequently performs dou-
ble duty as the narrator. The two-column
• Type scene descriptions, camera direc- video format script serves the informa-
tions, stage directions, etc. from margin tional video production. The left (video)
to margin. column contains descriptions of the shots
and the right (audio) column contains
• Place dialog and narration in a three-
the words spoken by actors or narrator as
inch wide column down the center of
well as descriptions of music and sound
the page.
effects.
• Type the name of the speaker in all- While you can use it for dramatic mate-
caps and center it just above his or her rial, this format is especially well adapted
speech. Place delivery instructions in for videos and television shows that con-
parentheses, on a separate line, and sist of a variety of shots with narration
indented within the column of the overlaid. It’s easy to see the relationship of
speech. words and pictures; the words come at the
same time that you see the pictures that
• Single-space material such as: dialog,
are immediately to their left. Create this
scene descriptions, camera directions
format as follows:
and stage directions.
• Separate blocks of material with a blank • Place video descriptions in the left col-
line between. For example, separate: umn, single-spaced.
• Lines by different characters. • Place accompanying audio descriptions
in the right column, double-spaced.
• Dialog and scene descriptions or stage
directions. • Type video descriptions and spoken
lines in upper- and lower-case.
• Location information and scene
descriptions. • Type the following in all-caps:
• Adjacent shot descriptions. • Location descriptions.
• Transitions (such as “DISSOLVE TO”). • Transitions.
• Type everything in upper and lower • Camera directions (i.e., PAN, ZOOM).
case except the following, which are
• Music and sound effects.
all-caps:
• Type the speaker identification in all-
• Transitions.
caps and underline. Place directions for
• Location descriptions. delivery in parentheses.
• Camera directions.
There is one other script format that you
• Characters’ names (when indicating may want to consider. The corporate tele-
their lines and the first time they play format combines elements of the two
appear in scene descriptions). preceding formats. Most of the script is
written in film format, but any off-screen
narration goes into a narrow column on
The Informational Video the right side of the page.
Documentaries and other informational

videos, such as the college reunion memo- Storyboards
rial, consist of scenes that may or may
not include actors. Such shows usually To visualize scenes, you might consider
have little or no dialog and often have making a storyboard in which a drawing
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 22-2 Sample Storyboard.
of the expected visual represents each Since each shot requires one or more
shot. Written remarks amplify the draw- drawings, you don’t usually see storyboards
ings: dialog or narration, camera moves for long projects. They are common in the
and so forth. The storyboard helps make development of high-end commercials but
it cheaper and easier to solve your visual are too time-consuming and expensive for
problems on paper before you ever break lengthy productions. However, you might
out the camera. want to use a few storyboard scenes to work
Some storyboards are works of art in out something that is difficult to envision
themselves, with beautiful watercolor or or to explain to another crew member.
computer-art pictures. But this is not neces- The time you spend creating a script or a
sary (unless you have an ample budget storyboard is recaptured when you’re under
or budding artist in the family). Simple the pressure of shooting. You have already
sketches with stick figures or nose-on- solved your creative problems and can con-
an-egg faces are fine. Feel free to include centrate on technical details. So next time
arrows to indicate movement. A long pan you’re on the set or at an event and every-
may consist of two pictures, showing the body is looking to you to tell them what
beginning and end of the pan, with an will happen next, you can whip out your
arrow connecting them, showing the direc- trusty script or storyboard and take charge.
tion of the pan.
23
Look Who’s Talking:
How to Create Effective,
Believable Dialogue for
Your Video Productions
John K. Waters
A script is a story told with pictures—but your subjects say can make the difference
silent pictures they’re not. Since 1927, between an amateur show and a powerful
when the debut of The Jazz Singer trans- piece of professional videography.
formed “moving pictures” into “talkies,” Here’s how to make sure what they say
dialogue has played a crucial role in mak- works.
ing successful films and videos.
But with everything else you worry
about as an independent videographer— What Is Dialogue?
maintaining your equipment, getting the
shot, getting paid—dialogue may be low Any time you put words into the mouths
on your list of concerns. Still, you don’t of your on-camera subjects, you are writ-
want to underestimate its power. ing dialogue. That definition includes
Good dialogue works hard. It keeps hosts, commentators and spokespersons,
things moving, ties individual segments as well as actors playing parts.
together and unifies your piece. On the The primary purpose of dialogue is
other hand, bad dialogue discredits your to move your story forward. It accom-
work, destroying your credibility and ulti- plishes this by revealing character, com-
mately costing you your audience. municating information and establishing
Whether you’re shooting independent relationships between characters. It can
features, corporate image spots, local TV also foreshadow events, comment on the
commercials or your sister’s wedding, what action and connect scenes.
97
For example: in my script Sleeping Dogs attitude toward his mother’s campaign for
Lie, the hero, Ray Sobczak, is a reporter mayor and has well-informed connections;
working on a story that is annoying some Sobczak is tough, and won’t let a bump on
very important citizens. Here, a local the noggin keep him from getting the story.
politico delivers a veiled warning. It foreshadows future events: people are
watching. And it moves the story forward:
JAMIE this encounter gives Sobczak an idea,
What happened to you? which leads him—and the story—in a new
direction.
SOBCZAK
Zigged when I shoulda zagged. How’s
the campaign going? Keep It Lean
The above example also demonstrates

JAMIE another important quality of good dia-
Oh, I just love spending obscene logue: brevity. Good dialogue is a lean
amounts of my mother’s money—and exchange between people, composed of
what your paper charges for ad short phrases. On paper, it looks like lots
space is truly obscene. of white space; big blocks of type are defi-
nite warning sign that you are overwriting
SOBCZAK your dialogue.
Something tells me your mother can “The good stuff is a dance of two and
afford it, Mr. Bockman. three-liners between characters,” says script-
writer Madeline DiMaggio. “It’s a bouncing
JAMIE ball that keeps your audience riveted.”
When it comes to writing dialogue,
My father, who could also afford
DiMaggio knows what she’s talking about.
it when he was alive, was
She has written over 35 hours of episodic
Mr. Bockman. Call me Jamie.
television for shows ranging from Kojak
to The Bob Newhart Show to ABC’s After
SOBCZAK
School Special. A former staff writer for
Okay, Jamie. Think she’ll win? the daytime soap opera Santa Barbara, she
is also a teacher and the author of How to
JAMIE Write for Television.
(ignoring him) How’s the story DiMaggio says the kind of close-to-the-
coming? bone dialogue you want for your videos
comes only through rewriting (see Figure
SOBCZAK 23-1), “It doesn’t happen on the first
Which story is that? (Jamie gazes out pass,” she says. “At first your dialogue is
at the cluster of downtown buildings cardboard—and that’s the way it should
and the hills rising behind them.) be. It’s only later, when you go back and
take five lines down to two-and-a-half,
JAMIE and then two-and-a-half lines down to
Salinas is growing, Ray. Over a one, that you find the real gems.”
hundred thousand at last count. But, DiMaggio says she plays a game with
underneath, it’s still a small town. herself during her rewriting process: if she
can whittle a piece of dialogue down to
This exchange probably won’t go down in four lines, can she cut it to two? If she can
history as the most memorable in films, chop it to two, how about one?
but it has many earmarks of good dia- “If script writers were doctors,” she says,
logue. It tells us something about the char- “the best ones would be surgeons. Cut, cut,
acters: Jamie is rich, has an ambiguous cut!”
Look Who’s Talking 99
Figure 23-1 Rewriting and rewriting and rewriting again is key when writing dialog.
Make It Sound Real MAN #1

I was over there yesterday and …
A tried and true technique for developing
your ear for natural-sounding dialogue is MAN #2
to surreptitiously tape conversations and … home. You know?
then transcribe them later.
I do this especially when I’m writing MAN #1
about types of people I don’t know well.
Nobody? Man, I …
Ethical questions aside, this has worked
well to awaken my sense of how people
MAN #2
talk.
The first thing I noticed when I began That’s because of the, you know,
doing this was how fragmented conver- holiday ’n stuff, and her car was
sations are. The following is an example there and everything, but …
from my files.
MAN #1
What a piece of *#@*!, man, that car …
MAN #1
Hey, what’s up? MAN #2
Yeah, and, you know, I left like, a note.
MAN #2
I dropped by the place. Thought I’d MAN #1
say hi, but nobody was, you know … No way!
On paper, this conversation looks like an According to O’Connor Fraser, one of

exchange between two orangutans, but the most common dialogue errors she sees
they sounded perfectly normal. That’s why, is characters addressing each other by
unless you’re making a documentary, you name too often.
can’t just transcribe tapes of real conver- “I’ve seen it done in every passage,”
sations and use them raw in your scripts. she says. “It’s, ‘Well, John … Well, Lisa…
And even documentaries require judi- What do you think, John … I’m not sure,
cious editing. Lisa.’ It’s just not real.”
“If you went out to a coffee shop with a She says reading your script aloud is
tape recorder,” DiMaggio says, “and went one of the easiest ways to spot dialogue
home and put what you recorded into a errors. (See Figure 23-2)
script, it wouldn’t work. Good dialogue “You’re writing for the ear. So you need
isn’t actually real. It just gives the illusion to find out how it sounds. You don’t need
of reality.” actors, though they are a wonderful lux-
DiMaggio says one of the best ways to ury. Just read it out loud with a friend, or
learn how dialogue sounds is to record by yourself while you’re sitting at your
dialogue. computer. You’ll hear many of the prob-
“That’s how I got to know Santa Barbara,” lems right away.”
she says. “There were so many charac-
ters, and they all had their own voices!
I would audiotape the show and then lis- Stay in Character
ten whenever I was driving. When you
cut off the other senses, your ear becomes When I write, I become the characters I’m
much stronger.” writing about. This is pretty easy when I’m
DiMaggio also recommends audiotap- writing about thirty something white guys
ing shows to develop an ear for genre from the Midwest. But what about when
dialogue. the character I’m writing dialogue for is
“Comedies, mysteries, dramas—it’s an a New York cop, or a Southern doctor, or
incredible way to learn,” she says. a black female Vietnam veteran with a
Good dialogue also has a spontaneous Harvard MBA, two grown children and a
quality, as if your characters were speak- neurotic obsession with alien abductions?
ing their lines for the first time. You simply cannot write dialogue that
“When the dialogue is stilted or too for- rings true unless you acquaint yourself with
mal,” says corporate video writer/producer the kind of people appearing in your video.
Susan O’Connor Fraser, “the audience just This is where real world research is essen-
laughs at it. When they start doing that, tial. I’m talking about stuff you can’t find in
you’ve lost them.” the library. But that doesn’t mean that you
O’Connor Fraser is the creative direc- have to spend a week on a fishing boat in
tor for Tam Communications in San Jose, Alaska or infiltrate the local Jaycees to get
California. She’s been writing and produc- the right slang and jargon for your script,
ing videos for Fortune 500 companies for though those are tried and true approaches.
the past 15 years. Her company produced “If I don’t have any personal experiences
a reality-based show on paramedics in in my own life I can draw on,” says O’Connor
San Jose, which aired on the local ABC Fraser, “I track down the kind of person I’m
affiliate. writing about and take them to lunch.” In
“I don’t think corporate video is that her corporate work, she tends to deal with
much different from features,” O’Connor a limited number of “types,” mostly from the
Fraser says. “Dialogue is dialogue, and high tech world; after 15 years she knows
every story has its own reality. Star Wars them well. But she still checks her “voice”
has a reality, and so does a corporate sales with face-to-face interviews—especially
presentation. Everything must play and be when she’s writing a script for an on-camera
believable within its own reality.” presentation by a company executive.
Figure 23-2 Read your script aloud to make sure it sounds natural.
“When I go out and interview a presi- turns it over to a person with whatever
dent or vice president who will be on cam- special knowledge her characters would
era,” she says, “I listen very carefully, so have. In her TV movie script, Belly Up, for
I’m really hearing them talk. I don’t want example, one of her characters was a man
them to sound like they’re reading from the who gambled on the golf course.
inside cover of an annual report. I want “I wasn’t about to take up golf to hear
them to sound very natural and comfort- how guys gamble on the golf course,”
able, as though they were talking across says DiMaggio. “So I sent the script to my
the table from someone. brother. He gambles on the golf course all
“Interviewing your clients is also one of the time. In five minutes he told me things
the best ways to pick up the buzz words of I couldn’t possibly know unless I was out
their professions. Listen closely and make there. I made some changes in the script
a list of unfamiliar words or phrases. Ask and all of a sudden it sounded absolutely
for clarification so you understand them in real. One producer told me I wrote like
context. When you sit down to write your a man, which, under the circumstances,
script, your list will prove invaluable.” I took as a compliment.”
Many writers just write the dialogue as In one of my own scripts I created a
best they can and then give it to someone character who was a professional crop
from that character’s walk of life to read. duster, but I had never met a crop duster in
DiMaggio says she works on her dialogue, my life. So I picked up the Yellow Pages,
“until I’m not ashamed of it,” and then and a few lunches later I knew everything
I needed to know to create a believable Examples of subtext abound in films

character. (And I now know to call them like the 1944 film noir classic, Double
agricultural aviators.) Indemnity. One scene in particular comes
to mind, in which insurance salesman
Walter Neff (Fred MacMurray) puts the
Go for Subtext make on a client’s wife (Barbara Stanwyck).
They fence back and forth in a conversa-
Syd Field, author of several well-known tion about cars and speeding, but driving
books on scriptwriting, including the is the last thing on their minds.
now classic Screenplay: The Foundations Subtext enlivens good writing every-
of Screenwriting, calls dialogue one of the where—even commercials. We’ve watched
“tools of character.” That’s because what that couple in the Taster’s Choice com-
people say says a great deal about them. mercials meet, woo and bed in Paris—all
But what they don’t say often says more. while talking about coffee.
The best dialogue is not only about what Subtext probably isn’t as important in
your characters are saying, it’s also about most corporate video situations; still, you
what they’re not saying. This is subtext. ignore it at your peril. Human beings talk
“Subtext is what’s happening beneath around things. Dialogue that’s too “on the
the surface,” says DiMaggio. “It’s the key nose” won’t sound natural. Even the dia-
to truly great dialogue.” logue in infomercials has subtext.
Figure 23-3 Congratulations! It’s a script!

Write the Right Voice Over Otherwise it turns into an excuse for fail-
ing to write good exposition.”
Voice-over narration isn’t really dialogue,
but many of the same principles still
apply. This is especially true if the nar- Practice, Practice, Practice
rator is a particular character, as in the
case of a host, or one of the actors, such Writing authentic, believable dialogue
as the Holly Hunter character in The is a special skill; it takes practice. But with
Piano or Walter Neff, who narrates Double some effort and more than a little patience,
Indemnity. you’ll get it (Figure 23-3).
You write voice-over narration like “You have to realize that the script
you write dialogue—for the ear. It should you write today won’t be as good as the
sound conversational. Even if your narra- script you write next year,” says O’Connor
tor is an omniscient voice, that voice must Fraser. “And that’s okay. I’m a much better
conform to your audience’s expectations writer now than I was a year ago. I learn
of human communication. something with every script I write.”
“When I’m doing voice overs,” says “We’re all students, really,” says
O’Connor Fraser, “I still get a character in DiMaggio. “No matter how long you do
mind and write for him or her. Of course this, there’s always something to learn.
this is really important if the narrator will I think that’s the good news. It’s one of the
ever appear on-camera, but I do it even if things that keeps this work interesting.”
they won’t. That way, the voice is consis- In the end, creating good dialogue is
tent throughout.” more about listening than it is about writ-
Voice-over narration can be even harder ing. Once you begin to hear the rhythms
to write than dialogue. “If you think dia- of human conversation, the dialogue
logue has to be lean,” DiMaggio says, “voice you write for your videos will improve
overs have to be the best of the best. It dramatically.
has to be very, very thrifty. The real gems. So keep your ears open.
24
Storyboards and Shot Lists
Jim Stinson
Some DVDs (Shrek and The Matrix, for you realize there’s no way to get “she” into
example) now include sample story- the frame (see Figure 24-1a). So you try
boards—shot-by-shot sketches drawn to a new angle: over her shoulder (see Figure
visualize the action of key sequences—as 24-1b). By moving the camcorder to center
bonus material. As you study these slick her face and refocusing as she turns into
drawings, you’ll notice that most frames are profile, you can get both her relation to
remarkably close to the actual shots they the map and her reaction to it; and you
predict. Back in Hollywood’s glory days, haven’t wasted half an hour on a setup
most directors (with Hitchcock a notable you’d eventually discard.
exception) rarely worked with storyboards; Secondly, you can check your cover-
today, however, they’re everywhere. Should age of a sequence and preplan your video
you be using them too? That’s what we’re camera angles for variety, continuity and
here to discover. We’ll start with a look at rhythm. Suppose you sketch three shots
what storyboards do. of the male talent digging up the treasure
chest (see Figure 24-2a). Hmmm: though
the sketches are from different viewpoints,
Storyboards Visualize they’re all neutral-height medium shots and
are too repetitive. OK, substitute a point-of-
Basically, pre-designed storyboards in view (POV) closeup of the emerging chest
pencil or marker predict what shots will (Figure 24-2e) and change the last shot to a
look like. Why not just invent shots as you low-angle closeup of his greedy expression
actually shoot? Here are three reasons. as he reacts to the chest (Figure 24-2f). In
First, storyboards let you test compli- 10 minutes of doodling, you’ve improved a
cated setups cheaply on paper instead of sequence from ho-hum to dynamic.
expensively on location. Suppose your Finally, storyboarding is essential for
script says, “He unrolls the treasure map planning special effects. Say you want
before him and she gasps as she sees where to establish a “pirate ship” by composit-
the gold is buried.” But when you draw ing stock footage of a three-master riding
a high-angle insert of the unfolding map, off-shore with our hero in the foreground
104
Storyboards and Shot Lists 105
(a) (b)
Figure 24-1
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
Figure 24-2
either draw them on paper or build them

on a computer.
Paper and Pencil
To make a board from scratch, draw

between six and 12 rectangles on a virtual
sheet of paper (any word processor or
paint program’ll do it for you). Make the
horizontal/vertical ratio 4 to 3 (4:3) for
conventional video or 16:9 for wide screen.
Leave enough space to write under each
frame. Some people pre-print “Frame#,”
Figure 24-3 “action,” “audio,” etc., but you don’t have
to be that formal. Print out a large quantity
of these blank boards.
(see Figure 24-3). A sketch will guide your Using simple lines and stick-figure sub-
placement of the camera and the actor so jects, sketch each setup in a frame, observ-
that he’ll relate properly to the scene. ing just a few conventions. Indicate subject
movement with arrows in the frame. Show
zooms by sketching the wide-angle posi-
Storyboard Vision tion, drawing a box around the telephoto
position within it and adding diagonal
So far, you’ve created storyboards for your arrows to show whether the movement
own use, but storyboards also commu- is in or out. For pans or tilts between two
nicate your vision to others. Verbalizing distinct compositions, show each one as
image ideas is always chancy, so it’s better a separate frame, with an arrow between
to show what you have in mind visually. frames to link them.
In the professional world, storyboards The notes written below each frame
are essential for communicating with cli- should contain some or all of the following:
ents, first to pitch concepts and then to
preview the live action. Never forget that • Frame number
visual imagination is like a sense of humor:
• Sequence (“27”) or sequence/shot (“27B”)
many people lack it, but no one will ever
admit it. The client may nod and smile as • Action (“John runs past; exits frame
you verbalize your vision, but yelp, “You right”)
never said you’d do that!” upon seeing the
• Camera instructions: (“No pan”)
footage, even if that was precisely what
you promised. Prevent that scenario—put • Dialogue: (“JOHN: Come back here with
that promise in sketches instead of words. that map!”)
Incidentally, you should have a profes-
• Other audio: (“SFX: bullet ricochet”)
sional artist draw storyboards for clients.
Even though you were hired to shoot, not • Visual effects: (“Bluescreen for ship
draw, your amateur scribbles will likely composite”)
cast doubts on your professionalism. (Hey,
whoever said it was fair?) If you don’t
have a client to impress, don’t worry about Computer Boards
the quality of your thumbnail sketches.
As long as they communicate to yourself If you’re deft with a mouse (or are fortu-
and your crew, they do the job. There are nate enough to own a pad and stylus), you
two ways to do storyboarding nowadays, can sketch boards directly on your screen.
Perhaps the easiest way to do this is This brings us to commercial storyboard

with the draw tools in Corel Presentations packages. As the sidebar suggests, they can
or Microsoft PowerPoint. This approach make wonderful organizers for production
makes frames easy to add, insert, delete planning, because you can import digital
or modify (see Figure 24-4). photos and write extensive commentaries.
A second method is to make individual However, they can be cranky and limited
sketches in the drawpaint software you in drawing the shots of your particular
favor, then use a graphics organizer to show. Though they might seem to allow
print them as sequential thumbnails. The non-artists to build presentation-quality
ThumbsPlus software lets you add exten- boards, the skill needed to customize their
sive notes under each image. generic components is substantial.
A third route is a publishing package
like Adobe PageMaker. You can build a
template page of blank frames, then either Shot Lists
draw in each one or import an outside
graphic or even location photo. Think of a shot list as the writing on a story-
board, without the pictures (see Figure
24-5). Though simple lists of shots don’t let
you pre-test potential setups, they do allow
you to systematically verify that you are
covering every angle you need.
Often shot lists are just quick and dirty
notes that help you remember everything
you need in a particular sequence. You can
also cull a shot list from a fully-written
script if you separate video into separate
columns (or paragraphs). Just build a word
Figure 24-4 You don’t need to be an artist. processor macro that will strip out every-
Use a simple paint program to convey your thing but the scene number and the visual
ideas. description.
Figure 24-5 A coordinated shot list that matches your storyboard will
make your job much easier.
On the other hand, a shot list built in a using each shot as a separate record. By
database program (such as File Maker Pro) creating report forms with different fields
can be the most versatile production tool and sorts, you can build a working docu-
in your kit. Design a database using some ment for everyone from the director to the
or all of the fields suggested in the sidebar, wardrobe person.
Sidebar 1
Storyboard Software
Commercial software is available for storyboarding but it suffers from problems that are very
hard to overcome.
Most packages work by supplying a pre-drawn set of backgrounds, a grab bag of props
(guns, flower pots, cars), and a repertory of characters. By selecting, placing, rotating and scal-
ing these components, you can make very professional looking frames.
The trouble is, they can almost never illustrate your video. The script may say, “The old
duchess sweeps into the palace banquet hall.” But the software inventory lacks both an old
woman (let alone a duchess) and a palace hall; and the drawing tools for building same are
rudimentary, to put it kindly.
True, you can import custom backgrounds from programs like Bryce and characters from
3D modeling software, but expect to spend at least an hour per frame building these hybrid
images. Do the math on a three-page board of 12 frames each and decide if this method is
really time-effective for your project.
On the other hand, these packages can be useful in production planning if you import dig-
ital stills from location scouting and make notes in the fields provided. Shotmaster from the
Badham Company (www.badhamcompany.com) is particularly versatile this way.
Bottom line: Storyboard packages have their uses, but don’t expect them to draw what you
can’t draw for yourself.
Sidebar 2
A Shot List Database
Start your database by treating each shot as a separate record. Then add fields for every impor-
tant aspect of production planning.
An Extensive List
A fairly complete set of fields might include the following (separate but related fields are
grouped together):
• sequence, shot number and take

• interior/exterior and day/night
• camera setup
• audio (production, reference track, special effects)
• special equipment (like a dolly)
• shot content
• notes
• location
• talent 1, talent 2, talent 3 (etc., for as many actors as will ever appear together in a single
shot)
• key prop (such as a rented vehicle), other props
• costumes
• day, date and start time
Plus any other production details you want to keep track of
A Director’s List
To create a director’s shot list, build a report containing these fields:
• sequence, shot number and take

• camera setup
• shot content
• notes
Then sort the list by sequence, setup and only then shot number. You’ll get a sequence-by-
sequence list of every shot organized by setup.
25
Budget Details:
Successful Video Projects
Stick to Budgets
Mark Steven Bosko
Creating and adhering to a realistic budget Since the budget is the foundation of
is important to the success of any video- any presentation to investors, it should be
grapher’s project. specific and accurate.
But just how do you compute that magi- Realism is also a good idea. It’s an admi-
cal figure, arrive at an amount low enough to rable goal, applying LucasFilm-like effects
attract investors but large enough to get the to a dry-cleaning commercial, but hardly
job done? It’s not easy. Thousands of people feasible when the video must come in at
labor in Hollywood as budget wizards; not $499.
even they get it right always. So many vari- Most projects begin under-budgeted and
ables and details can go wrong or astray; it’s under-scheduled. It’s easy to understand
impossible to plan for every contingency. why. A project will certainly seem more
Most often, you just have to guess. attractive to investors if you can convince
Still, in this chapter we’ll offer a number them you’ll finish the video for less money
of useful guidelines vital for budget prep- in less time than the competition.
aration. Videographers who absorb these But this shortsighted method of easy
lessons will at least have a reasonable grasp financing will eventually cause you
of the basics of financial planning. suffering.
Projects under-scheduled and under-
budgeted leave you with only two options
Reasons for Budgets once the show begins 1) the project goes
over budget, or 2) the quality goes into the
Video budgets both attract investors and dumpster.
allow you to exercise control over a Say you tell a client $300 will do to cre-
production. ate a training video. Then, during shooting,
110
Budget Details 111
rain pours down; you must shut down includes cash for producer, writer, director
the shoot and pay talent for a second day. and talent. These costs are usually fixed,
You’ve now spent an extra $50, money set amounts. Below-the-line costs include
intended for post-production. So will you everything else associated with produc-
skip the original scoring, budgeted at $50, tion. Each line item contains many sepa-
choosing instead to give the client canned rate details contributing to the total cost.
tunes? Or jettison the spiffy title effects for I’ll examine each in an attempt to explain
hand-lettered cards? what makes building a budget so tricky.
Sticking adamantly to an unrealistic
budget forces you to continually compro-
mise. This leads to a loss of quality. Over the Line
There’s a minimum budget for every
project, a certain amount necessary to pro- The first above-the-line item concerns
duce a video meeting reasonable standards screenplay and story rights (see Figure
of quality. Determine your video’s destina- 25-1). If your production uses an adapta-
tion, then calculate the smallest amount of tion of existing work, you’ll have to pur-
money needed to reach it. If the available chase the rights. These can be costly for a
financing is less than this figure, change known, popular author’s work, or nonex-
the project. istent if the story comes from a rookie sim-
Keep budgeting until you have a video ply seeking screen credit.
you can afford to make. Unless you come up with it yourself, you
will have to pay someone some amount
for either an idea or an actual screenplay.
Step by Step Even for thirty-second commercials, peo-
ple get paid to write scripts.
It’s important to give equal emphasis to Hidden above-the-line costs can include
all stages of production, from writing photocopying, script breakdowns and
and principal photography to music and rewrites, copyright registration and legal
editing. fees associated with purchasing work.
It’s easy to get excited about the shoot- The producer is the one who generally
ing stage of a video project. Here is the runs the show; and, yep, often expects
place for lights, camera, action. Just don’t payment, too. A producer is responsible
make the mistake of creating an excruciat- for finding story, actors, crew, equipment,
ingly detailed budget for production only locations, props, wardrobe and investors.
to carelessly slop but a few dollars to post This requires an enormous amount of
production. You’ll pay dearly. time, even for a small, one-day shoot. A
Become familiar with the functions producer’s talent lies in the ability to make
and costs associated with every step of and keep contacts; that’s what they’re
the production process. Talk to the peo- paid for. Obvious expenses include phone
ple responsible for the script, the shoot- charges, travel expenses, lunches, postage,
ing and the effects. Without such intense contracts and legal fees.
research, you may neglect such costs as B- In Hollywood, the director is paid for
roll tape, music copyright fees and cater- overall vision. On smaller productions, the
ing charges. director may be you, the camera operator or
Actual working budgets vary in size. even the client. With very low budgets, you
Major Hollywood studio budgets may can skip this item; there isn’t enough discre-
end up as two-inch-thick tomes, while an tionary cash available to afford a director.
independent thirty-second cable spot can Talent includes lead actors, supporting
come in a tiny one-pager. cast, stunt people, voice-over artists and
Regardless of size, most every budget models. In budgeting talent, keep in mind
consists of two sections: costs above- daily or hourly rates. These usually vary
the-line and below-the-line. The former according to how often the person works.
Figure 25-1 Checklist of Costs.
As an example, you might hire talent Depending on circumstances, produc-

from the local actors’ union for $200 a day, tion staff may or may not require signifi-
$150 for two days or more. Read the small cant expenditures. When the local car
print; often contracts demand that two dealer hires you to shoot a thirty-second
or more days be worked consecutively. spot, you discover the script calls for a
If you work your talent on Monday and night shoot requiring a two-camera setup
Wednesday, you’ll spend $400, not the and live sound. What began simply now
planned two-day rate of $300. demands additional camera operators,
For details on this intricate subject, con- lighting people, sound recorders and prob-
sult Ralph Singleton’s indispensable book, ably three or four grips to jockey cables
Film Scheduling. and equipment.
On the other hand, your sixty-minute
documentary on the mating habits of water-
Under the Rainbow fowl requires only you and your camera.
Obviously, a project’s length bears little
In an ultra-low budget affair you may relation to total costs. It’s the script details
spend little or no money above the line. that matter.
But every production—large or small— On most projects, regardless of size, the
incurs production expenses. key staff members are the camera operator,
Budget Details 113
sound recordist, lighting technician and nothing but a jar of peanut butter and a loaf
makeup artist. of bread.
Support positions include dialogue
director, script supervisor, electricians,
dolly operators, boom operators, art direc- Post-Production Funds
tor, costume designer, model builder, prop
maker, set decorator, hair dresser, special The last formal segment of the budget con-
effects technician, carpenter, painter, still cerns post-production audio and video
photographer, animal handler, security, first- editing.
aid crew and publicist (see Figure 25-1). Those who own their own editing
Set operations, like staff, can demand equipment will find costs fairly minimal.
either a large or small chunk of cash, again If forced to rent, the prices can get steep.
depending on the project. If you already Don’t underestimate the amount of editing
own a camera, lights and sound equip- time. This will depend on such variables
ment and all your locations currently as length of script, timing, client approval
exist, operation costs may be few. No need and number of effects.
to buy or rent gear or build sets. If you’ve shot footage for a thirty-
If your video seeks to portray a sci-fi second spot requiring only five or six
world, get ready to dole out the dollars. edits, an hour may be enough. If that same
The set builder needs wood, the wardrobe spot requires a rapid assault of images and
manager gold lamé, the makeup artist latex sounds, you may spend two or three days
and the gaffer colored gels. The set opera- in the edit bay.
tions segment of this budget requires great You usually reserve editing time by the
detail; include every imaginable associ- hour, day or week, with price breaks for
ated cost. longer periods. Other post production costs
It’s not neurotic to include such costs as include music, graphics and titles creation,
the tissues actors will need for their noses special visual effects, dubbing, time cod-
during chilly outdoor shoots. It’s these ing, audio mixing, looping, sound effects
little things that throw a project into dis- and extra tape.
array. Don’t overlook such “obvious” items A final cost to consider is the promo-
as nails, screws, bolts and glue; gasoline tional expense associated with selling and
for automobiles and generators; rentals marketing. Final product should be pre-
and permits; duplicate sets of clothing; sented in a professional form. All videos
bottles, cans, books and plants; and, of properly labeled and packaged. You don’t
course, tape. want to hand a client a VHS copy in a card-
Again, talk to your people; learn what board sleeve with masking tape crookedly
they require. Sometimes it’s not a bad idea proclaiming the title on the spine. A nice
to ask your support staff to create their hard-shell package with a printed label is
own budgets; these you can incorporate the only way to go; include these costs in
into your final estimate. your budget.
Postage and telephone fees can add If you want your production to reach
up quickly. It’s amazing how many long- the masses, think about full-color packag-
distance calls people make in the middle ing costs like artwork, layout and printing.
of a production. And if you’re on the road Any worthwhile marketing effort includes
with a cellular, cash outflow can grow quite mailing promotional copies to potential
frightening. Same for postage and shipping distributors and buyers. Estimate photo-
expenses. If your client lives in another copying, postage and duplication costs.
town and insists on dailies, you’ll go broke Don’t forget advertising. Magazines,
if you haven’t budgeted properly. radio, TV, billboards, classifieds, flyers,
To cast and crew, the most important telemarketing, direct sales, door-to-door,
cost is catering. Believe me, you don’t want conventions and trade shows whatever
to face down fifteen hungry people with form you plan requires cash. Obtain
quotes for ad rates during the time your It’s not easy to create budgets. It’s
ad will appear. Remember, your commer- harder yet to stick to them. But with a lit-
cials will probably air more than a year tle preparation, forethought and diligence
after you’ve assembled the budget. throughout the production, you could still
Because so much can go wrong, add a 10 find change in your pockets when the
percent contingency amount. This allows credits roll.
for unpredictable events, and lets inves-
tors know you’re handling the project in a
professional manner.
26
A Modest Proposal
William Ronat
Your phone rings. On the other end is a Learn to Earn

potential client. You like potential clients,
as they represent potential profits. (Okay, This is the time to get some details on
so maybe you’re not a professional videog- paper, usually in the form of a proposal.
rapher at this point. Stick with us anyway; A proposal is simply a document that
as your skills and your reputation grow, outlines what the video is going to accom-
you just might get such a call one day.) plish, how you plan to make it happen,
The conversation is pleasant enough, and an estimate of what it’s all going to
with the potential client giving you a cost. Ahhh—we’re back to the cost issue.
nebulous description of his potential How can you come up with an accurate
video project. Then it’s your turn. “What’s estimate of a “potential” video? By learn-
it going to cost?” asks the potential client ing everything you can about the project.
pleasantly. Who will be watching the final video—
That’s the problem with some potential CEOs of corporations or first graders at
clients. They want to know exactly what you the local elementary school? How long
are going to do before you do it. And they is the video? Will you need to shoot on
want to know exactly what it will cost before Digital Betacam or is S-VHS acceptable?
they even know what they want to do. Are you and your crew going to have to
Here’s how I handle such a question. travel to Istanbul or will everything be
“Look,” I say, “every video project is differ- shot locally?
ent. It’s like asking how much a house is Be sure the client understands what he
going to cost before you tell me what kind or she is getting. If your price is for shoot-
of a house you want to build. How many ing and editing, then let the client know
rooms does the house have, does it have that scriptwriting will be an additional
a water view, how many acres of land? expense. Or if you do take the job from
Ceramic tile? A swimming pool? You see?” start to finish, then outline all the steps
“Ah, of course, I see perfectly,” says (selecting talent, scouting locations, pro-
the potential client pleasantly, “But how duction scheduling, shooting, editing, and
much is it going to cost?” dubs). Make sure the client understands
“A million dollars,” I reply. that your price includes these items only.
115
Before you state a price for the project, the purpose of telling your client what
see if you can find out what the client’s the show is going to look like. If the cli-
budget is. It may be more than you thought, ent likes the concept and agrees on the
which gives you the freedom to add more price, you are ready to move into script-
elements to the production. On the other ing. If there is something the client doesn’t
end of the spectrum, the budget may be so agree with, you know it before you discuss
small that it’s not even possible to accom- money.
plish what the client wants. It’s better to Also, if the clients love your idea, they’re
learn this sad fact early, before you invest more likely to go with you than one of
your valuable time. your competitors. Of course, the client
can always steal your idea and use another
company, anyway. The unfortunate fact is
Set the Parameters you can’t copyright an idea.
Once you state a price, the client will try

to hold you to it. Client-human nature is Author, Author
to lock you into a price and then add com-
plexity that will cost you more money. “Did The second part of the proposal I send to
I forget to mention that you could shoot on clients is the Estimate and Authorization.
the warehouse floor only between 3 a.m. On this sheet, I try to be as complete as
and 5 a.m.? Must’ve slipped my mind.” possible, putting down my best guesses
This is why you want to be specific in on what each part of the video will cost.
the cost estimating process of your pro- There are two schools of thought on this.
posal. If you tell him or her exactly what he A buddy of mine, who also produces
or she is getting for the price you are quot- video, only tells his clients what the total
ing, the client won’t be able to add on more cost of the production will be. He has
complexity without that price going up. found that some clients try to lower the
On simple jobs, I usually break my esti- price by eliminating parts of the video
mate down into two parts: 1) the Treatment (“Look, we can save $200 if we re-use a
and 2) the Estimate and Authorization. stack of VHS tapes from home …”).
Earlier, we looked at how you should Whatever method you choose, the
ask questions to learn about the client’s important item is the last line on the page.
project. With the information you learned This is where it says:
through your questions, a natural method Authorization: _______________
of creating the video will probably pop Date: _______
into your head. Have the client sign and date your docu-
For example, a client might be a builder ment and you can get started.
of million-dollar homes. The client wants Does this document protect you from a
to show off the many features of the dif- client who wants to rip you off? Nope. But
ferent models. Your treatment might look neither do multi-page contracts. I know
like this: of a disreputable fellow who has run up
Classical music plays as the camera thousands of dollars worth of video pro-
floats past the house with a breathtak- duction bills (though not with me, thank
ing wide shot. The scene dissolves to a goodness), refused to pay, been taken to
closer shot of the front of the house. As court, ordered to pay by the judge, and
the camera floats forward, the front door still refused to pay. The last I heard, he
opens and the camera (who is the viewer) had left town—without paying.
is greeted by a butler. This butler (a profes- If you don’t have a good feeling in your
sional actor) proceeds to give the viewer a gut about potential clients and you think
full tour of the house. they might be in the sleazy category, back
The treatment can be as simple or as off. Talk to other people in the community
complex as you like, as long as it serves who have worked with these people. Are
A Modest Proposal 117
your fears legitimate? A little homework requirements, they might call you when
can help you avoid major headaches. they need a video subcontractor.
So why get a signature? Honest people If the RFP is for the production of a video
(the ones you want to work with) stand program, you could respond as the pri-
by their promises. But even these folks mary contractor on the job. But be aware
sometimes have short memories. (“I never that these RFPs go out to dozens of compa-
agreed to that.” “But you signed this nies at the same time. If you don’t feel that
document saying you did.” “I did? I’ll yours is the right company to do the work
be darned.”) Leaving a paper trail helps outlined in the RFP, you may want to save
everyone remember these little details. your energy for a project you can handle.
Why not respond to every RFP you can
find? Because creating a proposal is a lot
What Do You Propose? of work. You could conceivably spend all
your time writing proposals and never win
Often, a proposal is much more than just any of them.
a few descriptive paragraphs with a cost
figure attached.
A proposal may become a long, involved For Example
chunk of paperwork, which explains in
detail how you will create a specific video What kind of information do most agen-
project. It is sometimes written in response cies expect to see in a proposal? The
to a Request for Proposal (RFP). Government following is the actual wording of the pro-
agencies and other large corporations often posal format from an RFP from the State
send out RFPs when they need specific of Florida.
services, be they video production or bomb 1. Table of Contents
shelter construction. What they get back 2. Tab 1. Executive Summary—Include
from an RFP is a mountain of proposals, a synopsis of the proposal prepared in a
each explaining why the proposer is the manner that is easily understood by non-
best choice to provide that service. technical personnel.
How can you get in on the fun of respond- 3. Tab 2. Certification and References—
ing to an RFP? One way is to team up with the proposer shall provide a list of not less
a larger company which is responding to than three (3) nor more than five (5) dif-
an RFP that calls for a video as a part of a ferent previous clients during the past 3
larger contract. years as references. This part shall include
For example, I once worked on a project the dates of the previous projects and the
where a company was creating a simula- name, title and telephone number of a
tor for the Navy to train catapult officers responsible employee of the previous cli-
on aircraft carriers. These officers stood ent who is familiar with the project. The
on a simulated deck and looked at a large proposer must include a certification that
screen television showing F-14s, A-6s and in the previous project it was the original
other aircraft preparing to take off. The provider of the services.
production company I worked for was the 4. Tab 3. Resumes of Individuals
subcontractor responsible for capturing Proposed to Work on this Contract—the
the aircraft on videotape. proposer shall include resumes of the
As a subcontractor, the video company individuals it proposes to assign to this
was only responsible for responding to a project, specifying relevant educational
small part of the RFP. But it was important and work experiences, and shall designate
that the Navy was as comfortable with the which individual will be the producer/
information presented in the video por- director responsible for the coordina-
tion of the proposal as the rest. If you can tion of work efforts of the other person-
convince large companies in your area that nel assigned to the project. Availability
you are the person to handle their video of each individual shall be described, as
well as the estimated number of workdays projects—you may be right. This is why
of commitment from each. you should feel you have a pretty good
5. Tab 4. Description of Creative and shot at getting a contract before you go
Technical Approach—The proposer must after it.
provide a description of how it will pro- The sample above, from the State of
duce the video programs. This description Florida, was an extremely well written
shall include the proposed production RFP. A video expert was called in to give
schedule of the estimated working days the writer advice on how a video is put
required to complete each part of each together. But sometimes an RFP is written
program, the degree of involvement by requesting strange or unworkable video
the Division, and the geographic location solutions. It doesn’t matter. You must
where the production will take place. It respond to these requests as they are, even
should also include general information if they are bizarre.
about the talent (estimated number of pro- Responding to request for proposals is a
fessionals, semiprofessionals, and extras) skill. You have to answer every question,
and a general description of the proposed dot every i, cross every t. If you don’t,
use of narrative, dramatics, animation and your proposal can be thrown out for non-
graphics. compliance. It’s harsh, but true.
6. Tab 5. Description of Video Equip- If you can find someone who has dealt
ment—The proposer must supply a list of with RFPs before, it might be worth it to
production and post-production equipment “partner” with him or her. It doesn’t really
intended for producing these programs. matter if this person knows anything about
7. Tab 6. Work Sample—The proposer video; that’s your job, as long as he or she
must supply a sample in VHS format of understands the language of responding to
a previous instructional or training video proposals.
program with production values similar to Check with local business groups to
those offered in response to the RFP. The see if they know of any retirees who used
work sample will be evaluated for both to work for a corporation. These people
production quality and creative treatment might have been exposed to proposal writ-
of the subject matter. ing and they might be willing to help you
learn how. They might be happy to pass
on their knowledge to a new generation.
You Get the Idea If you can’t find a real human to give you
advice, check your public library for books
Also requested by the RFP were a Cost on proposal writing.
Proposal Form, a proposal Acknowledg- Is responding to an RFP worth the trou-
ment List and a Sworn Statement on Public ble? Winning a contract can be extremely
Entity Crimes. If you think filling out one lucrative. But it isn’t easy. If you think you
of these puppies sounds like more work can fill the requirements, I propose you
than you are now putting into entire video give it a try.
27
Recruiting Talent
Tad Rose
Quality talent means more than just a Determine Your Needs

quality performance. It may mean the dif-
ference between a one-hour shoot and a A script or detailed outline is essential for
four-hour marathon. determining your talent requirements. From
Talent matters. Be it on or off screen, it, you can then prepare a cast list. This
good performers can help take your project list should include all significant speak-
to the next level. Therefore, it is well worth ing and non-speaking roles, as well as a
the time for any producer to find ways of brief description of what each role requires.
attracting the best talent available. For example, should the host be an adult
Sometimes casting is as simple as twist- or a teenager, male or female, clean cut or
ing your kid brother’s arm, but most pro- skater? If you have a clear idea what you’re
ductions require considerable attention looking for, it will be easier to find it.
to the process of recruiting. Consider a Once you’ve identified your needs,
request from the local school district for you’re ready to start recruiting talent. It’s
you to produce an orientation video. The up to you (and your budget) whether you
goal is to prepare freshmen for the high cast professionals, amateurs or your own
school experience and to promote a safer mother (like director Martin Scorsese), but
school environment by presenting stu- it’s important to find the best available can-
dents with a variety of conflict resolution didate for the role. Remember that while
strategies. Such a project may well require a Hollywood cast may be beyond your
talent in the form of a host for on camera budget, professional quality performances
interviews, a narrator to communicate needn’t be. Talent grows everywhere.
important facts and statistics, teachers
and counselors for expert commentary Sources of Talent
and actors to dramatize campus conflicts.
Each role requires a particular skill and Local theater troupes, college drama depart-
the right casting choices. ments, churches, high schools, comedy
119
clubs and community groups are all excel- Allow about 15 to 20 minutes per audi-
lent sources of talent. To tap them, contact tion with five-minute breaks in between.
the person in charge, explain your project, This will give you adequate time to inter-
and ask if he or she can recommend any- view the candidates and jot down any
one. Maybe he or she knows the perfect notes between auditions. Make sure you
candidate. If not, perhaps he or she will ask about their background and experi-
allow you to post a flier announcing your ence. Show interest and be positive: This
audition. If you do post fliers, make sure will relax your candidate and result in a
you do it at least a couple of weeks ahead better performance. It’s also a good idea to
of any auditions and be sure to provide tape the entire audition. This will give you
adequate information, including the type the chance to review the candidates later
of production, roles being cast and con- and evaluate their strengths and weak-
tact number. You can also place an ad in nesses on camera.
the local paper or on an Internet bulletin Be sure you explain what the role entails,
board. In addition, of course, tell all your including the number of shooting days
friends. Cast your net wide and you are and any compensation your are able to
more likely to find the talent you’re after. offer. Don’t be discouraged if your budget
doesn’t allow you to pay your talent; many
aspiring performers will be happy to work
Auditions for nothing more than a credit and a copy
of the finished piece for their portfolio.
There’s no hard and fast rule about audi- Nevertheless, if you can pay a token sum,
tioning. Some producers have all can- you should. It recognizes the contribution
didates show up at the same time (cattle your actors are making and encourages
call), others schedule individual appoint- them to take a professional approach to
ments. You could simply ask candidates the project.
to send in a videotape. I know of one
producer looking for voice over talent
who even had candidates call and leave Evaluating Talent
their audition on his answering machine.
However, if you are serious about finding For our hypothetical video, we need both
the right talent, it’s best to arrange face- an on screen host and a voice over art-
to-face auditions and use the tapes and ist to do narration. The requirements for
other demos as screeners. each are different. For the host, you must
Most producers provide candidates with consider both appearance and vocal qual-
audition materials. This can be actual dia- ity, but it is strictly vocal characteristics
log or narration from your script or material (such as volume, diction, rate, pitch, tone
from another source that will allow you to and timbre) that matter in narration, since
evaluate their abilities. You can also allow that performer will never be seen.
the actors to use their own audition piece. Casting is subjective. The goal is to match
This isn’t really recommended, however, the role with the best available talent and
since their choice may have little relation that’s not always easy. Many factors besides
to your project and their polished perform- ability will influence your final choices.
ance will not give you an idea of what it is Determining the availability of your talent
like to work with this person on the set. is a pragmatic, but important, considera-
If you cannot provide candidates with tion. Someone may be perfect to host the
audition material in advance, give them program, but if she is only available Sunday
a few minutes to prepare before you put evenings after six, you will probably have
them in the hot seat. Cold readings (audi- to keep looking. It’s also a good idea to
tions without prior exposure to the mate- gauge the motivation of your prospects as
rial) rarely reveal the range and ability of well, especially if they are working “for
your candidates. credit” (a.k.a. “volunteers”). Enthusiastic,
Recruiting Talent 121
paid performers will be more likely to show autocratic to the collaborative. However,
up on time and ready to perform, than those in my experience working with both nov-
you’ve had to beg and cajole. ice and veteran performers alike, I have
For acting roles, you may want to confound one thing improves performances
sider type casting. Unless you’ve discov- every time: encouragement. Pointing out
ered a young Brando or De Niro, it’s easier what was good about a given take before
for actors to play characters with traits suggesting ways to improve it will build a
and characteristics close to their own. If feeling of confidence and security in your
the kid who mows your lawn has a bit of actors. If they know you have confidence
an attitude, maybe he would be perfect to in them, their work may lift your produc-
play the bully in your conflict dramatiza- tion to an entirely new level.
tion. Casting close to type will often result
in performances that are more natural,
especially from inexperienced actors.
Summary
Be willing to look outside your immediate

Getting the Best Performance circle of friends to find the best available
talent for your project. List your casting
No matter whom you cast, whether best requirements, then audition to find the
friend or a complete stranger, it is up to right person for each part. Be prepared to
you to get the best performances possible. provide clear, concise direction to your
The ability to elicit good performances performers. Create a positive, collabora-
is the mark of a truly skilled director. tive atmosphere on the set. And, of course,
It’s not easy. Approaches range from the never forget to provide a free lunch.
Sidebar 1
Recruiting Talent: Best Bets
1. Community Theater 4. Local Schools
2. College Drama Departments 5. Community Organizations
3. Church Groups 6. Family and Friends
Sidebar 2
Actors Need to Know
Who – What type of person is the character? What are the traits you’re looking for?
What – What will you provide? What compensation will there be, if any? Will
they be required to supply wardrobe and make-up? What about lunch?
When – When will the taping take place? How long will shoots last?
Where – Where is the location of the shoot? If necessary, provide written direc-
tions and maps. Don’t lose a shooting day because someone got lost.
Why – Why are you producing this video? Explain what you hope to achieve
and why the actors would want to be involved.
How – How do you want the talent to dress, to speak, to move? Give direction in
simple, straightforward terms.
28
The Right Place at
the Right Time
James Williams
Scouting locations ahead of time is a great • Can the location handle the wattage of
way to avoid last-minute surprises and all of your equipment without tripping
big headaches on the day of your shoot. a breaker?
Consider this: a scene in your short film
takes place in a coffee shop. You know If you plan to use a generator, make sure
you could never pass off your living room you can place it far enough away that it
as the local java joint, so you decide to won’t cause audio issues or create a safety
shoot that scene on location. It’s time to hazard.
hit the road and find the right spot. There For an event video, plugging into an outlet
are several elements to keep in mind: may not be an option, or you may need to be
mobile, and you’ll be using batteries. When
scouting, look for out-of-the-way power
Identify Your Power Source outlets for recharging a spare battery.
Power outlets are essential for lights,

batteries or other equipment. For such Evaluate Lighting Conditions
important elements, these power sources
are easily overlooked. As you scout the Okay, so you find a coffee bar that has the
location, ask yourself: exact look and feel you want. As you gaze
around, you notice several large win-
• Are there enough outlets that work? dows. Break out your tape measure, because
you’ll probably need to give these win-
• Are outlets close enough to where you’ll
dows some attention.
set up lights and camera? If not, how
Combining outdoor sunlight with indoor,
many extension cords will you need?
tungsten lights can create a look that’s either
• Are the outlets grounded? too blue or too orange when viewed through
122
The Right Place at the Right Time 123
a video camera, particularly when human now allows you to make adjustments. Ask
skin tones are involved. yourself:
The reason is that each light source has
a unique color temperature that the camera • Can you turn off, unplug or cover up
readily picks up. It looks okay to the human any unwanted sources of noise?
eye, because our brain compensates for
• Where is the quietest spot, and is that a
the color differences, but the camera sim-
good place to shoot the scene?
ply cannot. The result is that the outdoor
light looks blue and the indoor light looks
Bring a mic and headphones to hear
orange through the viewfinder. White bal-
how the room sounds to the camera. Check
ancing won’t always solve the problem.
wireless mics for electrical interference
The solution is to choose which lighting
or static from nearby equipment or radio
temperature you’d like as your primary
towers. Can’t get a clean signal? Consider
light source, then eliminate or add filters
a wired lavaliere or shotgun mic.
to the other source, so all light in the room
has the same color temperature.
Fluorescent lights cast a greenish hue, Consider the Time and
so most videographers turn fluorescents Day of the Week
off altogether or swap the fluorescent
bulbs with specialty bulbs that give off the Most places, especially public places, look
desired color temperature. and sound different at different times of
As you consider your lighting situation, day or night. A side room may be com-
some questions to ask are: pletely quiet at 5 pm on Saturday but noisy
as a roadhouse Wednesday after work. Sun-
• Are you using the windows as a light light that was soft and indirect at 9 am may
source? be blazing into the room at 3 pm.
• What are the dimensions of the win- Some things to consider are:
dows (in case filters or light-blocking
materials are needed)? • How might a change in ambient light
affect your lighting plans or need for
• Where are the controls to turn off over- filters?
head lights?
• How might changing traffic patterns,
• If you’re swapping out fluorescent such as rush hour or sporting events,
bulbs, what sizes are the replacements? affect your audio?
Anticipate Audio Problems
Few locations are completely devoid of

noise, so silence is a relative term. Scout-
ing your location in advance allows you
to hear how quiet the room really is.
Stop walking, close your eyes and lis-
ten. It turns out the room is noisier than
you thought. Rumbling softly overhead
is a huge AC vent. An espresso machine
sputters behind the counter. A telephone
rings in the next room. Traffic noise leaks
in from the street.
These sounds can pose big problems Figure 28-1 Check the location’s schedule to
for your audio track, so catching them avoid unwanted surprises.
• Will other people occupy the same Many folks are okay with letting you use
location while you’re shooting? How their property for productions, as long as
disruptive will their presence be? they know exactly what you’re doing and
how long it will take.
Consider what aspects of the location When asking permission, be sure to:
will change with the day of the week. If
you’re shooting on a Tuesday morning, • Be polite!
you’ll want to know ahead of time that
• Be upfront and honest about crew size
Tuesday mornings are when the delivery
and time requirements.
guy comes. Nobody wants to pause his or
her production every few minutes so deliv- • Explain that they will get exposure for
ery dollies can be rolled through the set. the location and it will be noted in the
Visit your locations at the same time and credits.
same weekday that you’ll be doing your
shoot. If that’s not possible, ask someone Make sure the person granting you
familiar with the area what to expect at the permission signs a release form, even if
time you plan to be there. Most people don’t you’ve had a verbal OK. That will come
think in terms of poor audio or other hur- in handy if anyone questions your right to
dles that can hold up a production. A clean- be there on the day of the shoot or anytime
ing crew vacuuming before the place opens after that.
might not seem like a big deal to the owner, If you’re shooting in a public space,
but it’s enough to bring your production to check well in advance whether a permit is
a halt. Tailor your questions accordingly. required. Permit requests can take time to
process and, without the right paperwork,
you may find your production shut down
Getting the Logistics before you even get started.
Location scouting for video shoots and

event videos is a great time to assess shot
Conclusion
angles, camera setups and any logistical
considerations. Bring a camcorder along
The day of production arrives and you’re
to preview your shot list or record details
prepared. You know exactly where to turn
of the space.
off the overhead AC units, so they aren’t
Some other observations to make are:
picked up in the mics. You know the size
and number of blankets required to block
• Where’s the best place to unload equip-
out the sunlight blazing through the win-
ment and store unused gear?
dows. You have the right extension cords,
• If you’ll need to rearrange the room, the right number of lights and the right
what extra equipment or manpower number of crewmembers to rearrange the
will be required to do so safely? room.
It’s time to roll tape, get the shots and
start planning for the next scene!
Get Permission
Once you’ve found your ideal location,

you’ll need permission to shoot there.
The Right Place at the Right Time 125
Sidebar 1
What to Bring on Your Scouting Trip
Before you walk out the door to scout locations, you’ll want to bring a few key items with you.
Make sure you have a notebook and pen to write down contact information, draw diagrams
and record measurements. You’ll also want a measuring tape to determine window sizes, room
widths and the distance from outlets to where you think you’ll be setting up. Bring a still cam-
era to snap photos of the room, so you can check the details later on. Better yet, take a cam-
corder, so you can frame out potential shots as well. Plug in a mic and headphones, and listen
to what the room sounds like on tape.
Sidebar 2
Prior to Your Shoot
Make sure you get permission to use the location, and get a signed release form to prove it. If
shooting on public property, check that no special permits are required to shoot there. Finally,
check in with your location contact a few days prior to the shoot, just make sure everything is
still a go.
Sidebar 3
Checklist for Your Shoot
Aside from the gear you’ll be using for the shoot, you’ll want to have the following on the day
of your production:
• Names and phone numbers of your location contacts, in case any questions arise.
• Any reference notes you took while scouting that location, especially if those notes
include where to find power switches and other directions.
• Any release forms and special permits you’ll need.
29
Production Planning
Jim Stinson
The worst cause of video disasters is

bad planning—not just during the Pre-
production phase, but right through to
the end of Post-production. Professionals
don’t just make plans; they implement
them and then they follow through on
them. When you plan like a pro, you:
• Plan the shoot in pre-production.

• Shoot the plan in production.
• Edit the planned shoot in post-
production. Figure 29-1 A good script and a well-planned
shot list are two of the most important
planning documents needed for any serious
This sustained planning and follow- production.
through are essential to delivering a qual-
ity video on time and on budget.
pre-production. Of course, pre-production
is nothing but planning, from first concept
Plan the Shoot! to final schedule. Here, though, we are
focusing specifically on developing plans
The planning aspect of video creation is that you can, indeed, shoot and then edit.
so often overlooked that we’re breaking it We’ll look at scripting, casting, staffing,
down into three parts—one for each phase scouting, and budgeting. We’ll also look
of production. First: plan the shoot in at a new planning area: special effects.
126
Production Planning 127
In other words, pre-production planning

relates to editing as well as shooting.
First, the Script
Though writing itself isn’t planning, the

resulting script is the basis for every single
decision you’ll make in prepping produc-
tion. Without a complete script, you can’t
cast the program, design its look, deter-
mine the crew and equipment needed,
list the locations or sets, budget the pro- Figure 29-2 A storyboard is a useful tool for
duction, or set a schedule. Usually, an visualizing complex action and/or special
outline isn’t good enough, even if it’s 50 effects sequences.
pages long. Only a true script is specific
enough for planning. How about a story-
board? Storyboard sequences with com- and then conceal the fact that they miss
plex action and/or special effects work to each other by filling the screen with a well-
visualize the layout of the video, but use timed CG fireball over the live action.
a written script for production planning. So far so good, but the secret of any effect
For nonfiction programs, a two-column lies in selling it with supporting shots. To
“A/V” (Audio and Video) formatted script make sure you get them, you need to plan
will include complete narration and essen- high-speed shots of the individual cars,
tial audio in the left column and visu- closeups of the drivers, and maybe a shot
als in the right one. Fiction films use the across the hood of one car after the crash, as
classic screenplay format. For advice on one victim struggles out the door. You plan
how much detail to include, see the adja- to put one side of the car up on blocks to
cent sidebar. The bottom line is this: when tilt it and to increase the tilt by canting the
you get to production, you can’t shoot the camera off-level in the opposite direction.
plan unless you’ve planned the shoot (Note to DP: choose a vague background
in detail. that won’t reveal the Dutch Angle shot,
and throw a flickering “fire light” on the
windshield, door, and struggling victim.)
Special Effects In post, composite a raging fire effect in the
foreground to complete the gag. Every part
People think that special effects are com- of this must be planned, right down to the
positing and computer graphics that cinder blocks and the fire effect.
belong in post-production. However, the The moral is, you can’t just say, “oh we’ll
most convincing effects are fully planned do the car crash in post.” Only through
in pre-production so that location, com- detailed planning both before and during
posite, and CG work can be seamlessly the shoot can you deliver the raw materi-
integrated by implementing the detailed als needed to create a classy effect.
plan. That’s why you have to develop
your special effects fully even before you
scout locations and budget props. People, Places and Feedback
For example, take a spectacular head-on
car crash. To achieve the actual impact, Even the biggest Hollywood productions
you’ll have the cars drive toward and past are planned and developed by succes-
each other, maybe two feet apart for safety, sive approximation: the script describes
shooting the master with a long telephoto the requirements; the planners come as
to conceal the gap between them. In post, close as possible to meeting them; then the
you plan to speed up the collision shot script is adjusted to eliminate the resources
Figure 29-3 Scouting locations ahead of time

can help you avoid a wide range of production Figure 29-4 Scheduling programs like
problems. Microsoft’s Outlook can greatly help you set
up a schedule for your production, and easily
that were unobtainable and maximize those share with others.
that were. This is always true with casting
actors. Suppose, for instance, the script With good planning, you can also save
demands a slim, beautiful, enticing, evil big bucks (that’s where scheduling and
stepmother; but the closest actress you budgeting play tag with each other). For
can find is an overweight frumpy person instance, if that antique fire engine rents
who would look silly vamping around on for $200 a day, you’ll want to schedule all
screen. Happens all the time. its scenes back-to-back so you can return it
So you do some fast script revisions to as soon as possible. Oh, and how is it going
create a frumpy, evil stepmother. By plan- to get to your location? I once rented an
ning to fit the circumstances, you save both antique vehicle without knowing it didn’t
the actress and the show from embarrass- really run. At the last minute, I had to put
ment. Or take locations. If you can’t find out expensive, unbudgeted bucks for a
anyplace resembling the dungeon where day’s use of a platform-bed tow truck.
the evil stepmother imprisons the heroine, This is also true for anything else that’s
you have three choices: remove the dun- time-sensitive. With meticulous plan-
geon part, create it as a CG virtual set (if ning, you’ll always have the correct cast
you have the resources), or just chain the list at the proper place with the required
lady up in a storeroom or something. equipment and props, all ready to shoot.
Again, if you plan these adjustments Without planning, everyone ends up
before production begins, you can still standing around, and that’s not good. And
shoot the plan; but if you haven’t invested if it rains or something else goes wrong?
in the planning, you’re going to arrive at A planning pro will have a contingency
an unconvincing “dungeon” location and plan: a way to shoot something else until
have to improvise a fix on the spot. That you can resume the original schedule.
seldom works very well.
Money, Money, Money

The All-Powerful Schedule
Professional production accountants must
In reality, budgeting and scheduling are keep tiny altars to the Spirit of Murphy,
two halves of a circle. Scheduling brings on which they burn symbolic dollar
the right cast members, crew, and equip- bills, because on a shoot, anything that
ment to the right location at the right time, can possibly go wrong will go wrong.
crucial if you’re paying people by the hour Corollary #1: everything that goes wrong
or day and just as important if folks are costs money. Everything. It goes without
donating their time. saying that good production planners
budget the show line-item by line-item, in mind, the way a good chess player thinks
right down to cold cream for the makeup many moves ahead.
department. Then they run an eagle eye
over every aspect of production. Does
one character throw a vase at another? Stick to the Plan
How many takes might that require, and
how many replacement vases? Does one Sticking to a plan no matter what, seems
sequence call for actual snow? What will sort of, well, retentive; but there are sev-
the weather be like and how many days eral reasons for resisting changes or at
might be lost while waiting for the fluffy least studying them very carefully before
stuff to start falling? making them. First, remember the law of
Obviously, every production is differ- unintended consequences. Even small
ent. If you’re taping the CEO’s speech in productions are complicated organisms
her office, you’re probably very safe. If with many interdependent parts. If you
you’re covering whale migrations from the decide to shoot, say, scene 22 instead of
subjects’ POV, good luck. Since you don’t scheduled scene 14, the cast, location
have unlimited funds, you can’t just say, and time of day might be fine—but what
“well, whatever it takes.” You have to cast about the actor’s distinctive Grateful Dead
a cold planner’s eye over every script page shirt, which got all muddy in scene 13
to spot every place that could run over but has to be clean again for scene 22?
budget. Then you add a contingency fee for Thinking fast, you run it through a
protection. Then you double it, and pray. Laundromat during lunch break. Uh-huh,
That’s it for creating a production plan. but when you go to scene 14 later that
Now, let’s see how that plan structures the shirt has to be dirty again—with exactly
actual shoot so that you can end up edit- the same stain pattern as before it was
ing the show you started out to make. washed.
So things start to domino. Cleverly, you
have the actor play scene 14 without the
shirt, adding a line like, “Boy, I hope I
Shoot the Plan can get that shirt clean; it’s an heirloom.”
Right away, you’ve handed the editor two
Following the plans you made in pre-
problems. Since the action is continuous
production sounds like an obvious idea—
but it’s tougher to do than it looks.
Plan the shoot, shoot the plan, edit the
planned shoot. That’s the mantra we intro-
duced earlier. Talk about obvious! Not so
fast. If that deceptively simple rule were
routinely followed, Hollywood epics
would never overrun their schedules
and amateur productions would never
look embarrassing (assuming they didn’t
crash and burn before completion). So
let’s review reasons for staying on-plan,
gremlins that attack production plans and
ways to protect yourself against disasters,
both serial and parallel. The underly-
ing concept is that crucial decisions are Figure 29-5 What might seem like a minor
made in pre-production planning that will change in wardrobe can quickly turn into a
large out-of-control, chain reaction avalanch
affect everything that follows, all the way that could bury your production. You did such
through to the end of post-production. a great job planning, now do a great job of
A good planner keeps that long timeline following it.
across scenes 13 and 14, the character has not getting paid to show up on time and
no off-screen time in which to take off the keep working all day. You might limp
shirt. Major jump cut. Also, the added along without a certain crew member,
line tells viewers that the shirt’s valuable, but if the performer isn’t there, the show
which is totally irrelevant to the story and doesn’t go on. Inanimate objects are just
distracting from the point of the scene. as bad. People bring the wrong wardrobe;
You’re already thinking of fifty things props are missing, equipment malfunc-
at once, under time and money pressure tions. When you arrive at the gym where
to move, move, move! If you must make you got permission to shoot the “hurricane
alterations, take the time you need to disaster relief center” you find it’s been
think them through. The second moral is decorated for the Senior Prom. Above and
that post-production is very demanding. beyond Murphy, there’s another threat to
Once you wrap production, it’s expensive shooting as planned: your own creativity.
and often impossible to re-open the shoot You show up at the vacant lot to find that
for vital pieces that are missing or mis- there’s a carnival set up there. Wow, what
matched to other pieces. visuals! What production values! Thinking
fast, you replace half your planned setups
to exploit the unexpected dividend. Or
The Enemies of Planning maybe it’s just a brainstorm on the set:
hey! Why not do it this way instead? Either
The first big foe of systematic shooting way, you risk omitting stuff the editor will
is good ol’ Murphy’s Law in all its many need and adding stuff that doesn’t belong
forms. in your program.
Things go wrong; stuff happens; you
have to roll with the punches. Outdoors,
time and weather are huge factors. Cover Your Caboose
Obviously, you can’t shoot if it’s pour-
ing rain, and even if it hasn’t started yet, No shoot is ever completed exactly as
the light in that sullen overcast before the planned, but you can minimize the risks
storm doesn’t match yesterday’s sunshine. by following a few vital procedures. First,
As for time, an equipment malfunction always have plan B ready. If weather might
held up the shoot until yesterday’s pearly be a problem, identify indoor scenes with
dawn turned into high noon. the same cast and have the locations, cos-
Whether outdoors or in, personnel are tumes and props standing by. If performers
always a problem, especially when they’re are flaky about showing up, know where to
Figure 29-6 and Figure 29-7 The script says the scene takes place on a sunny day and it’s
pouring out. Instead of re-working the script, you should have a “plan B” (and maybe a “plan
C”), for when the inevitable Murphy’s Law occurs.
find them and how to shoot around them meticulously as you planned the original.
in the meantime. The trick is to identify the When post-production starts, you’ll bless
vulnerable parts of your plan in advance yourself. Speaking of which, time for the
and have alternatives ready to go. Second, exciting conclusion: Edit the Shoot You
learn how to adjust plan A. Understand Planned.
that a simple thing like a dirty shirt can
ripple all the way to post-production. Take
the time and care to work out all the impli- Edit the Plan!
cations of proposed changes.
Next, know when to quit. Nothing is more If you planned the shoot well, editing the
frustrating than doing all the work of getting plan should be a snap. Planning for post-
a day’s shoot together and launched, then production will refocus your vision of the
sending everyone home again. Your instinct program you want and then help you cre-
is to say, okay, let’s call Fred and Wilma and ate it with the material you’ve got.
see if they can go over to the church and Post-production is supposed to fulfill
shoot their stuff today, and try to rent that the promise of pre-production (the script)
’57 Chevy, oh, and phone the church sex- and production (the shoot). Editing, they
ton, and.… Uh-uh. This kind of desperate tell you, pulls everything together and
improvisation may keep your crew busy, but delivers the program envisioned by the
the results will be hasty and undercooked. producer, director and sponsor.
You have to develop the good judgement to
know when you’re licked for now so that
you can live to fight another day.
Finally, review your footage, preferably
before you wrap at any one location, but
at least at the end of every shooting day.
In even the most professional production,
you’re going to find stuff that’s inadequate,
wrong or just plain missing. Before matters
go any further, make the notes you need
to get pickup shots, to retake bad stuff,
to re-think and re-stage sequences that
plain don’t work. Then plan the reshoot as
Figure 29-9
Figure 29-8 The people who make six-digits

plus making movies view their “dailies” at the
end of each day and so should you. Just make Figure 29-10 Make sure producers acquired all
sure you don’t accidentally leave the record the planned video and audio by checking the
head in the middle of a scene and record over footage against the shot list and marking where
your work. you need pickup shots or changes.
As usual, reality falls short of theory, it is that presides over the production. With
because editors almost never get exactly that in mind, you should take your very
the raw material they expected, and they first step even before you start screening
don’t always shape it as well as they might. footage: you should discover (or recollect)
Earlier, we talked about planning the shoot what the original plan was—what the pro-
and then shooting the plan. Let’s wrap it up gram was supposed to be. Typically, that
here by seeing how to carry planning for- means reviewing the concept with the
ward into post-production. In a nutshell, producers or at least closely re-reading the
you work as hard as you can to complete script. Only when you have the original
the original vision, and, where that’s impos- concept freshly in mind can you start deal-
sible, to make the best program you can ing with the footage.
with what you’ve got. To do this, you sys- The obvious next step is to review all
tematically evaluate and deal with your the raw material, constantly comparing it to
raw material and then systematically mold the program concept. First and foremost,
it throughout post-production. In both did they shoot all the material needed?
cases, “systematically” implies that you’re (You’d be surprised how often they didn’t.)
doing some planning of your own. Does the footage they did shoot do its job:
In the best production setups, the editor is Are the establishing shots and closeups
in on the shoot, evaluating each day’s foot- and inserts taken from the right setups
age and providing feedback to the director of the right stuff? Is the technical quality
to ensure that he can edit the show to the uniformly up to par? And don’t forget the
original plan. Too often, however, the edi- audio. Is the production sound of good
tor joins the process after shooting wraps quality (or even usable)? Did they lay down
and is presented with a done deal: here’s background tracks, presence tracks and
the stuff, now build a program. This is the wild sound effects? Have they planned the
real-world situation we’ll talk about here. music to use and how to use it, or are they
leaving that to you?
After a thorough review of the raw mate-
Planning for Post rial (and a yellow pad bristling with notes),
you’re ready to plan your post-production
First off, a good editor is not an auteur strategy. First of all, what absolutely has
(a director who is believed to be the major to be shot (if overlooked), or re-shot (if
creative force): Your job is not to express loused up)? For example, your documen-
your own vision, but to carry out the vision tary on glass blowing covers the whole
of the writer, director, producer or whoever process of making a vase, from molten glass
Figure 29-11 and Figure 29-12 A plentiful supply of cut-aways will save an editor’s … reputation.
If you can get to the production crew before they shoot, request cut-aways.
to finished.… Whoops! The beauty shot of once: find the shots, assemble the
the completed work is badly lit and out of sequence, trim to length, build the tracks,
focus. Try as you might, you can’t think add CGs and graphics, repeat with the
of a way to drop the poor shot and edit next sequence and so-on. Completing one
around it because it’s the whole point of sequence at a time, you’re more likely to
the program. So it has to be re-shot. end up with a bunch of individually fine
And as long as they have to send a crew pieces that refuse to fit smoothly together.
back out, what other shots can you improve? Instead, it’s generally (though not always),
What missing angles could be picked up? better to work vertically instead of hori-
(Which is why they’re called “pickup zontally: go through the entire show, doing
shots.”) Sooner or later, you’ll run up against one job— building just one layer—at a
a wall: you can’t get more coverage of the time. Here’s how it works:
master glass blower because she promptly First, break out and catalog all your foot-
retired and left for Maui. Now your strategy age at once. Why? I can’t tell you how many
shifts to developing plan B. Studying the times I’ve plugged a hole in one sequence
footage you discover two things: by remembering a shot I could steal from
a different one. You need a mental inven-
• There are several shots (some with mul- tory of all your footage before you start.
tiple takes) in which her body blocks Then assemble your show, sequence-by-
the furnace opening, so you can’t quite sequence, to be sure, but without worrying
see what she’s doing. about fine-tuning. Once you’ve previewed
• You have some inserts of her assistant’s the result, you’ll have a good feel for the
bare hands and arms that look similar way the program’s coming together. Now
to hers. do your tuning, trimming shot lengths,
adjusting cut points, pulling whole shots
Gotcha! Plan B is to support shots of that turn out to be superfluous. By work-
the blocked furnace door with narration ing the whole program at once, you keep a
explaining what she’s doing (even though feel for its rhythm and pace.
she was doing something else) and shoot the So far, you’ve had just the production
missing inserts with the assistant’s hands track, if any. Now it’s time to pull things
and arms subbing for the Master’s. In sum- together with audio, laying presence and
mary, then, you evaluate your raw materials, background tracks, adding sound effects,
reshoot where it’s feasible, and plan work- timing narration, selecting and adding
arounds where it’s not. With plans A and B music.
implemented, you do your best to create the Finally, you’re ready for CGs and graph-
finished program as originally envisioned. ics: transitions, titles and the like. Again,
seeing the show as a whole will help you
keep them consistent. And don’t forget the
Planning the Edit DVD (which will almost certainly be your
release format). As you polish the show,
With your post-production strategy worked start looking for the material to repeat as
out, you’re ready to turn the raw footage backgrounds for main and sub menus.
into a work of genius. Here too, you need So do your strategic post-production
a systematic plan, though admittedly, the planning by evaluating your materials and
plan is much the same for most editing deciding what to do with them; then do
jobs. your tactical planning by working through
The problem with digital post is that the editing process one careful layer at a
it encourages you to do everything at time.
Sidebar 1
How Detailed a Script?
Whether scripting in the A/V or screenplay formats, you do not—in fact, should not—specify
camera angles and individual shots. For instance, if the story calls for a character to window-
shop along a street, it’s enough to write:
Marcie walks down Main street, looking in shop windows, pausing at some,
then moving on. Halfway along, she spots something in a window. It is the statue
of a black falcon. Surprised, she gets her courage up and enters the store.
Notice how the paragraphing suggests a rough breakdown of the scene content, but without
trying to do the director’s job. Any director worthy of the title will know how to distribute
that action among appropriate setups. On the other hand, the production manager can learn
enough from the description to schedule the “Marcie” actor and plan for a small town street,
an antiques or pawnshop and a Maltese Falcon prop. In short, the script is detailed enough for
planning, without being too restrictive.
Sidebar 2
Your Key Collaborators
You know you’ve reached the big leagues when you can have three key people beside you
throughout the shoot.
• Continuity. If the script is the basis for the shooting plan, the continuity person is the
guardian of that script. Did you get the closeup? Do you have the insert of the pistol in the
drawer? Did you overlap the wide shot and the medium shot enough to provide good edit
points? A good continuity person will catch every problem and let you know. No matter
how creative you’re being or what else you’re thinking about, listen to continuity!
• Production Manager. A good production manager knows who is available, which loca-
tions are open and when the rented ’57 Chevy is coming. If you have to change the plan
in real time, the production manager can figure out a workable alternative. Never make
changes in the plan without consulting the person who is directly responsible for it.
• Editor. Continuity can tell you if you have full coverage and matched action; but only the
editor can cut things together in his or her head and predict whether the result will be
effective. When allowed the luxury, I like to have the editor on the set, making sure the
shooting plan is being followed—and that it was a good plan to begin with.
Sidebar 3
Evil Temptations
As you work, you’ll be vulnerable to three terrible temptations. If you give in to them, you risk
distorting, degrading or even ruining the original program plan.
• First, never blow off problems. “I’ll stick in a dissolve.” “I’ll run it in slo-mo.” “I’ll cover
it with voice-over” or just plain, “Ah’ll think about that t’morra.” When you encounter a
problem, deal with it, solve it, do it now! If you don’t, these little difficulties tend to accu-
mulate until they overwhelm you.
• Second, don’t talk yourself into inadequate fixes. “That’s good enough.” “Oh, nobody will
really notice.” “Those shots cut together well enough.” No, no and no. You’re always under
deadline pressure and it would really, really help if you could get away with things; but
when you screen the finished product, they’ll jump up and wave at you, every one of them.
• Finally, don’t make every sequence perfect in and of itself. Always recall what it’s sup-
posed to do and how it’s supposed to fit in the program as a whole. Sure, you got such
amazing footage out of that car chase that you just have to use it all; but it makes the
sequence way too long and too important in the story as a whole. So don’t get hung up
cutting each gem, without regard to the whole necklace.
PART III
Production Techniques
Tips for capturing the highest quality video and sound.

30
Framing Good Shots
Brian Pogue
The images you record are the build- First, imagine that two vertical and two
ing blocks and foundation of your video horizontal lines divide your viewfinder
productions. As your foundation, some into thirds. (Think of a slightly elongated
thought and planning should go into how tic-tac-toe board.) The rule of thirds sug-
your shots are composed. A well-composed gests that the main subject in your shot
shot grabs and holds your viewer’s attention. should fall on one of the points where
It also influences the mood of the scene or these imaginary lines intersect. The result-
the comfort level of the audience. ing image will be much stronger than if
When done right, the composition will you simply place your subject in the cross-
not draw attention to itself. Instead, it will hairs (see Figure 30-1).
instill a sense of normalcy and stability. When videotaping a person, that per-
On the other hand, a poorly composed son’s eyes are your main focal point.
shot will have the opposite effect. It will Whether using a wide shot or a close up,
distract the audience, or worse, make a
scene entirely unwatchable.
In this article we’ll give you some basic
composition guidelines that experts use as
their foundation, as well as some common
pitfalls you should try to avoid.
The Rule of Thirds
A basic rule of composition is the rule of

thirds. This guideline gives you ideas on
where to place your subject within the
frame. Though your tendency may be to
position your subject dead center on the Figure 30-1 Eye Liner—Keep the eyes on the
screen, the rule of thirds will give you a upper-third line, even if you lose the top of the
more compelling picture. head or hair.
139
(a) (b)
Figure 30-2 Look Room—The left image doesn’t leave any look room. The framing in the right
image is much better.
compose the shot so that the person’s eyes the top of someone’s head and the top of the
fall on one of the uppermost imaginary frame. If you leave too much space, the per-
intersections. The intersection you choose son will appear as if sinking in quicksand.
depends on which direction the person is If you don’t leave enough room, the person
looking. Frame someone looking screen will seem in danger of bumping his head.
left on the right third of the screen. This By positioning the subject’s eyes on the top
places the subject slightly off center and third imaginary line, you will be building
builds in another element of composition in the proper amount of headroom.
called “look room.” When considering head room, be sure the
shot is loose enough so that you see part of
the subject’s neck or the top of the shoul-
Look Room, Lead Room and
ders. If not, you’ll end up with what looks
Head Room
like a severed head on a platter. However,
don’t be as concerned with cutting off the
Look room is the space that you leave in
top of someone’s head. Viewers do not per-
front of someone’s face on the screen. This
ceive this as abnormal as long as you frame
space gives the person room to breathe, as
the actor’s eyes where they should be.
well as gives the impression that the per-
son is looking at or talking to someone just
off screen. If you don’t leave enough look The Background
room, your subject will appear boxed-in
and confined (see Figure 30-2). Many composition pitfalls lie in the sub-
Be aware that the amount of look room ject’s environment. Trees and phone poles,
necessary is dependent upon the angle of vases or pictures on walls may all cause
the subject to the camera. A person look- problems.
ing directly toward the camera will require Be aware of lampposts, trees or other
less look room than someone shot in full such objects that are directly behind your
profile. subject. A flagpole protruding from the top
Moving objects such as cars require a of an actor’s head looks ridiculous, as does a
similar buffer called “lead room.” Allow vase that may seem balanced on someone’s
extra space in front of a moving car so that shoulder. Likewise, a power line running
the viewer can see that it has someplace to through the frame may appear to be going
go. Without this visual padding, the car’s in one of your subject’s ears, and out the
progress will seem impeded. other. Steer clear of any such visual dis-
Head room is another element you tractions (Figure 30-3).
should consider when framing your subject. Even if these objects are not directly
Headroom is the amount of space between behind your subject, they can still cause
Framing Good Shots 141
Figure 30-3 Watch the Background—Poles protruding from your subject’s head can be
distracting. The receding lines in the shot on the right add depth.
Figure 30-4 Natural Frames—Look for objects (natural

or artificial) in the environment that act as natural
frames.
problems. A lamppost running vertically to the extreme right or left. You can shoot
through the middle of the frame will not through open doors, where the doorjamb
only disrupt the balance achieved by the frames the edges of the screen.
rule of thirds, it can also isolate or box Be careful, however, not to overdo it.
in the subject. It may also take away the Using the environment to frame your shots
look room that you’ve built into the shot. should not be so blatant as to distract from
Be aware of these background objects, and what is happening in the scene.
work to avoid them whenever possible.
The Ultimate Goal
Framing Using Objects
Good composition is a means to an end.
While objects in the background can cause When it’s done well, the audience should
problems, objects placed in the foreground not notice it. Instead it should help cre-
can lend a hand. This technique can add ate a mood, or at the very least, a sense of
depth and character to your shot. normalcy and stability. The next time you
Try using something in the environment watch a movie, pay attention to how the
to obstruct part of your shot (see Figure cinematographer frames the shots. You’ll
30-4). Place a piece of furniture in your notice that he or she uses the rule of thirds
foreground and shoot past it by framing it as a foundation, and builds from there.
31
Shooting Steady
Dr. Robert G. Nulph
Shooting steady video is perhaps one of when you are shooting handheld video,
the most fundamental skills of good video you should get as physically close to your
production. If your camera isn’t steady, subject as you possibly can and zoom out
your shots will be difficult to watch as far (wide) as the camcorder’s lens will
(unless you provide a healthy dose of sea- allow. This will give you the steadiest
sick pills). In this chapter we will take a shot possible.
look at various ways you can shoot good The second step towards good handheld
solid video every time, no matter the sub- shots is maintaining good posture. Keep
ject or the situation. We’ll start out with your back straight; legs shoulder width
the fundamentals of shooting handheld apart; knees slightly bent; and your elbows
video and move towards more sophisti- close to your body. If you are handhold-
cated electronically aided methods for ing a small camcorder with an LCD screen,
keeping your video smooth and steady. hold the camera with both hands in front
of your body, elbows tucked into your
sides. If shooting from the shoulder, tuck
Shooting Fundamentals your elbow into your side and use your
right hand and arm for support, while your
Shooting handheld video is perhaps the left hand controls the focus and iris.
most difficult way to capture images on If you have to move while actively shoot-
tape. No matter how steady you think you ing, do so slowly and as smoothly as pos-
are, even your breathing can make the cam- sible, keeping your subject composed well
era move and shake. If you find yourself in in the shot and maintaining good solid
a situation where you must shoot handheld, posture throughout the move.
there are a few things to keep in mind.
One of the most important things to
remember about camcorders and their The World around You
lenses is that zooming emphasizes move-
ment. The closer you zoom, the more your If you find yourself in a situation where
movement is magnified. Because of this, you don’t have a tripod, any solid surface
142
Shooting Steady 143
Figure 31-1 Rock Stable—If you find Figure 31-2 Required Equipment—Every
yourself in a situation where you don’t have a videographer should own a good tripod.
tripod, any solid surface can act as a camera A tripod lets you shoot solid, steady video
platform. Set your camera on a rock, fence with little effort.
post or parked car, or lean up against a tree or
the edge of a building.
your subject will move so you won’t have
can act as a camera platform. Set your to walk around or step over one of the
camera on a rock, fence post or parked car, back legs.
or lean up against a tree or the edge of a When adjusting the height of your tri-
building (see Figure 31-1). Use a table or pod, use your subject as your guide, instead
chair to steady your shot. If shooting on the of setting it at a level that makes you feel
beach, lay some plastic down and steady comfortable. Set your tripod up so that
the camera on the sand, or set the camera the camera, when completely horizontal,
up on the steps of the lifeguard tower. is pointing at the neck of your subject.
When using a solid platform to shoot Unfortunately, this might mean that you
from, you will most likely have to tilt the will find yourself in some uncomfortable
camera to get the best shot. Once again, shooting positions, but that’s a small price
objects around you might be useful: credit to pay for better-looking video.
cards, cardboard, newspapers, pencils, If you do not have to move the shot and
even gum wrappers can be used to stabi- the subject will not be moving, lock down
lize your shot. Once you compose your the tripod, press the record button and let
shot, press the record button and take your go. If you do need to move, position your-
hands away. self with the camcorder so that you are
as solid and comfortable as possible and
slowly move in the direction you have
Tripods planned. Always plan and rehearse cam-
era movements before making them.
Every videographer should own a good
tripod (see Figure 31-2). A tripod lets you
shoot solid, steady video with little effort. Steadicam Flyer
There are, however, some things you
need to keep in mind when using a tri- A Steadicam flyer is like a hiking stick
pod. Always set your tripod and camera with a camera mount at the top. Steadicam
up so that one of the three legs is point- flyers are primarily still-camera tools, but
ing towards your subject. This will create can be quite handy when you must be
a space for you to stand in between the mobile and you still need to shoot steady
other two legs. If you know you are going video. You will often see camera opera-
to pan in one particular direction a lot, tors on the sidelines at football games or
point the front leg of the tripod halfway other sporting events using monopods.
between the farthest left and farthest right, The Steadicam flyer is lighter and more
camera stabilizers are so smooth you can

barely tell the camera is not sitting on a
tripod. One note of caution: if you are con-
sidering buying one, try it out first to see if
it will work with your camcorder.
You can create a flying camera support
of sorts by mounting your camcorder onto
your tripod or monopod and lifting it off the
ground, using the weight of the legs to act as
a counterbalance for the camcorder to keep
it upright. This will not produce anything
close to the results you’d get from a pre-
cisely engineered and finely balanced flying
camcorder support, but you may be pleas-
antly surprised at the look of the shots.
Image Stabilization
Image stabilization is the video engineer’s

gift to amateur videographers. Your cam-
corder’s built-in image stabilizer seeks to
smooth out handheld video, minimizing
camera shake. Image stabilizers are found
in most camcorders today. There are two
Figure 31-3 Fly Right—Handheld counter- types: electronic and optical. Optical is
balanced supports allow you to move freely generally better, and is typically found
while shooting and produce gliding, shake- on higher-end camcorders. Although they
free video.
can be quite handy if you find yourself in
a situation where you must shoot hand-
manageable than a tripod. While the held, they do have a couple of limita-
Steadicam flyer prevents vertical move- tions. First, electronic image stabilization
ment of the camcorder, it does nothing to can reduce the overall number of pixels
stop the horizontal or tilting movement. on the CCD that are used to capture an
image. This can result in a general soft-
ening of the picture (see Figure 31-4).
Flying Supports Second, when the stabilizer is used dur-
ing a pan, the smooth pan might jump
If you have a little extra cash in your slightly from one point to the next as the
pocket, you might want to check out one stabilizer tries to correct your intentional
of the many types of flying camera sup- movement. Still, image stabilization, both
ports on the market (see Figure 31-3). electronic and optical, can be a shotsaver
These handheld counterbalanced supports when shooting handheld.
allow you to move freely while shooting
and produce gliding, shake-free video. The
most famous flying camera support is the Keep It Steady
Steadicam and the brand name has become
a shorthand for the entire class of prod- There are times to move the camera and
ucts. Beyond simple handheld devices, times to hold it still, but, unless you are
you can get complex vests and harnesses trying to create an earthquake effect, there
that will help you hold the camera dur- are seldom times when shaky video is
ing long shoots. The professional gliding good video.
Shooting Steady 145
TOTAL AREA OF CCD

TOTAL AREA OF CCD
TOTAL AREA OF CCD

TOTAL AREA OF CCD
Figure 31-4 Oversized CCD—Electronic image stabilization can reduce the overall number of
pixels on the CCD that is used to capture an image. This can result in a general softening of the
picture.
Sidebar 1
Time Is of the Essence!
You should never handhold shots that demand rock solid video. Long interviews, cutaways of
objects with vertical or horizontal surfaces and steady landscapes should never be handheld.
Moving subjects, shots with camera movement already built into them, such as pans and tilts,
and shots where the camera physically moves from one place to another can easily be hand-
held. Always plan your movement and move steadily and in one direction.
32
Make Your Move
Michael Hammond
Unlike our counterparts in still photog- so you may make this move as a handheld
raphy, those of us shooting video have shot (see Figure 32-1).
a wonderful advantage—motion. With The trick is to keep the vertical movement
some imagination, a steady hand and a as steady as possible and to set your view-
good tripod, you can take your viewers finder before you start shooting. If you’re
on a great visual ride. Let’s review a few working with a camcorder that has a flip-
creative moves that you can all use to out LCD screen, by all means use it. Try to
add interest in your videos. Keep these in position the screen so that you can keep the
mind as you plan your next project and framing in sight throughout the entire shot.
work them in where they seem to fit. If, for example, you’re shooting a person’s
foot and moving up the body to end on the
face, here’s how to approach it. Frame up a
Movin’ on Up: The Pedestal nicely composed shot to start and check for
clear focus. Since you’re starting at almost
The pedestal move is a great way to add ground level in this example, begin from
some vertical action to a scene. It allows a bended knee position with the camera
you to create some anticipation with a directly in front of you, elbows resting just
viewer, to add a greater sense of height above your knees. Slowly lift the camera
and importance to a subject and to link with your arms and then begin to stand as
more than one subject in a single shot. you rise up through the shot. Keep your
A pedestal move involves moving elbows tucked in as close to your body as
the entire camera vertically. The move is possible, and practical, to help keep things
named for the adjustable center post found steady until you reach your end position.
on many tripods. Unlocking this center This move could be great at a wedding
post allows you to raise the camera while to reveal a bride’s dress. An example of
the tripod legs remain in a fixed posi- linking subjects with this move might be
tion. Not all tripods have a pedestal that starting on a full-screen shot of a house
allows you to make a nice, smooth move. For Sale sign and then doing a pedestal
In some cases a tripod isn’t practical, up to reveal the home behind it.
146
Make Your Move 147
Keep on Truckin’: The Truck Move
In a trucking move, you, the tripod and

the camera pick up and move to the left
or right. This move is great for follow-
ing, or creating a stronger sense of action.
Let’s say you’re shooting someone jog-
ging. If you just pan the camera to follow
the runner, you’d need to be on a pretty
wide shot and there would be a pretty
significant change in the backgrounds and
perspective as you follow the subject left
or right. It also isn’t as dramatic. Set up
a trucking shot and you’ll see the differ-
ence. Choose a distance from the runner,
let’s say you want to keep him full-body
throughout the shot, and set up alongside
of him with good focus. Unless you’ve
rented or purchased a Steadicam or some
other kind of stabilizing gear, if you actu-
ally jog beside the subject yourself the
video will likely be unusable. You need
some wheels! Without going to great
expense, you can use an automobile, a
wheelchair or a child’s wagon to provide
your motion (see Figure 32-2). Whatever
you choose, be sure you have a partner
to get you moving and keep you safe and
stable while you’re shooting. If possible,
start moving the camera first, then cue
your subject to start running. Settle on a
comfortable speed and nice framing. Lead
room is important in trucking shots. Give
the subject some space between his nose
and the edge of your frame so it looks like
you’re leading him and not trying to play
catch-up. If you don’t like the profile you
get from trucking right alongside the sub-
ject, pick up some speed and get ahead
a bit. This allows you to see more of the
runner’s face and changes up the back-
ground for some interest.
Taking Flight: The Flying Camera
The flying camera move gives you an

opportunity to take your viewer on a ride.
Figure 32-1 Pedestal—A Think of this as taking on the point of
pedestal move involves view of an insect moving in and around
moving the entire camera subjects. I started using this type of move
vertically. when my oldest child was a toddler. Fly
Figure 32-2 Truckin’—In a trucking move, you, the tripod and the
camera pick up and move to the left or right. Without going to great
expense, you can use an automobile, a wheelchair or a child’s wagon to
provide your motion.
around at kid level to make the viewer Hitchcock made use of this camera move,
more an active part of the child’s world. Of and the film Jaws used a similar version
course, it works for shooting adults, too. of it. When done well, this move gives the
Let’s say you want to capture some trea- appearance that the main subject is sta-
sured moments of a child eating in a high- tionary as the background crashes in or
chair. You might hold your camera at your flies away. Set the shot up by framing the
waist with arms tucked into your stomach subject with the lens zoomed out wide (see
for stability. Begin the shot from behind Figure 32-3). Begin to dolly away from the
the child, showing someone feeding the subject as you simultaneously zoom in to
little one, then arc around the chair to the keep the subject the same size in the frame.
front. For more action, you could begin The optics of the lens provide a unique
with the camera held high, coming down look. Timing is important here in match-
and around the chair. The opportunities ing the dolly speed with the zoom, but
with this one are endless. Picture a table when it all works it leaves a very dramatic
with a great spread of food. The camera impression with a viewer. Try the reverse,
starts high, taking in most of the table as well, by dollying in while zooming out.
from above, then sweeps down and runs Great moves with powerful results.
the length of the table, flying past all of the
treats. For a smooth move and good focus
throughout the move, it works best with Walkin’ the Walk: The Walking Shot
the lens zoomed out wide.
This is a favorite of mine because it’s easy
to execute and adds zip to a normally dry
Guud Eeevening: shot. Rather than a static shot of your sub-
The Hitchcock Zoom jects walking, move with them. For a shot
of two people passing by from behind,
This move is one of the most dramatic, hold your camera about waist level with a
and it requires a bit of practice. Alfred wide lens and begin to walk ahead of your
Make Your Move 149
1 zoom
5 zoom
10 zoom
Figure 32-3 Hitchcock Style—Dolly away from the subject as you

simultaneously zoom in to keep the subject the same size in the frame. This
move gives the appearance that the main subject is stationary as the
background crashes in or flies away.
Figure 32-4 Walking On By—Begin walking backwards, cueing your subjects to walk toward you,
passing you on either side as they exit your shot.
subjects. Cue your subjects to start walk- to walk toward you, passing you on either
ing and overtake you, entering the frame side as they exit your shot. You can give
from behind, one on either side, and con- this last one an even more interesting
tinue walking away (see Figure 32-4). The perspective by zooming out as you walk
reverse of this would be for you to begin backward.
walking backwards, cueing your subjects
Sidebar 1
Easy as 1-2-3
Unlike still photographers, videographers can move their cameras to create action or cover sev-
eral focal points in a single shot. This means your composition—what you choose to include
in a shot and where you choose to put it—will change as you move. It may help to think of
every move that you make in three distinct parts.
1. Beginning Composition. This is where the shot begins. Choose carefully what to include
in your scene and how to arrange it all for good balance. Identify this composition before
rolling tape.
2. End Composition. This is where the camera comes to rest. Again, identify this composi-
tion before you start recording and try to achieve a good overall balance in the shot.
3. The Bridge. This is the camera move that connects the beginning shot with the end posi-
tion. Practice the moves you intend to do as much as possible. Work to make the move
smooth, maintaining good composition and focus. You may shoot a move several times
adjusting the speed of the bridge for editing options.
Sidebar 2
Shoot Like an Editor
This old adage is good to remember while shooting. It’ll be of great help during editing if you
think through all of the possible uses of what you record as you plan your shots. This means if
you’re doing a camera move, record it several times at several speeds. If you’ve recorded some
fast moves and a few slower versions, you’ve covered your needs for whatever pace you use in
the final production. It’s always a good idea to record a version of the shot without a camera
move, just in case. You may find when editing that you don’t have time for a camera move after
all, and trying to freeze a shot—extracting a still frame from a moving shot—may not provide
the quality you’re looking for.
33
Use Reflectors Like a Pro
Jim Stinson
Reflectors are so versatile, useful and simple Which to choose? Flexible reflectors are
that professional videographers deploy them light and easily stored, but they’re unstable
even in high-rent productions. Advanced in any breeze, making their light waver
amateurs may know how to use reflectors visibly on-screen. Hard reflectors are
for outdoor fill light, but that’s only their cheap to buy (or easy to make for almost
most obvious application. So let’s conduct nothing) but they’re bulky and rigid, mak-
a quick flyover of professional reflector ing them difficult to transport and store
techniques, both outdoors and in. away.
First, let’s take a quick taxonomy of Since these critters are most often used
reflector species. Reflectors are either rigid in wide open spaces, let’s see how to
or flexible. Rigid reflectors may be faced (in employ reflectors outdoors as key, fill, rim or
order, from brightest to softest) with shiny background lights. (NOTE: For simplicity,
aluminum, matte aluminum, wrinkled we’ll describe everything via a clock face
aluminum or white paper. Paper-faced metaphor, with the subject at the center
reflectors are usually foamcore: rigid Styro- and the camcorder at six o’clock.)
foam sandwiched between paper surfaces
and available at any art or craft store. (Tip:
pay the modest premium for one-inch-thick Reflector Key Light
boards. They far outlast thinner ones.)
Flexible reflectors are usually cloth With the sun shining, why make your pri-
spread across thin metal hoops that can be mary light a reflector? Often the sun’s in
folded for storage. Fabrics may be metal- the wrong position or the subject’s stand-
lic for greater reflectivity or plain for a ing in adjacent shade. In fact, the sun can
soft, diffuse effect. They come in white become a gorgeous rim light, outlining
or sometimes gold, for reasons detailed in the subject’s head and shoulders and sep-
the sidebar. arating them from the background.
151
Figure 33-1 Below the Shot—Start by Figure 33-2 Key Reflector—More often, we’ll
placing your subject with the sun behind her use the sun as the key and the reflector for
(between ten and two o’clock). Then use a the fill, with each light source placed between
white reflector placed between four and eight three and nine o’clock, though I personally
o’clock, close to the subject and just below eye limit the arc to four to eight on our clock face.
level, to fill in nose and chin shadows.
Start by placing your subject with the Every type of reflector can and should be
sun behind her (between ten and two used for fill. For closeups, a diffuse white
o’clock). Then use a white reflector placed card looks most natural, but its intensity is
between four and eight o’clock, close to the too low for the throws required in longer
subject and just below eye level, to fill in shots. If you’re short-handed, have subjects
nose and chin shadows (see Figure 33-1). aim a white card, held below the frame
If you want to get fancy, use a reflector on line, up at themselves for their closeups. It
either side, with the key unit closer, so the often works great.
subject is lighter on that side. When higher intensity is needed, bring
A reflector key light also works well in the aluminum or metallic fabric mod-
when the subject is in the shade. Bounce els. They have enough punch to keep the
the light in, moving the reflector in or out reflector out of camera range and still work
until it is two to three times as bright as effectively. Always try to use the softest
the ambient shade light creating the fill. version that will deliver enough fill, start-
ing with a metallic fabric model.
Using aluminum reflectors for key or
fill light requires care, because they throw
Reflector Fill Light a hard, narrow beam and they can make
subjects squint unattractively. Make sure
More often, we’ll use the sun as the key and you place them far enough away to reduce
the reflector for the fill, with each light their intensity.
source placed between three and nine
o’clock, though I personally limit the arc
to four to eight on our clock face (see Reflector Rim Light
Figure 33-2). As always, place the reflector
just slightly below the subject’s eye level Those hard aluminum surfaces are perfect
to fill nose and chin shadows. Too high a for rim-lighting the subject, especially
position delivers a Hitler moustache effect when the sun is between four and eight
and too low creates a vampire. If the sun is o’clock. Place the reflector very high and
at seven to eight o’clock, you can often get a opposite the sun or as nearly opposite as
nice effect with the reflector all the way possible while staying out of frame.
around to three o’clock, filling the subject’s Rim lighting works best when a second
profile. reflector is delivering fill light, as described
Use Reflectors Like a Pro 153
in the previous section. If the sun is close fill in the backing with one or more hard
enough to six o’clock and low enough in aluminum reflectors (softer models are too
the sky, fill light may be unnecessary, but low-intensity to work) (see Figure 33-4a).
the golden glow of rim light might look Here, the keys to success are angle
wonderful. and distance. If the wall is parallel to 12
When the subject is in shade, rim light- o’clock, behind the subject, try to get the
ing doesn’t work, unless the protected spot reflector as close as 11 o’clock (sun angle
is just outside a sunny area. A hard alumi- permitting) to rake the background with an
num unit in the sun can often bounce light oblique wash of light (see Figure 33-4b).
off a second hard unit in the shade and If you have the resources, aim multiple
back onto the subject’s hair and shoulders. reflectors at different areas of the back-
That’s what bright aluminum reflectors are ground (I’ve used three or four). With care,
for: very long throws of relatively narrow you can produce a variegated and interest-
light beams. In bright sunlight, I’ve seen ing wash of light that looks quite natural.
hard aluminum units set as far as 100 feet Or you can go a step further and use
away, from which position they can spread an improvised cookie. A cookie, short
a broad, diffuse light on subjects without for “cukaloris” (a word lost in the mists
hurting their eyes (see Figure 33-3). of theatrical history), is a stencil pattern
Reflector Background Light
Suppose you have a subject in the sun with,

say, a shaded building wall as background.
That makes for great facial exposure, but
often a boring background. To spark it up,
Figure 33-4 Background—Suppose you have

a subject in the sun with, say, a building wall
as background. That makes for great facial
exposure, but often a boring background. To
Figure 33-3 Versatile Sun—The sun produces spark it up, fill in the backing with one or
plenty of light for a reflector to be used as a fill more hard aluminum reflectors (softer models
or light. are too low-intensity to work).
of leaves, bars or whatever you like that

is placed between a spotlight and a sur-
face. Cookies create interesting light and
shadow patterns.
Hard aluminum reflectors throw a con-
centrated light beam that you can place
cookies in front of to create surface pat-
terns. To control the effect, move the cookie
closer to the reflector for softer edges or
farther away for harder ones. Because of
the large surface areas of reflectors, the
cookies must be much larger than those
used indoors with spotlights. Outdoors,
I sometimes improvise and use a dead Figure 33-5 Indoors—If you’re working with
just one spotlight, use it as a key light and
branch with leaves still on it. Even if the place a large, white card out of frame on the
leaves move in the wind, the effect on the opposite side. The result is a very soft natural
background is quite natural. looking fill light.
Reflectors Indoors
Reflectors are not as versatile indoors design. To achieve it, turn the lights away
because the light sources they depend on from the subject and bounce them back in
aren’t as powerful as sunlight. Even so, with reflectors. In this application, metal-
you can easily use them to make one light lic cloth or crinkled aluminum types work
do the work of two. better than ultra-soft white cards. Carrying
If you’re working with just one spotlight, this to its logical conclusion, I’ve seen stu-
use it as a key light and place a large, white dios with 8 8 foot white walls on roll-
card out of frame on the opposite side (see around stands that make jumbo-sized
Figure 33-5). The result is a very soft, natu- reflectors delivering window light quality
ral looking fill light. You can even soften the soft illumination.
naturally hard spot beam a bit with spun So there’s a quick rundown on reflec-
glass diffusion (e.g., a furnace filter) and tors. Once you see how versatile they are,
still put out enough light for the reflector. you’ll realize that reflectors aren’t lights for
Even if you have more spotlights, you poverty-stricken productions: they’re ver-
may want a softer look to your lighting satile tools that pros use all the time.
Sidebar 1
Going for Gold
Foamcore, cloth and even some hard reflectors can be colored gold instead of white. Hoop-
and-fabric units are sometimes two-sided, with one side gold and one side silver.
Gold reflectors are very useful for warming up the light they throw. Here are just a few ways
to use them:
• To simulate the magic hour look of sunset.

• To counteract the naturally bluish cast of open shade.
Use Reflectors Like a Pro 155
• To warm up one light source (also useful in creating day-for-night effects).

• To add glamour to closeups, either as fill light or as a warm rim light on hair and shoulders.
The most economical way to acquire a warm reflector is by buying a piece of tinted foamcore.
Instead of true gold, try a lighter yellow color to start, then experiment until you find what
suits your needs.
Sidebar 2
Zoom In
A telephoto lens is excellent for closeups. Not only does it flatter human faces, but it includes
less background, letting you sneak reflectors as close as even the eleven o’clock position.
34
Applying 3-Point
Lighting
Dr. Robert G. Nulph
We are often told, “you have to know the nose giving a three dimensional look (see
rules before you can break them!” In the Figure 34-2c).
case of lighting, the rule for good lighting The role of the fill light is to fill in the
involves the use of three-point lighting. shadows created by the key light. The fill
In this column, we will provide pictures light also gives the image a sense of time,
and diagrams that will give you the rules place, mood and drama. The fill tells the
you need to produce good lighting in viewer the brightness of the location where
simple situations. Once you master three- you are shooting. To prevent secondary
point lighting, you will be ready to move shadows, it is best to place the fill light in
on to creating realistic quality lighting for front of the subject and closer to the cam-
your video productions. era lens than the key (refer to Figure 34-2b).
This light should always be some degree
less bright than the key and, as described
Key, Fill and Back below, is best if it is a soft light.
The backlight is essential to three-point
The key light is the main source of light lighting in that it separates the subject
in a scene. You place the key light in from the background. To set up a good
front or to the side of the subject depend- backlight, place the light behind the sub-
ing on the situation. The more dramatic ject and opposite the main light source
the light needs, the further to the side (key light). The backlight should be set 45
you should place the light. Usually you degrees above the subject so that its light
place the key light at a 45-degree angle falls on the back of the subject’s head and
above the subject and 45 degrees to the the top of the shoulders (see Figure 34-2a).
side (see Figure 34-1). If the light is cor- Use more backlight for brunettes and less
rectly placed, it will create a shadow that for blondes.
pleasantly slants down the side of the When you put all three lights together, it
subject’s neck as well as the side of the should create a very pleasant and natural
156
Applying 3-Point Lighting 157
Figure 34-1 Without a fill light, a hard key light can cast a high
contrast and harsh shadows. Keeping the light low and directly in
front of your talent will minimize the effect.
looking three-dimensional image (see Hard versus Soft Light

Figure 34-2d).
The quality of light can be either hard
or soft. Hard lighting comes from small
High Key versus Low Key lighting instruments that create hard-
edged shadows. You can create soft light
If the fill light approaches the intensity by making your lights bigger by diffus-
of the key light, the contrast is reduced ing their light with large silks, umbrellas
and is often called High Key Lighting (see or softboxes. You would use hard light
Figure 34-2g). You would use this type to create intense dramatic lighting with
of lighting if you did not need to create a sharp-edged shadows. However, if you
dramatic mood or just wanted a low con- want your subject to look soft and smooth,
trast scene. use a soft light setup. Note the softer look
If the fill is a great deal less intense than in Figure 34-2g versus the harder look in
the key light, the lighting is called Low Key Figure 34-2i.
Lighting (see Figure 34-2f). You would use You can also use soft lighting for both
this type of lighting for dramatic scenes, high and low key lighting. You will find a
scenes shot to look like nighttime or dra- lot of high key soft lighting used in inter-
matic interviews. To set up this type of views and news shows (see Figure 34-2h
lighting, place the key light farther to the and Figure 34-4). You place the lights in
side of the subject and reduce the intensity basically the same places as the hard light
or eliminate the fill light (see Figure 34-3). high key setup (Figure 34-1). However, it
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
(g) (h)
(i)
Figure 34-2 Lighting helps create the mood of the scene.

Applying 3-Point Lighting 159
Figure 34-3 Without a fill light, a hard key light can cast a high
contrast and harsh shadows. Keeping the light low and directly in
front of your talent will minimize the effect.
Figure 34-4 High key soft lights will cast soft, even light on your
subject. Soft boxes or umbrellas are a perfect tool for this effect.
can also be used to create soft and dramatic position of the main light source?” Place
shots using a low key setup by eliminating your key light so that it best approximates
the fill light and moving the soft light more the look of that major light source. The fill
to the side of the subject. determines the level of the ambient light
in the scene and the backlight, which is
as intense as the key light, completes the
Mastering It All setup. You are now ready to break the
rules.
Whatever your lighting situation, always
ask yourself, “what is the quality and
35
A Dose of Reality:
Lighting Effects
Robert Nulph
The firelight flickered against the cabin Mr. Sun and Mr. Moon
wall, warming the cool blue light of the
full moon filtering through the tattered It’s a good idea to always plan the out-
curtains. Suddenly the ominous blue then door and daylight shots first for your pro-
red flash of police lights filled the small ductions, because you have more control
room and Carson knew his game was up. of indoor lighting than you do over the
Suddenly the director yells, “Cut!” and weather. All you need to make sunshine
the camera pulls back to reveal two or moonbeams is a small, powerful light
Hollywood flats painted to look like cabin source and some colored gel. You can cre-
walls and a squadron of techies moving a ate sunshine, even at night, by placing a
myriad of lights and other equipment to powerful light (1,000 watts or so) outside
new locations. Nowhere in sight in the your window. (It is not advisable to do
cavernous sound stage is there a squad this if it is raining.) Make sure you place it
car, a full moon or a flickering fire. at an angle similar to that of the sun at the
For years Hollywood and indepen- time your scene takes place and is out of
dent filmmakers as well as corporate video the camera shot. It works best if you use
producers have used lighting techniques a small, intense light to create the light of
to make us believe things exist that aren’t the sun or moon because you want to imi-
really there. You can too! It is all a mat- tate their qualities. If you think about it,
ter of collecting the right lighting instru- the sun and moon are very small intense
ments and accessories and adding a lights that throw very hard shadows. A big
large dose of imagination. Mix them all soft light will not do the trick.
together to give your scene a large dose To recreate the sun, you have to deter-
of reality. Throughout this chapter, we’ll mine what time of day your scene is taking
look at a variety of ways to bring reality place. If your scene is in the early morn-
to your scenes. It is all in the power of ing, you may want to place a single blue
lighting. gel in front of the light. For midday, use
161
Figure 35-1 Shine a light through a set of mini blinds to imply the existence of a window.
no gel and for evening, use a yellow/gold, two feet apart. Slowly sweep the beams of
orange or red/orange gel, going towards light at an angle across the darkened back
the red as the day progresses. A light shin- wall of your set. Instant car lights. If you
ing into a hard gold reflector and reflected are shooting a scene in a car at night, you
through the window makes a fabulous can use the same technique both for cars
evening light. passing you from the other direction as well
To recreate the moon, place two Color as those coming up from behind.
Temperature Blue (CTB) gels together in In the same driving scene, you can imitate
front of your light. Dim the lighting in the the passing of city streetlights, by rhythmi-
room to pick up the color of the moonlight cally passing the beam of a powerful flash-
and create the feeling of nighttime. light over the hood of the car, avoiding the
If you are creating the sun or the moon camera lens. A flashlight works well because
on a sound stage or other big room, you can its lamp has a yellow color temperature and
also create windows through which they should look different from the lights you
can shine. Place a window frame just out are using for headlights.
of camera shot so that its shadow falls If your characters get in trouble with the
across the floor and the background wall. law, you can fill the car or house with flash-
Set up window blinds (Figure 35-1) and ing blue and red lights by rhythmically
let the light filter through the slats. You passing a double or triple blue gelled light
instantly have a wall with a window. then heavily gelled red light past the back-
ground or interior of the car. The Lowel
Omni light has a comfortable soft rubber
Cars and Cops grip that allows you to move it around with-
out being burnt. Focus your light’s beam to
With a little mechanical skill and a good the tightest setting possible and pass first
sense of pacing, you can easily imitate car the red then the blue past the set. You can
headlights, city streetlights, the flashing flash the set, tilt the beam to the floor and
lights of a squad car or a searchlight being pass it again. With two people, it is a bit
used to find the bad guy. You’ll also need easier, but one person can handle it. Take
a couple of small, focusable lights that you the gels off one of the lights, put on a yellow
can gel. gel, widen the focus on the beam and you
One of the easiest yet most effective have just created a searchlight.
lighting effects you can use is the imitation If your scene occurs on a city street or
of a car’s headlights. Using a four-foot long in a seedy motel room, you can add the
2 4, mount two narrow beam lights about pulse of a red neon light. Reflect a diffused
A Dose of Reality 163
red-gelled light onto the background or Of course, you could always plug in an
into the interior of your car. By turning the actual TV set, but hey, that would be too
light off and on or moving a flag to cover easy.
the light occasionally, you can imitate the If your character is sitting before a warm
stuttering of an old neon sign. Add a few fire, you can create the effect by setting
sound effects and your characters are in up a small, diffused light, angled up from
for a long and dramatic night. floor level. In front of the light, hang inch
wide strips of red, yellow and orange gels
on a broomstick. Gently shake the gels in
Living Rooms front of the light to create the feeling of
firelight movement, as in Figure 35-2.
Fireplaces, televisions and lamps that you Another method uses a round wheel (like
see used in video and movie scenes more an old bicycle wheel) covered with vari-
often than not don’t really work the way ous orange, red and yellow gels cut with
we think they do. You can create it all holes and layered to provide a variety of
through the magic of lighting. combinations and the occasional flash of
If your character is supposed to be watch- real light. Turn the wheel slowly in front
ing television yet you don’t see the front of of the light to create the movement of the
the set, you can create a very believable TV flame. Again, add sound effects and bake
light. Get an old TV set, remove the picture to perfection.
tube and tack a double CTB gel to the front. For lamps that you will see on the screen,
Inside, place a lighting instrument that has the first thing you need to do is remove the
a good quality switch on its cord. Quickly regular bulb. A sixty-watt bulb will cause
turn the light off and on; pausing at times the lamp to glow on camera and look much
for longer lengths of both light and dark. brighter than it should. Place a 15-watt bulb
A television is never always bright so the in the lamp to provide a soft internal glow
flickering makes it look more realistic. and supplement the light with a diffused
Figure 35-2 Red and yellow gel strips waving in front of an orange-
gelled light create the illusion of firelight.
600-watt or more lighting instrument.

Be sure to flag the light so that its beam
does not fall on the lampshade of the light
you are trying to use. If you place the light-
ing instrument just off-line from the real
light, you can light your character in a
warm glow that will look like it is coming
from the lamp beside him.
Water, Water, Everywhere
Sometimes, the script calls for water rip-

ples reflecting in your character’s eyes or
on her face. Often, it just isn’t very con- Figure 35-3 Light reflected off of water and
venient to set up lighting to get this effect broken pieces of mirror create a shimmering
pool side effect.
using a real water source like a creek or
lake. Don’t worry, it is really a quite simple
effect to recreate. All you need is a deep water sounds and you’re ready for a day
pan like a roaster or a painter’s roller pan. or night in paradise.
Carefully break up a mirror into two to
three inch pieces and place them in the
bottom of the pan, face up. Cover the mir- Reality
rors with about three inches of water. Shine
a small, intense light into the water so that Always be aware of the world around
the light reflected from it falls onto the face you. Look at the light that makes up our
of your character. (See Figure 35-3.) Gently world, its reflections, its colors and the
lift one end of the pan up and down to shadows it casts. If it occurs in the real
create a soft ripple effect. You should see world, you should be able to re-create it
water ripples in your character’s eyes. If for the camera. A bit of knowledge, a dose
your scene occurs at night, add a CTB gel of imagination and a touch of lighting
to your light. Add a few seagulls, some magic can create any reality you wish.
36
Outdoor Lighting:
What You Need to Know
to Shoot Great Footage
Outdoors
Michael Loehr
How do you light the outdoor scenes in look more natural on video, and improve
your videos? Do you plan and stage each the overall look of your projects.
shot carefully to make the most of the You’ll learn what tools and gadgets you
sun’s glow? Or do you just switch to out- need to make the most of sunlight. You
door white balance, call out “Action!” and can build many of them with inexpensive
roll tape? stuff from art supply and hardware stores.
Even if you choose the latter, chances We’ll even teach you how to create the
are your videos still look pretty good. illusion of a dark night in the middle of
Today’s camcorders work well enough in the afternoon.
daylight to make very acceptable pictures, So start taking advantage of what may
even with no attention to lighting. be your greatest asset as a videographer:
Maybe that’s why videographers don’t the sun.
worry too much about outdoor lighting.
Perhaps they think making the best use of
sunlight requires expensive instruments Principles of Light
and tools they can’t afford. Perhaps they
just never learned the tricks of managing The fundamental principles of good light-
sunlight in a video project. ing apply whether you shoot video indoors
That’s where this guide can help. In this or out. However, sunlight presents unique
chapter are some of the popular outdoor challenges to videographers. On almost
lighting techniques. They can help subjects any given day, there is more than enough
165
light outside to shoot a scene. At first, an light level, depending on how brightly the
abundance of light seems like an asset. sun shines.
However, the hundreds and thousands of
lumens cast by the sun can actually cause
problems for your camcorder. Not techni- Tools and Tricks
cal problems, but aesthetic ones.
At its brightest, the sun can shed more If you’re shooting indoors and need more
than 10 times the light of one typical indoor light, the standard practice is to plug in
instrument. When it shines brightly, it also a light and point toward the dark areas.
casts very dark shadows. Outside, you do practically the same
In video lingo, the difference between thing, only with different tools.
these light and dark areas is commonly You only have one light source—the sun.
called the contrast ratio, or contrast range. It doesn’t need extension cords or power
Our eyes can compensate for the high outlets. Even better, it will usually give
contrast range of a bright day. Our cam- you more than enough light to work with.
corders, however, don’t react as well. All you must do is redirect some of that
They require a much lower contrast range, excess light toward the shadowed areas of
especially to capture detail accurately. (Of your set and your subjects. The best, most
course, our eyes also see better when we affordable tools for redirecting light are
lower the contrast range, which is why we reflectors and diffusers; they will point
often wear sunglasses on sunny days.) light in different directions, and alter the
On bright days, the contrast range is way it falls on a subject. Light will bounce
usually too high for your camcorder to off a reflector, and pass through a diffuser.
make good pictures. If you shoot without Learning to use reflectors is easy. Their
any lighting equipment or assistance, the behavior is somewhat constant, given the
sunlight won’t flatter your subjects. Dark fact that light bounces in predictable
shadows may leave unpleasant or unnatu- angles.
ral accents on facial features. Your images Reflectors vary, however, in three ways:
may also look washed out. 1) how much light they reflect, 2) how
A high contrast ratio also affects your large an area their reflection covers and 3)
camera’s automatic iris feature. You may the color of light they reflect.
have noticed that when the auto iris is on, Foil or mirrored surfaces reflect the most
its position changes constantly while you light over a small area. Pure white surfaces
shoot. usually cover larger areas, but with less
As you move into a shadowed area, the light. Some reflectors have a gold foil sur-
iris opens to allow more light into the lens. face; these bounce light with a warm, rich
As you move back to the bright areas, it quality that really flatters skin tones.
closes again to avoid overexposure. That Diffusers filter direct beams of sunlight,
means you might get even, natural lighting spreading them evenly over a large area.
from one angle, and harsh, overexposed Like reflectors, they’re easy to use and
lighting from another. The constant move- fairly predictable.
ment of the iris makes maintaining con- A material’s porosity and transparency
tinuity between different camera angles determine its diffusion characteristics.
difficult. It’s also very distracting mid-shot. Dense or very cloudy materials allow less
The goal of outdoor lighting design is to light to fall onto the subject. Highly porous
lower the contrast range without damag- materials allow more.
ing the natural look of the subjects and the Diffusing sunlight is probably the most
outdoor setting. You want a lighting setup effective technique for taming unpleasant
that looks the same to your camcorder, shadows and reducing contrast. It does an
no matter where you put it. To do this, excellent job of brightening dark areas,
you need to brighten the dark, shadowed while retaining much of the outline and
areas, and perhaps even lower the overall contour.
Outdoor Lighting 167
(a) (a)
(b) (b)
Figure 36-1 An overhead canopy of diffusion Figure 36-2 When shooting in direct sunlight
material (a, before) can help to control (a) a simple reflector can bounce light back
excessive contrast from the sun (b, after). into dark areas to improve contrast (b).
To use a diffuser, simply suspend or There are, however, a few drawbacks to

position the material between your subject using diffusion. It simulates the light you
and the sun. Where you place the mate- might see on a slightly overcast day, espe-
rial and how you angle it depends on the cially when you suspend the diffuser over-
look you want. To create shadows on the head. This lighting tends to be flat— some
face, place the diffuser close to the subject subjects may look bland under diffused light.
and off to one side. To spread light evenly One solution: bounce more sunlight
and minimize shadows, place the diffuser toward the subject. This highlights the
above and away from the subject, angled subject and slightly increases the contrast
down slightly as in Figure 36-1. range.
Experiment with the diffuser to deter- Or you can abandon diffusion altogether
mine the most effective position for your and bounce light around the scene with
particular scene. No matter where you put reflectors instead. By using reflectors, you
it, your camcorder will make better pic- can maintain the look of a summer day
tures with diffused light. and still reduce contrast.
(a) Position the reflector to bounce excess

sunlight toward shadowed areas, as in
Figure 36-2. This lets your camcorder use
more incoming sunlight without washing
out your subjects.
If you’re shooting at midday, unpleas-
ant shadows may appear on your subject’s
face. The simplest solution is to move
your subject out of the direct sun, if pos-
sible (see Figure 36-3).
Another solution is to use a reflector. Try
putting the reflector below the subject’s
face; this should help eliminate the shadow.
Be careful to avoid the “monster look,”
however. Strong light from below the face
(b) is a classic horror film technique, hence the
name. Unless you want your subject to look
frightening, make sure the reflected light
flatters the face. Reposition the reflector as
necessary to eliminate the monster look.
One last tip: videographers on the go
may prefer reflectors to diffusers. Diffusers
can sometimes be cumbersome to set up.
Reflectors offer better portability, and still
solve many outdoor lighting problems.
Simple Solutions
Other very effective and inexpensive out-

door lighting techniques involve simply
(c)
staging a scene in the proper place with
respect to the sun.
You’ve heard the saying that the sun
should always be behind the camera when
you shoot. True enough, but it doesn’t tell
you whether the sun should be to the left, the
right or directly behind the camera. Many
videographers default to the center position,
where the sun sits directly behind the cam-
era. This is a bad idea for two reasons:
1. It puts the sun in the subject’s face,

which almost guarantees squinting
eyes in the shot (see Figure 36-4) and
2. the shadow that you and your camcorder
Figure 36-3 If you must shoot during the
day, try to get your subject out of the sun cast is likely to wind up in the shot.
(a) and into the shade of a tree (b) or a
building (c). You can avoid these rookie moves by adopt-
ing an outdoor version of the classic three-
point lighting setup, which is used to add
more light to indoor shooting situations.
you’ve established the sun as the key

light, either clip a reflector to a spare light
stand, or have an assistant hold a reflector
near the subject on the side opposite the
sun. Rotate the reflector back and forth to
bounce light onto the “dark” side of the
subject. Move away to lessen the intensity,
closer to raise it.
If you have another spare reflector, par-
ticularly one with a foil surface, you can
simulate a backlight. Stand just off camera
behind your subject, on the side with the
key light. Point the foil side toward the
sun and rotate it until the reflection lights
up the back of your subject. Presto! Instant
backlight.
Occasionally you will encounter out-
Figure 36-4 Direct sunlight hitting your door settings where the background is as
subject from the front causes squinting eyes. brightly lit as the subject. This is another
aesthetically unpleasant situation.
In the three-point setup, one light serves When the subject and background are
as the main or “key” light. It provides both very bright, they conflict with each
most of the light for a scene. It’s positioned other, creating an image viewers will find
to light one side of the subject, angled difficult to watch for very long. To solve
approximately 45 degrees horizontally this problem, you must highlight the fore-
from the subject. ground subject. Instead of trying to reflect
A second, less intense light shines on more light onto the foreground, try shad-
the opposite side of the subject. Called a owing all or part of the background.
“fill” light, it balances the shadows that The technique is subtractive lighting, or
define contour and shape. It’s often some- “flagging.” It involves using a card called a
where between one half and two thirds as “flag” to block sunlight from hitting certain
bright as the key light. areas. You can buy ready-made flags from
Sometimes a third light adds backlight. video stores, or build your own from black
A backlight separates the subject from foam boards. In a pinch, a reflector will
what’s behind it, and provides shoulder work as a flag, but black foam board is bet-
and hair highlights on people. ter. The reflector’s white surface sometimes
Here’s how you can adapt this three- bounces light where you don’t want it.
point setup to outdoor lighting situations. To shadow the background, position the
Instead of standing with the sun directly flag behind the subject, just off camera on
behind you, change your position so that the key light side. Angle it so that it casts a
the sun shines from behind you over either shadow on the background. You may need
your left or right shoulder. In this position to move the subjects away from the back-
the sun becomes a key light, shining light ground to avoid casting a shadow on them
on one side of the subject’s face. as well.
This takes the light out of your subject’s
eyes and lowers the chance of your shadow
appearing in the shot. When the sun shines Position Problems
at an angle similar to a key light, the shad-
ows will fall away from you and the sub- Because the earth rotates in space, the
ject, and hopefully out of the shot. sun’s position, intensity and color bal-
You can also add a very inexpensive fill ance change through the course of a day.
light by just using another reflector. Once This can create problems for uninitiated
videographers. Understand these changes, (a)

however, and they can become tremen-
dous assets.
If you shoot a series of scenes during
an entire day, you’ll notice the lighting
changes from scene to scene. Shadows
gradually change position, density and
direction, and the contrast range changes.
Color temperature also changes through-
out the day.
For example: a scene shot very early
in the morning will have long horizontal
shadows, a slightly orange glow and a lower
contrast range. A scene shot in the same
location at midday will have dark verti-
cal shadows and a much higher contrast
range.
You will experience difficulty when you (b)
try to edit these scenes together. Differ-

ences in shadow placement and color bal-
ance will reveal that you shot the scenes at
different times (see Figure 36-5).
A diffuser is an excellent way to prevent
such problems. Diffusing sunlight hides
the movement of the sun across the sky,
and disguises the time of day. Sometimes
the earth’s atmosphere provides its own
diffusion in the form of cloud cover. If the
forecast says the clouds will hang around
all day, you may not need to set up a dif-
fuser at all.
Many projects call for dramatic use of
light and shadow to convey specific moods
or emotions. If yours is such a project,
Figure 36-5 Shooting in the evening or early
avoid using diffusion; it lessens the impact morning results in a soft light (a). Midday sun
of shadows. Also avoid shooting in the is brighter and harsher (b).
middle of the day, when shadows make
subjects look less than their best. Instead,
shoot your footage either late in the day or
early in the morning, when the shadows usually lasts right around an hour. Its color
are most flattering. registers much lower than the 5,600 K light
When the sun is near the horizon, its of midday—usually around 3,100 K.
color temperature is different from when Consequently, your camera may react
it’s high in the sky. At noon it casts a white differently when switched to the outdoor
light high in color temperature, usually setting. If you white balanced early in the
around 5,600 K (Kelvin). Your camcorder’s day under regular 5,600 K light, the video
outdoor filter works best with this type of will turn more and more orange as the
sunlight. evening progresses. If you don’t want this
At dawn and dusk, however, the sun is look, simply white balance your camera at
lower in the sky, and its glow is a warm, the beginning of every shot.
golden-orange color. Videographers often While this change in color tempera-
call this period the “golden hour,” since it ture may prove inappropriate, it can also
be perfect for certain types of shots. The Pay close attention to colors. At night our
golden hour’s long shadows and warm eyes don’t see colors as well because of the
lighting make it an ideal time to shoot dra- lower light level. The same is true for our
matic or romantic scenes. camcorders. Dress your subjects in muted
Be aware that the moment only lasts colors to keep the color intensity down.
a short time. You can extend the golden If your camcorder has a monochrome
hour a little by reflecting sunlight off a mode, consider using it instead of
gold-surfaced reflector. However, once the color mode; this will help reduce
the sun either disappears in the evening, the amount of color in the scene. Some
or reaches a 45 degree angle above the editing VCRs have chroma controls or
horizon in the morning, the golden look monochrome switches, which can also
will be difficult to maintain. If you know mute color intensity.
exactly when the golden hour will hap- Consider buying a blue filter for your
pen, you can plan to take advantage of it camcorder. This helps create the illusion
on your next project. of moonlight by turning sunlight blue.
On very rare occasions you may need Most video stores carry a selection of fil-
to add artificial light to make an outdoor ters to fit your camcorder. Be sure to get
scene suitable for shooting. This is most one that fits your model’s lens.
common when shooting under either very When combined with the other tech-
dark clouds or heavy shadows. In these niques, the blue filter greatly enhances the
cases it may be appropriate to use your nighttime look.
indoor lighting instruments instead of If there are any ordinary lights in your
reflectors to light a scene. scene—car headlights, porch lights, win-
Remember, the color temperature of dow lights—switch them on. Indeed, before
sunlight is much higher than that of you shoot you should turn on any and all
indoor studio lights. To use indoor lights lights normally on at night.
outdoors, you must put a blue gel in front You also must know how to disable your
of them. Also be aware that indoor lights camcorder’s auto iris and auto white balance
shine a very small amount of light when circuits—if it has them. When activated, an
compared to the sun. You may need two auto iris circuit lets the optimal amount of
or even three instruments to light a subject light into the lens to make pictures.
adequately outside. With day-for-night shots, you want to
limit the light entering the lens. You can
only do this when you turn off the auto
Night Lights iris.
The same applies to auto white bal-
Shooting outdoors at night can be trouble ance. If active, the feature will try to get
for professional and amateur videogra- an accurate white balance, even with the
phers alike. Even with low-light camcord- blue filter on the lens. The goal is to fool
ers, it’s still very difficult to get good the camera and ultimately the audience,
pictures without adding artificial light. so switch off the auto white balance.
To solve this problem, use a technique With the circuits off, white balance the
called day-for-night shooting. It involves camera without the blue filter. Place the fil-
shooting a carefully staged and controlled ter on the lens, and manually close the iris
scene during the day, making it look as if it until a small amount of light enters the lens.
were shot at night. Let enough light through to distinguish
Day-for-night shooting isn’t easy, and your subjects, but not any more than that.
it isn’t always effective. To make it work, The result is the nighttime look: a grainy
you must create an illusion of nighttime bluish image with muted colors and con-
that will fool your audience. To do this, trast. If your editing VCRs allow it, try
pay close attention to how your eyes see lowering the black level and raising the
at night. luminance during post-production.
This increases the contrast enough The best way to learn is to experiment
to match what our eyes typically see at with them.
nighttime. Stage a simple scene outside, and then
create four or five different moods by just
changing the lighting design. This’ll teach
Wrap It Up you how sunlight works, how to make
the most of your tools and how your cam-
Enhancing your outdoor shoots with corder reacts to sunlight.
reflectors and diffusers is more art than Experiment, too, with different materi-
science. The techniques reflect personal als and techniques. You may discover a
preference as much as rigid rules. style that becomes the signature element
So use reflectors and diffusers to express in your videos.
your own visual ideas more effectively.
37
Audio for Video:
Getting It Right from the Start
Hal Robertson
So, you’ve bought a shiny new digital video Depending on your topic, some back-
camera and you’re blown away by the ground noise may be acceptable or even
image quality. But what about the audio? desirable. Just make sure you can hear
Audio is possibly the most overlooked ele- your subject over the ruckus.
ment in video production. That’s too bad
because audio quality can make or break
2—Use an External Microphone
any video project, regardless of budget.
You may be able to fix some things in
Unless you have a high-end professional
post-production, but why go to all the trou-
camera, your built-in microphone is
ble when you can get it right the first time?
absolutely worthless for anything more
This article explores 10 tips for gathering
than your 3-year-old’s birthday party.
the best possible audio on your next shoot.
First, the microphone is built into the
Some are commonsense tips, but many are
camera’s body, and is very sensitive to
hard-earned lessons from the field.
noise from zoom, focus and tape drive
motors. The second problem is a matter
of distance. Even though you can zoom
1—Plan Ahead
in on a subject from across the room, the
microphone is stuck 20 feet away. Trust
When shooting on location, a smart
me, you need an external microphone.
videographer scouts the site before the
shoot, looking for ideal lighting and back-
grounds to produce the best image pos- 3—Choose the Right Microphone
sible. For your next shoot, scout with your for the Job
ears too. Listen for traffic noises, machin-
ery, animals and aircraft—anything that OK, I’ve convinced you to use an exter-
might ruin the audio during the shoot. nal mic, but what kind? There are four
173
basic types: handheld, lapel, shotgun and clearly pick up voices from every direc-
boundary (see Figure 37-1). tion but also amplify shuffling papers and
Handheld mics, typically used by air conditioner noise equally.
news reporters, add a newsy feel to
your video. Directional handheld mics
minimize background noise while non- 4—Use a Windscreen
directional mics collect the audio flavor of
the scene. You’re familiar with the effect of wind
News anchors and sit-down interview blowing into a microphone. The resulting
participants often use lapel, or lavaliere rumble masks all but the loudest sounds,
microphones. They are useful anytime making the audio useless. Subjects speak-
you want to get close to the source, but ing close to a microphone also produce
minimize visual impact. small blasts of wind from their mouths.
Shotgun microphones, highly direc- One of three basic windscreens will
tional and often used on TV shows and minimize or eliminate these problems
movie sets, usually suspend from a boom altogether.
or “fishpole.” Shotgun mics typically Foam windscreens are the most com-
hover just out of the video frame and point mon since they are inexpensive, and work
directly at the subject. great for both handheld and lapel micro-
If you shoot legal or corporate video, phones (see Figure 37-2). Although shot-
the boundary microphone could be your gun mics also use foam windscreens, the
new best friend. Boundary mics turn an pros usually use a special type called a
entire table, wall or floor into a pickup zeppelin. This special-purpose wind-
surface. Unfortunately, their incredible screen gets its name from its shape. It
sensitivity is a double-edged sword. They looks like a long, skinny blimp. Porous
cloth or fur typically covers the mic and
blocks the wind, while letting sound
through unharmed. A shotgun micro-
phone mounts inside the zeppelin where
A the entire mic is protected from audio-
wrecking wind noises.
D When you record the narration for your
B
next video, consider using a hoop-style
windscreen to improve the sound quality.
Hoop screens are usually about six inches
Figure 37-1 A. Boundary Mic—Also PZM, lies

flat on a table or surface and is typically used
for miking people sitting around a table.
B. Shotgun Mic—Usually has a highly
focused pickup pattern and is best at
gathering sound at a distance or in a noisy
environment.
C. Lapel Mic—Is very small and can be
hidden on or around the subject to completely
conceal its presence.
D. Handheld Mic—Comfortable to hold in
the hand, it is commonly used by television
newscasters, singers, public speakers and Figure 37-2 Screen Test—A simple foam
talk-show hosts. It’s ideal when you want the windscreen can do wonders to minimize
talent to directly address the camera. outdoor gusts and plosives in the voice.
Audio for Video 175
in diameter and covered with one or two the previous take, making your edit point
layers of fine mesh cloth. Recording stu- more consistent. The second method is
dios worldwide use this type of wind- to turn the AGC off. This only works on
screen on critical vocals, and you can too. certain camcorders, but if yours has this
feature, use it. You can adjust the audio
level manually for consistent sound, take
5—Position Microphones Properly after take.
Some simple attention to microphone

placement can make a dramatic improve- 7—Monitor with Headphones
ment in sound quality. Take the shotgun
mic, for example. Its extreme directional If your camera has a headphone jack,
characteristics and high sensitivity make buy a pair of good headphones and keep
it great for picking up audio from a dis- them in your camera case (see Figure 37-4).
tance. But point a shotgun up at your The next time you shoot, you will hear
subject from the ground (instead of over- exactly what the microphone hears, mak-
head), and you might pick up birds ing mic positioning easier. You will also
singing in the trees or the 3:30 flight to catch bad connections, dead batteries
Albuquerque. and background noise before you com-
Misuse of lapel microphones is just as mit it to tape. This is an absolute must
easy. Ideally, they are worn on the outside and will save you much frustration and
of clothing, attached to a lapel, tie or shirt. embarrassment.
However, hiding lapel mics under clothes
minimizes wind noise and visual distrac-
tions (see Figure 37-3). This location guar-
antees a muffled sound and the sound of
cloth rubbing on the microphone. If wind is
the problem, try positioning your subjects
with their backs to the wind. If cosmetics
are the issue, try a smaller microphone, a
less distracting location or a shotgun mic.
6—Learn to Deal with AGC
Automatic gain control, or AGC, is built

into many cameras on the market. This
seemingly magic circuit constantly moni-
tors your incoming audio, then keeps the
loud sounds from getting too loud and the
soft sounds from getting too soft. Sounds
like a great idea, doesn’t it? It’s not a bad
idea, but problems crop up later during
editing when you try to match clips from
different takes. One take will be loud and
strong, but another will be softer with
more background noise. Now what are
you going to do?
There are a couple of solutions. First,
Figure 37-3 In or Out?—It may be tempting to
have your talent re-take the material, conceal a lapel mic in the clothing; however,
starting before the break point. This will it will cause the audio to be muffled and the
get the AGC working in a similar range to sound of rubbing cloth to be picked up.
Figure 37-5 Hooking Up—With a variety of

cables, adapters and spare batteries you’ll be
prepared for every audio occasion.
cleaner your audio will sound. Position

the handheld or lapel mic a little closer
Figure 37-4 Listen In—Always use than you previously had. Boom in as
headphones when using an external mic.
close as possible with the shotgun. This
technique also reduces background noise
8—Get Connected and further improves your audio.
Audio cables and adapters are a neces-

sity for the videographer—just make sure
10—Bring Spares
you have the right ones before you shoot
Spare cables, spare adapters, spare micro-
(see Figure 37-5). Wireless mics often need
phones and spare batteries. This tip will
jumper wires to connect the receiver to
save your skin in an emergency and give
the camera. Professional microphones use
you some creative freedom. Perhaps you
three-pin XLR connectors that won’t plug
get to the shoot and discover your single
into most consumer and prosumer cam-
lapel microphone won’t work because
eras. For these mics string together several
there are two subjects speaking. Your
adapters or buy an interface box. If you’re
spare shotgun or handheld microphone
connecting to a sound system or other
will work even better and you’ll look like
audio equipment, bring every adapter you
a very smart cookie.
own to the shoot. You’ll need them.
Take these ideas to heart and your next
video production can sound match the
9—Get In Close sound of a professional studio. In a future
chapter, we will explore how to create
Regardless of your microphone choice, professional sounding audio in the edit
the closer you get it to the subject, the suite.
Sidebar 1
An Audio Horror Story
Last year I shot a video for my church in a city park. I scouted the site and found a great loca-
tion for audio and video. What I failed to notice was the railroad behind a wall of trees on the
east side of the park.
Audio for Video 177
The day of the shoot threatened rain, so we had to work quickly. Unfortunately, we had to
stop shooting twice for a passing train—destroying 20 precious minutes of clear sky. We got
the video done, but we also got wet packing the equipment back to the car. Lesson learned.
Sidebar 2
Watch with Your Ears (or Listen with Your Eyes)
Still not sure what type of microphone is best for your next shoot? Broadcast TV shows offer a
valuable and free resource of audio examples to help you decide what microphone to use.
News broadcasts provide the perfect opportunity to listen to the differences between lapel
mics (anchors) and handheld mics (field reporters). Close your eyes and carefully listen to the
variety of audio sources.
Most sitcoms and dramas offer a chance to examine the sound of a shotgun microphone in
action. If you listen closely, you’ll begin to notice when the mic isn’t pointed exactly at the
subject.
38
Outdoor Audio
Hal Robertson
Ah, the great outdoors. It’s a video shooter’s for cameras. These are excellent acces-
dream come true. Loads of free lighting, sories for those who shoot outdoors on a
gorgeous backgrounds and breathtaking regular basis. The occasional outdoor vid-
scenery—what more could you want? At eographer, however, can make due with a
least visually, shooting outdoors is a won- simple plastic trash bag. Cut a hole for your
derful idea. For audio, however, an outdoor lens in one corner of the bag and a hole for
shoot presents a new set of challenges. the viewfinder in the other corner. You’ll
Learning to deal with these challenges is a still have easy access to the controls from
combination of the right tools and knowl- underneath, although it will be difficult to
edge of all the variables. Grab your walking use a flip-out LCD and certain viewfinders.
stick and camcorder and join us on a hike It’s not as waterproof as the rain capes with
through the backwoods of outdoor audio. watertight lens holes, but a trash bag might
be sufficient in a light mist.
Zipper sandwich bags come in handy
It’s Not Nice to Fool Mother Nature with your audio equipment (see Figure
38-1). A wireless microphone transmitter
If you plan to shoot outdoors, rest assured pack doesn’t like the wetness any more
you’ll have to deal with less than ideal than your camera, so keep it dry too. You’ll
weather conditions from time to time. need a knife and some gaffer’s tape to com-
Of particular concern are the detrimental plete the task, but the finished project will
effects of rain and snow on your precious keep your transmitter dry and away from
(i.e., expensive) audio and video equip- the repair bench. Wired microphones fare
ment. Wet weather and electronic gear better in the elements, but it’s still a good
mix like oil and water, so you’ll do well idea to keep the connectors dry with a
to prepare for the worst. simple wrap of electrical tape. The same
First, and most important, is to keep the applies for battery doors.
water out of your camera. Surely you’ve Exposed microphones—whether hand-
seen the advertisements in the back of Video- held, shotgun or lapel—are more of a
maker for rain slickers made specifically sticking point. It’s never a good idea to
178
Outdoor Audio 179
Figure 38-1 Bag It—Zip up the delicate

electronics in a sandwich baggie in extreme
environs.
get a microphone wet, regardless of type

or application. For a quick outdoor shoot, Figure 38-2 Do Not Eat—Silica gel packs in
your camera bag can absorb moisture.
a simple foam windscreen will keep the
microphone dry enough, but extended
shoots require measures that are more minutes to acclimate. You’ll eliminate the
drastic. While you can cover your micro- embarrassment of an equipment failure
phone with the same bag as your camera, and save wear-and-tear on your gear too.
the audio will suffer. Not only will you
hear the drops of rain falling on the plastic,
the covering will dramatically change the The Windscreen Is Your Friend
quality of the sound. Honestly, there isn’t
a simple fix for this problem. There are Whether you shoot in wetness or not, every
professional windscreens that make nota- outdoor shooter has to deal with wind
ble improvements, but the price may be noise. Uncontrolled wind noise can render
out of reach for many casual shooters. If your audio useless and there is no way
you’re using a lapel microphone, it’s pos- to repair the damage in post-production.
sible to secure the element under your tal- Regardless of the audio you capture out-
ent’s clothing or even under the brim of a side, your microphone needs a windscreen.
hat. These are extreme measures and will The most common type of windscreen
negatively affect the sound quality, but it’s is made from open-cell urethane foam
a reasonable tradeoff if the alternative is to (see Figure 38-3). Although available as an
abort the shoot. accessory for virtually every type of micro-
Although not specifically audio related, phone, some microphones come with the
it’s a good idea to avoid rapid shifts in windscreen permanently installed. The
temperature and humidity—your audio windscreen’s task is simple—keep the
and video gear won’t like these changes wind out of the microphone. Foam wind-
and may rebel. Condensation (when mov- screens vary in their ability to accomplish
ing from cold to warm environs) will pro- this mission, but they’re inexpensive,
duce everything from random glitches to a readily available and work well in many
complete shutdown to fried circuitry. You situations.
can minimize these effects with two sim- In more extreme conditions, you’ll need
ple techniques. First, place several packs a professional windscreen—often called a
of silica gel in your camera case to absorb windsock or zeppelin. These windscreens
excess humidity (see Figure 38-2). Second, differ in size and construction, but most
when moving from a cool environment to often use a special cloth stretched over an
a warm one, give the equipment several open frame. The microphone is enclosed
Figure 38-4 Block It—If you’re shooting a

subject using a handheld or lapel microphone,
Figure 38-3 Foam Fun—Cheap foam covers position him with his back to the noise. His
can help eliminate wind noise. body will block a great deal of noise and can
make an impractical setup feasible.
inside the frame and the cloth blocks the

wind from entering. The completed assem-
bly looks something like a blimp, hence
the zeppelin reference. The windsock is
effective at eliminating wind noise, but
costs a good deal more than the common
foam windscreen. In addition, the length
and diameter of your microphone factor
into the design of the enclosure. For shoot-
ers in brutal wind conditions, the addition
of a fuzzy fur cover to the windsock can
eliminate the detrimental effects of wind
noise up to 60 miles per hour.
Dealing with Background Noise
Whether outdoors means mountain streams Figure 38-5 Aim for the Mouth—It is
important to point directional microphones
or traffic jams, you have to deal with
correctly.
unwanted noises in your audio. These
may manifest themselves as simple, ran-
dom interruptions or as a constant roar knowledge of pickup patterns by placing
that all but obscures the sound you want to the microphone where it will pick up the
record. In any case, there are weapons at maximum amount of sound you want and
your disposal to minimize these effects. a minimum of the sound you don’t.
The simplest technique is to use natural On the other hand, you are shooting
barriers to block the noise. If you’re shoot- outdoors and your viewers associate cer-
ing a subject wearing a lapel microphone, tain sounds with being outside. If the area
position him with his back to the noise. you’re featuring contains colorful audio,
His body will block a great deal of noise capture several minutes of sound on tape
and can make an impractical setup feasi- after the shoot. Back in post-production,
ble (see Figure 38-4). You can exploit other you’ll have a way to cover abrupt edits and
barriers such as buildings, rocks and trees scenic shots that don’t have acceptable
to similar effect. When using directional audio. Properly blended, these patches
handheld or shotgun microphones, utilize will sound perfectly natural, plus you’ll
the built-in null points to your advantage have another soundscape for your audio
(see Figure 38-5). You can leverage this effects library. It is better to have the option
Outdoor Audio 181
to add ambient noise back into the mix in practice will have you ready to tackle those
post than to try and remove it. projects, and you’ll have some impressive
Shooting in the great outdoors can be audio to show for your efforts.
challenging, but some preparation and
Sidebar 1
DIY Windsock
Professional microphone zeppelins or windsocks can cost several hundred dollars and aren’t
worth the cost for casual use. A few dollars and a trip to the fabric store will supply most of
what you need to build a simple windsock. First, pick up a small roll of fiber batting—the
type used to fill quilts and blankets. Next, buy some costume fur with a nap of one inch or
longer. Installation is simple. First, wrap some batting around your microphone, securing it
with rubber bands. Then, do the same with the fur if you’re shooting in strong winds. This
setup will likely thin out the sound, but wind noise won’t be as much of an issue.
Sidebar 2
Listen Closely
Most shooters know to monitor their audio with a pair of headphones, but monitoring outdoors
adds some complexity. Many camcorders offer skimpy headphone amplifiers, so you have to
make the most of every milliwatt. Start with a pair of sealed-cup (circumaural) headphones.
These will block outside sounds and allow you to concentrate on what’s coming through the
microphone. Several manufacturers offer excellent sealed-cup models, but try them with your
camcorder before buying if possible. As you sample several brands, you’ll discover that some
headphones play much louder than others. Find the best tradeoff of sound quality versus vol-
ume and you’ll have an audio reference that will serve you well in every circumstance.
39
Stealth Directing:
Getting the Most Out
of Real People
Michael J. Kelley
It must have been Take 30, but we weren’t comfortable not only with the script, but
quite sure because we were no longer also with being the center of attention,
using a slate, nor did we stop tape in where lights, microphones, camera and
between takes, for fear of losing the lit- production crew all hang on every move.
tle momentum we had gained. The talent This alone is a tall order for most peo-
was a beautiful young woman who had ple: Remembering lines is one thing,
volunteered for the part. She was well but putting it all together with eye lines
cast by the bank’s producer. Her consid- (where the talent should direct their
erable knowledge of the subject matter gaze), blocking (where they should stand
meant that she had her lines down, but and move) and interacting with other
her lack of experience in front of the cam- players and props in a well-timed and
era made this training video laborious to natural way reminds us all why the really
capture. Even worse: The experience was good actors deserve the big bucks. Even
completely humiliating for her, the per- under the best of circumstances, it’s not
formance was indeed embarrassing and easy to deliver a believable performance.
she would very likely never again volun- Using real people is a calculated risk. The
teer for a shoot. It can be difficult to coax successful director manages an exercise in
an agreeable performance out of an ama- stealth, regardless of the size and scope of
teur, but it can be done. the production environment. Most of the
management techniques that typically
apply to pros can be tossed out from the
Be Realistic beginning. From pre-production coaching
to the first rehearsal, all the way to the last
Professionals know that to deliver a com- shot, the director of amateur talent is most
pelling performance, the talent must be successful when being downright sneaky.
182
Stealth Directing 183
Figure 39-1 Ready Off the Set—Ready the talent off of the set,
preferably in an environment which is both familiar and relaxing.
Tread Lightly It’s crucial that you be so well organized

that your manner is relaxed and friendly,
Standard techniques, such as on-camera stress-free and even playful. Much of this
rehearsals or calling for “places, lights, has to do with doing your homework and
camera, action,” just don’t work. The pres- providing ample time for the scene to be
sure while waiting on the set is generally captured. Advanced preparation really
too much for amateur talent to bear, so pays off here, and a flexible production
much so that, while the shot is prepared timetable which is able to cope with sur-
technically, the stealthy director can prises, delays and unanticipated bits of
best use the time to ready the talent off serendipity is a must.
of the set, preferably in an environment For most people, being in front of a cam-
which is both familiar and relaxing (see era is an exciting experience, complete
Figure 39-1). with ego attachments, unfounded expec-
Aside from any artistic or technical prow- tations, vain fantasies and delusions of
ess, the director is equal parts coach, baby- grandeur. Given a little extra time, a clever
sitter, mentor, friend, psychologist, boss and director can use all of that energy to great
dentist (as some “teeth” can be extracted advantage.
more painlessly than others). The director
is also much like a valve, constantly bleed-
ing off pressure while developing an accept- Call Talent Last
able flow. Finally and always, the director
is also a good writer (able to adapt scripts It’s best if the set is fully prepared before
in a heartbeat), editor (able to adapt to new the talent ever arrives (see Figure 39-2).
sequences as they occur), and actor. You, Stagger your call times, call the talent in
as the director, must invisibly manage your as late as possible, and, by all means, do
own pressures sufficiently to give every not over-rehearse your talent. Repeat your
attention to the fragile talent. Normalizing technical run-throughs separately until
the talent’s pressures is your primary task, they are consistently on the mark. This is
for, without an acceptable performance, all where the sneaky part starts: With the tal-
of the rest is but a drill. ent arriving fresh and full of anticipation,
Figure 39-2 Last Call—It’s best if the set is fully prepared before the
talent ever arrives.
the director should focus all attention on leads the talent through his blocking,
the talent, perhaps assigning a produc- perhaps even giving an example of how
tion assistant specifically for the talent if lines are to be delivered, the crew is on
possible. The whole crew should be wel- full alert, keenly watching for the roll
coming and relaxed. This first impres- cue which may be as subtle as a silent
sion cannot be overestimated. Setting an nod or a flick of the hand. With the talent
inclusive stage makes every difference, so slowly and carefully massaged into place,
always provide the time for the talent to the director should casually call for a
be fully introduced to the crew and the rehearsal; that’s often the cue to roll tape
environment. too. No tally lights, no calls for “Action!”,
no extra pressure.
If all goes well, you may have your shot
Prep Off the Set finished before the talent even knows
you’ve started. Recording “rehearsals”
Next, get the talent off the set. Applying sometimes yields the freshest, least self-
makeup, tending to hair and wardrobe or conscious delivery. Of course, many per-
even wiring a concealed mike may make formances improve with a little work and
the talent feel important, but it also ups the encouragement from you, but even when
pressure. These tasks are all best accom- conducting interviews, you’ll find that the
plished off-set. It’s also a great time for the best performances come from talent that is
director to distract the talent by casually fully prepared in advance of ever reaching
discussing the shot and how the talent will the set and is then gently coaxed through
deliver his part (see Figure 39-3). short segments with as little hoopla as
possible.
After all, real people are often very tal-
Show Time! ented, attractive and capable, if only the
director and producer take the time to
With the crew in position, the tape cued conceal the pressures of the process and
and everyone at the ready, escort the tal- prepare for what may be the performance
ent to the fully lighted set. As the director of a lifetime.
Stealth Directing 185
Figure 39-3 Off-Set Application—Applying makeup, tending to hair

and wardrobe or even wiring a concealed mike may make the talent
feel important, but it also ups the pressure. These tasks are all best
accomplished off-set.
Sidebar 1
Craft-Services Prep Pays Off
A thoughtfully catered table can offer needed liquid refreshment and nourishment. Find out
your talent’s preferences ahead of time and provide meals which are appropriate for the time
and length of the production day. The talent may be a strict vegan or allergic to the almond
torte you specially prepared. You want to fuel the performance, while calming the performer,
so have choices. Snacks of fresh fruit are always crowd pleasers. Carefully regulate the use of
sugar and caffeine, and save the champagne for when the shot’s in the can. Whatever you do,
give the talent plenty of water, but don’t let her use ice, as it may constrict the vocal chords.
Sidebar 2
It’s in the Eyes
Interview subjects are usually experts in their fields, but most experts aren’t performers, so
it’s up to you to give the talent every encouragement. Choose your questions carefully. Don’t
put your expert on the spot and, if an answer is difficult, move along and come back to a
rephrased version of the question later on. Your body language is very important: Attentive,
upright posture and focused eye-contact, coupled with an open, pleasant smile and nods of
encouragement, will all help your talent to feel relaxed and conversational. Have him tell
his stories to you in his own words, and have the stealth camera crew there, almost invisibly
capturing every nuance.
40
What Were You Thinking?!
Pet Peeves of the Video Pros
Jennifer O’Rourke
Have you ever wanted to wrestle a cam- Subliminal Message

corder away from Uncle Buck while at
a family function or public event and A flash frame in a finished project is the
scream into the lens, “What are you number one “fingernails on a chalkboard”
THINKING!!??” peeve of mine. When they are meant for
We have to admit, as experienced effect, flash frames are a great editing tech-
shooters and editors, that we’ve had to nique. But when it’s just sloppy editing it
squelch the impulse to take control of presents a poor production. After work-
someone’s camcorder from time to time. ing hours, days, maybe even months on a
We also know that many shooters, editors, project, step back and watch it, really watch
directors and producers have had simi- every frame that passes by. Watch for conti-
lar tongue-biting moments when dealing nuity. Watch for match editing, and above
with people within the profession. So we all, watch for those dangling flash frames.
polled our various video associates for You don’t want to discover the mistake as
their pet peeves and I added a few of my it goes live on the air, debuts at the major
own. Do you see yourself or someone you stockholders meeting or shows at your
know in this list? grandma’s lifetime achievement party.
Figure 40-1 A flash frame, in this case a single frame of black that inadvertently snuck in when
two clips were not joined properly, will be subconsciously noticeable to the viewer. Be sure to
catch and remove these.
186
What Were You Thinking?! Pet Peeves of the Video Pros 187
Steady as She Goes
Have you watched someone’s footage (not

yours, of course!) that looks as if they’re
trying to create the next Blair Witch
Project? But they’re only shooting little
Janey’s ballet recital.
In the Olden Days, camcorders were big
and bulky … and heavy. The shoulder-
mounted weight of the camcorder gave
you ballast that helped make shooting
steady. But nowadays, with mini this and
mini that, everything is small, and small Figure 40-2 When composing your shots,
always remember to pay attention to what’s
is not good when it comes to shooting happening in the background, so you don’t
video handheld. Use a tripod. If you don’t end up with a telephone pole growing out of
have one, or it’s not available, hold your someone’s head.
arms close to your sides, tuck the camera
in and bend your knees. Or lean against a
tree, balance the camcorder on something interesting scene to enjoy. But you also
or even cup the camera under your arm. need to look at background and foreground
You have to become a human tripod, and to escape the tree-through-the-head shots
by all means, if you’re shooting something and to add depth and interest to a picture.
at an extreme distance without a tripod,
don’t zoom in! Trust me on this one, it will
not enhance your video. Either get closer, Get Set, Lock Down, SHUT UP!
steady the camera some way, or accept
that you’re going to be stuck with an If a picture is worth a thousand words,
extreme wide shot. An out-of-control pic- then a talking videographer is worth the
ture that looks like it’s in the middle of a price of a bad joke. Listen to the pictures
hurricane can make your viewer sick, and you’re recording: can you hear the sound
his eye tends to concentrate on the frame of birds chirping, children laughing, kites
edge rather than the subject matter. whooshing and brooks babbling? If all
you hear is yourself narrating, you just
ruined one of the most important parts
Watch Out for That Tree! of your video story: NAT SOT (NATural
Sound On Tape).
How many times have you seen this? A I once shot a news story on how the
medium shot of a person talking into the California drought years were ruining the
camera with a tree, telephone pole or natural habitat of rare fish in the mighty
lamppost growing from the back of his Kings River. While shooting my B-roll, the
head? Or maybe it’s high-tension wires reporter on the story kept up a continu-
seeming to grow through her ears? Too ous dialog with the Parks Service repre-
many people work hard at framing their sentative we interviewed earlier. Later, the
key subjects in the picture, and forget to reporter asked for sound full of the once
look at the rest of the scene. Pay attention roaring but now babbling river, and all I
to foreground and background, they are had was her chattering. Instead of a bab-
just as important to a well-composed pic- bling river, I used her babbling conver-
ture as the main subject is. sation as my NAT SOT full volume, and
We’re always talking about the “Rule she learned her lesson. You can enhance
of Thirds” which good Videomaker read- any story, documentary, or vacation video
ers all know: by moving your subject from with the sound all around us, or ruin it
dead-on center, you will create a more with babbling … well, people.
Following interviews, news shooters

and documentarians will often record a
minute of “room noise” or outside noise
to use as “sound full” (recorded full vol-
ume) without narration, or sound under to
enhance the ambience of the scene. Stop
and listen, really listen, to the silence,
and you’ll hear it’s full of noise, from
computers and air-conditioning inside, to
the distant barking beagle or lawn mower
buzzing outside. When shooting, always
remember to hear, not just see, the picture,
and use it appropriately. Be aware that the
air-conditioning or barking dog might ruin Figure 40-3 In video, as in most visual arts,
your video, but used right, it could also less is more, and too much information can
lead to a busy, confusing look.
enhance the story.
Remember this, if you’re laying one stream

Edit Thyself of video over another, don’t compound
the frenzy by using shots of moving video
Oh, this is my biggie against myself. It’s moving all over the place, and don’t use
hard to edit down your favorite scenes. busy complicated video clips.
Think about it this way: Remember those Remember the KISS rule: Keep It Simple,
times when you’ve looked through some- Spielberg.
one’s collection of still photographs? You
quickly flip through some, pause over oth-
ers, and pass by the blurry close-up of the Burned Out
photographer’s foot. You naturally pass
some shots with nary a glance, and spend We’re easily sated with the overused
a great deal of time with others. You are cheesy effects in 1980s sitcoms, but is
editing. In addition, let’s face it, some still anyone else starting to feel the same way
shots are accidental, and if the photog- every time you see the “Ken Burns” effect?
rapher needs to explain, “oh, that was a You’ll either see every tracking and zoom-
mistake …” then he should have “edited” ing on every still, or they track waaaay too
them out before he handed them to you. quickly, especially when panning, thus
The same goes for editing video. Less is losing the subtlety and beauty of the effect.
more. As hard as it is, remember to always I love the effect, if done correctly. If
leave them wanting more, not waiting for you do zoom in on picture “A,” then you
the end(less) credit roll so they can bolt should begin your next shot tight on pic-
for the bar. ture “B” and zoom out. This is a lot less
jarring to the viewer, and has a more fluid
flow. If you’re tracking and zooming to a
Lost in Translation particular spot in the picture, don’t track
too quickly. The original reason for this
This one drives me so batty it’s made effect is that going from a moving picture to
me scream at the TV like a crazed idiot. a still shot has an abruptness that bothers
Producers of some local commercials, the eye. But editors have now so overused
bless their sometimes low-budget hearts, the pan-and-zoom that audiences want to
try too hard to throw in every trick in their yell, “Enough, already … you’re NO Ken
effect banks and overlay video over video Burns!” A simple dissolve sometimes is
over video so badly that you have no idea all the effect you need, and subtlety is the
what the product is that they’re selling. key to good pan-and-zoom.
What Were You Thinking?! Pet Peeves of the Video Pros 189
Walk Don’t Run. Hey,

Don’t Walk Either!
Some people just can’t seem to settle down

and … well … shoot. Anyone can record
events as they happen in front of a camera.
Just turn on the camera, press “record”
and wave it around. But if you’re chroni-
cling the events of the world around you,
you should NOT be a part of the action.
Walking down the street, waving the cam-
era back and forth, gathers nothing good,
and loses the essence of the event. Settle Figure 40-4 Video “footage”—shots of your
feet when you thought the camcorder was
down and record from a distance. Short, off—are a common mistake of the beginning
far, it doesn’t matter. Sure, an occasional videographer.
POV (Point of View) shot is fun, and
putting the camera into the action makes
for more interesting video, but not every It’s not that hard and it makes for a much
shot. more visually pleasing video.
Even worse is what I call the Waving
Camera Syndrome. This looks like an inde-
cisive “which way did he go, Joe, which And Finally
way did he go,” shot. I’ve seen news pho-
tographers do this, too. The shooter follows Keep the zooming to a minimum. Just
the action, then sees something else in his because your camcorder has a zoom con-
peripheral vision and swishes over to that, trol, doesn’t mean you should always use
only to decide that the first shot was bet- it. The stationary shot with the subject
ter after all, then swishes back. Unless he’s matter supplying the action is most often
shooting a one-camera baseball game where all the movement you need. When you
the action happens all at once all over the do zoom or pan the camera, start and end
field, he just ruined both shots. Professional your shot with a still shot.
videographers know when it’s proper to Of course, our Videomaker readers are
swish quickly from shot to shot. They savvy shooters and all know these simple
always begin each shot from a steady still rules, so you can pass these tips to your
position, then swish to follow the action, next door neighbor, Uncle Buck or the
ending the shot at a still position. It gives parents at school afflicted with the waving
the eye the chance to settle down before the camera syndrome. Meanwhile, keep your
next clip. Learn to make a decision, follow eyes and ears open and clean up these pro-
through with the shot, then quickly frame duction peeves for us, OK? That way we
up, compose and focus for the next shot. can start picking on something else.
41
Makeup and Wardrobe
for Video
Carolyn Miller
Though many people equate makeup and Planning Ahead

wardrobe with high-budget Hollywood
productions, even the most modest video Like every other aspect of making video,
can greatly benefit by simple, inexpen- it’s a good idea to think about wardrobe
sive attention in this area. Wardrobe and and makeup well in advance of produc-
makeup (this includes hair, as well) are tion. As you envision your completed
closely tied to the whole look and style of video, ask yourself what overall look
a piece. They help tell the story and offer you’re striving for (for example, glamor-
important visual clues about the char- ous, upscale and sophisticated; or hip,
acters—whether they are actors, spokes- young and wacky). Clothing style, colors,
persons or interview subjects. They can makeup and hair should all support this
subtly but significantly enhance your look. Susan Stroh, a Los Angeles–based
presentation—or, if you haven’t done your pro who over the years has worn many
homework—seriously undermine it. hats on industrials and documentaries
Even if you intend to shoot your subjects (producer, director, script supervisor,
in all their raw, unblemished uniqueness, writer), calls this “image positioning,” a
disregarding these “vanity” concerns can term that is borrowed from the world of
turn your searingly honest piece into an corporate marketing.
unintentional comedy. Do you really want Even if you’re using real people in your
your audience distracted by a bald head video, as opposed to actors, you’ll want to
that gleams like a light beacon, by pat- make sure they are dressed in a way that
terns on shirts that take on an animated fits their role in the piece. You probably
life of their own, or by clanky jewelry, jar- don’t want your CEO to be wearing jeans,
ring color schemes, or faces that look like or your auto mechanic in a suit and tie.
floating heads? If not, then you’re going to But then again, your concept may call for
have to devote some time to makeup and exactly that. Just make sure you convey
wardrobe. your vision to your subjects.
190
Makeup and Wardrobe for Video 191
Joan Owens, a veteran Hollywood doc- will look better in a casual suede jacket
umentary producer, director and writer than in a tailored business suit.
(TV’s Hunt for Amazing Treasures and During the planning stage, also give some
Zoo Life with Jack Hanna) feels the goal of thought to the physical appearance of your
documentaries is to capture people as they on-screen personalities. If you’re aware
usually are, in clothing that reflects the of facial features that may present special
flavor of their specific world. “Sometimes problems—acne scars, closely set eyes, a
people want to make a good impression for very round face—you’ll want to make sure
the camera,” she notes, “and dress more you’ve got items in your kit that can han-
elegantly than they normally would.” dle this. It doesn’t mean, though, that you
Joan encourages her subjects to wear should attempt to turn them into something
appropriate clothing, and also makes sure they’re not.
they have wardrobe changes for all the Greg Braun, a Chicago-based Director of
scenes they’ll be in. For instance, while Photography who owns his own business,
making a documentary about the recov- G.B. Productions, specializes in high-end
ery of a Civil War submarine, one of her work for major corporations and has strong
subjects needed an outfit for an on-camera views on this subject. “I’m not trying to
interview and a very different type of outfit re-create the person in any way,” he states
for a scene on a fishing boat to re-create an emphatically. “But I do want to enhance
event from the past—and both scenes were their appearance—to make them look their
to be shot on the same day. Sometimes, best.”
though, you’ll want one of your perform- If you realize you’re going to be faced
ers to wear the same outfit throughout the with makeup challenges that are beyond
shoot. Joan points out that Jack Hanna, as your abilities, it may be necessary to call in
host of his wildlife series, always wore a a professional. This may be especially true if
safari jacket. It not only clearly reflected you’re doing a fictional piece. Both makeup
the theme of the series, but also made it and wardrobe can be extremely demanding
easier to mix and match scenes in the edit- in fictional dramas, particularly stories set
ing room. in a different era. In projects like this, spe-
cialists can be a big asset. This doesn’t have
to be as expensive as it sounds, as long as
Special Considerations you’re resourceful.
Producer-director David Phyfer, based
One important wardrobe consideration is in Geneva, IL., has a number of ideas
whether or not you’ll be shooting chroma- about how to get assistance without spend-
key scenes, to electronically “transport” ing a fortune. His company, Stage Fright
your talent to a different set. If your chroma- Productions, makes educational and chil-
key background is blue or green (sometimes dren’s videos on less than lavish budgets.
called “shooting bluescreen” or “shooting David suggests that community businesses
greenscreen”) you want to make sure your might help out. A local store might offer
talent is not wearing the same color gar- clothing, costumes or shoes in return for
ment. Otherwise, there will be a gaping a scene set in their shop; a beauty salon
hole in the talent’s clothing, filled in elec- might provide hair or makeup services on
tronically by the chroma-key set. the same basis. You might also be able to
You should also scout your locations in get wardrobe items in return for guaran-
terms of your overall wardrobe approach. teeing product placement in the video, or
You’ll want your talent to be dressed in an on-screen credit.
colors that will harmonize with the set and
not clash with it. And outfits should be the- Wardrobe Do’s and Don’ts
matically appropriate to the environment,
too. For instance, if one of your locations Once you’ve decided on your wardrobe
is a rough-hewn hunting lodge, your talent approach, you’ll want to go over it with
your talent, since in most cases they’ll be who’s done hundreds of PSAs (Public
using their own clothing. Here are a few Service Announcements) and short videos,
examples of what your talent should not ran into this problem with a PSA featur-
wear: ing Jack Lemmon. The subject matter was
quite serious, so he’d asked his star to wear
• fabrics that wrinkle easily, like linen a dignified navy blue blazer. Unfortunately,
• baggy clothes (they make people look the office they were shooting in had
heavier than they really are) dark walls, and as a result, Jack Lemmon
“… looked like a floating head without a
• shiny or noisy jewelry; dangling earrings body.” Luckily, Bob was able to solve the
• silk (it rustles, causing sound problems, problem by tweaking the backlighting.
and shows sweat stains quickly) For wardrobe colors, David Phyfer rec-
ommends pastels and pale shades—light
• hats, unless necessary for the identity blue shirts and gray jackets, for instance.
of the character (they cast shadows) “Avoid sharp contrasts between dark and
• fabrics with tight patterns, like checks, light,” he advises, “and pull your colors
stripes, herringbone and houndstooth together as much as possible.”
(they create an unstable, vibrating, When it comes to fabrics, natural materi-
jumpy effect called a moiré pattern) als like wool and cotton shoot much better
than synthetics. Susan Stroh, for one, pays
• clothes and shoes that display brand close attention to fabrics and textures,
names or commercial logos believing they help convey the message
• outfits in the latest style (fads will of the video—tweed and corduroy for an
quickly date your video) earthy look, for example, and damask for
a luxurious look. She feels simple clothes
• deeply saturated colors, especially red work best for women, and are the least dis-
(video doesn’t handle them well and tracting. She prepares a detailed wardrobe
they tend to bleed when duplicated) checklist for her talent, and instructs them
• bright white or extremely dark colors to bring duplicates, or near duplicates,
of shirts and blouses, in case of spills or
This last point deserves special attention. stains.
While it’s true that video cameras are able For most productions, it’s a good idea to
to deal with sharp contrasts in tone better have talent bring three completely different
than formerly, it’s still challenging to light outfits, including shoes and accessories, to
someone wearing bright white or very provide ample choices. Men should bring
dark clothes. White, for instance, picks a selection of ties, and women might be
up all the light, and to compensate, faces asked to bring some scarves.
tend to be underexposed.
Joan Owens recounts an incident illus-
trating the problem with white. She was On the Set
writing a documentary set in an exotic
foreign locale, and the cameraman shot a Most women in your cast will probably
great scene of the American ambassador apply their own makeup and do their
riding a motorcycle through the city streets own hair. They should be encouraged to
wearing a white tee-shirt—“a wonderful strive for a natural look, which works best
Marlon Brando image.” But when the foot- for a video camera, unlike heavily exag-
age came back, everything was too dark, gerated makeup, which works better for
virtually unusable, to compensate for the the stage. A good foundation is important,
white shirt. because it covers blemishes and evens out
Extremely dark colors are equally diffi- color. But if a woman is inexperienced in
cult, and sometimes create bizarre effects. applying it, watch out for makeup lines
Los Angeles producer-director Bob Silburg, around the eyes and jawline, where the
Makeup and Wardrobe for Video 193
foundation leaves off and the skin begins. always, there is facial shine —oil and sweat
You might also need to add some blush brought on by the heat and tension. But
to emphasize her cheek bones or chin, or before you add more makeup, blot off the
eyeliner to make her eyes look larger. moisture and oil with a tissue. Otherwise,
Though men need makeup, too, some you might get caking and streaks.
are uncomfortable with the idea and even For fly-away hair, experts recommend
professional actors rarely apply their own. spraying your hands with hair spray and
Greg Braun, who shoots many top execu- lightly patting the hair, rather than spray-
tives, is careful to make sure none of their ing the hair directly, which can result in
subordinates are nearby while he’s doing an unnatural “crispy” look. Shiny buttons
their makeup—the last thing they want is and jewelry can be dealt with easily with
an audience. And he jokes a little to put dulling spray, although be cautious with
them at ease. “This is what made Charles costume jewelry, which could be damaged.
Bronson so handsome,” he might say as Eyeglasses are a tougher problem. Dulling
he dabs on the foundation. He works fast, spray could ruin them, and there aren’t any
completing the job in two to three min- other good substitutes. You might have to
utes. Bald heads—“chrome domes”—are a take care of the glint on glasses by lighting
common challenge. He uses a fat makeup adjustments or re-positioning the talent.
brush and loose powder to remove the Finally, pay close attention to continuity,
shine. Greg carries three different shades making sure wardrobe and makeup are con-
of powder and three shades of foundation sistent from scene to scene. Carelessness
to cover the range in skin tones. here can give your video a sloppy look. If
Once your talent is made up, dressed possible, have an assistant keep notes as
and ready to go, don’t forget to check them you shoot. Is there always a hanky in that
out in a color monitor before you shoot. pocket? How is the scarf draped? Is there a
You’re sure to catch things you hadn’t lock of hair tucked behind the right ear?
noticed with your naked eye—smudged Clearly, there’s a great deal to consider
mascara, a crooked collar, or a moiré effect in terms of makeup and wardrobe, and
on a tie. But after you’ve made the necessary some of it is quite minute. But each detail
adjustments, don’t think your makeup and contributes to the overall quality of your
wardrobe duties are over. As you shoot, production. Yes, your mother may have
be alert for wrinkled shirts, bunched up tried to convince you that beauty is only
jackets and faded lipstick. Fly-away hair skin deep. But when you’re making videos,
and glint from buttons and eyeglasses are the visual appearance of your performers
extremely common problems. And then, is hardly a superficial matter.
42
Let’s Make a Documentary
Randal K. West
To Dream a Possible Dream

Few other communication forms have the power to reveal a unique
perspective, capture imagination and even motivate change. In this article,
you’ll discover how you can move your story from dream to distribution.
Walk onto the working set of any tele- Is Your Story Compelling?
vision production studio and almost
every person on the crew has a docu- The founder of our agency and I were
mentary they are just posting, getting approached one day by a reasonably well-
ready to shoot or trying to fund. Why? known and respected individual in our
Because everyone from the Director of community. He wanted to pitch a docu-
Photography to the Key Grip has a story, mentary idea to us for possible produc-
they feel compelled to share with a larger tion by our company. The man went on
audience. to explain that although he still seemed
True, the percentage of would-be docu- to exist as a “regular” guy in our commu-
mentary filmmakers is potentially greater nity, since his divorce he had lost every-
within the film/television community than thing and was living between his car and
among antique car salesmen, but there are an abandoned building. We asked many
many people from all walks of life who questions, but despite his having man-
want to share their story or a significant aged to hide his status from the rest of
piece of history through documentary the community, there just wasn’t a strong
filmmaking. In today’s world dominated enough plot line to hang a documentary
by high tech gizmos and reality TV, docu- on. We felt horrible for the guy but there
mentaries have never been more popular was no universal truth, no significant les-
and the equipment to shoot and edit them son to be learned that we felt warranted
more accessible and inexpensive. filming a documentary.
194
Let’s Make a Documentary 195
Two months later a woman named Patti

Miller came to my office and described how
40 years ago as a Drake University junior,
she had traveled to Mississippi to participate
in the Freedom Summer, in order to help
African Americans sign up to vote. Patti,
“a lily-white Iowa girl” was fundamentally
affected by her experience, an experience
shared by others who had participated. She
pointed out that the fortieth anniversary
of Freedom Summer was approaching and
many of the volunteers were now in their
fifties and sixties. Patti’s story was a part of
history that could easily start to slip away
and the 40-year anniversary presented a
seminal opportunity to share the story.
The story moved me, and my crew and I
headed to the South to start filming. Patti’s
story had universal appeal and importance.
We decided that we would tell this story of
national racism, politically controlled hatred
and the individuals who fought oppression
through the very personal eyes of one Iowa
undergraduate female, alone and out of her
home state, for the first time in her life.
Figure 42-2 You may not have used index
cards since grade school but they are a great
Tell Me a Story tool to help you and your creative team pre-
visualize the project.
What’s your story? Is it universally applica-
ble? Is it simply a slice of life anecdote, but
very funny or very profound? Would some-
the elements of your story written down
one who doesn’t know you care or benefit
in simple outline form using 3 5 index
from becoming aware of your story? Is it
cards. Keep it loose, put each element
a scholarly piece addressing an issue or
on one 3 5 card so you can shuffle
topic discovered through research and oth-
and re-shuffle them. Lay your story out
ers should be made aware of? Could others
and look at it. Examine all your possible
benefit by seeing the world through your
elements. (Of course, you can do this with
eyes, watching you follow a particular per-
a computer too, but the index cards work
son or group of people around as they do
well for sorting out thoughts and ideas.)
what they do? If you can find a way to turn
If you have old 8-mm film from your
your personal experience into a universally
youth, log it and list it as an element. Do
shared or recognized experience, you have
you have old photos or access to old news-
the foundation for building a documentary.
paper articles? Who are the people you
At this point, identify your eventual audi-
want to interview and what subject mat-
ence and keep them in mind as your docu-
ter will they cover? Record every element
mentary morphs toward its final form.
and every topic on a card and separate the
cards with only one topic or element per
Putting It Together, Bit by Bit card. Lay them out in an order that makes
sense to you and use this to create your
So, you’ve got your story, now what? Old first outline. Keep these cards! You will
fashioned as it may seem, try to get all use them over and over again.
Figure 42-3 How will the finished piece

look (or how do you hope it will look)?
Storyboards or large sketches will further help
you communicate with your crew to assure
everything proceeds as smooth as possible
once the camera starts rolling.
Figure 42-4 A detailed budget is an extremely
important part of your pre-production planning.
You don’t want to be halfway through your
Dramatic Structure project to realize the funding is depleted.
Factor in every possible expenditure and then
Every story needs three things, a begin- add a 10% contingency.
ning, middle and end. You must define
where these points exist in your story.
An Emotional Center
Does your story have a great hook that will
involve the audience from the outset and
Regardless of your choice of treatment or
hold them? Is it most effective when told
subject matter, almost every documentary
chronologically or should it jump around
needs an emotional center. The audience
in time? Will your story be narrated, will
needs someone or a group of “someones”
you write the narration or will the subjects
to care about. A message or idea is not
you interview tell the entire story in their
enough. The characters in your documen-
own words? Will it be a combination? You
tary will carry your plotline as strongly as
must discover what is most dramatic and
your storyline. Very few documentaries
engaging about your story and tell it in a
based solely on intellectualism succeed.
way that highlights those points.
Give your documentary some heart and
some emotion. Give us someone to root for.
Tone and Treatment
Formulating a Plan
How do you want your story heard? Do
you want to create a formal documentary As soon as you have determined the struc-
with voice-over narration and drops to ture and treatment of your documentary,
interviews and B-roll, or do you want to you are ready to take your outline and
do a cinema vérité piece where the camera create a projected timeline and budget. In
seems to just exist as it captures everything order to create a budget you must decide
around it? Many documentaries these days the format in which you want to shoot
have the raw reality look of the Cops TV your project. Will you shoot film or video?
show with hand-held cameras loosely What type? How often will you need
carried on shoulders. Other documentaries sound? Will you be lighting with instru-
use guerilla tactics; they surprise people ments or will you be shooting in available
by simply shoving a microphone in their light? How many days and in how many
face. Michael Moore is famous for this. locations will you need to shoot? How big
of a crew and how much equipment will

you need? How long and with what means
will you edit?
After you answer these questions, you
will be in the best position to get close to a
bid for creating your project.
Figure 42-6
Go Find Some Funding
seem to have a passive feel? Will the story
Collect your outline, timeline, bid and be told by the people who are interviewed
distribution plan (distribution will be as the story comes out in their own way,
fully covered in Part III of this series but or will an aggressive interviewer (Michael
it must be fully fleshed out in your pre- Moore) drive the interviews, or will you
production planning if you wish to raise mix interviews with written narration to
funds from someone other than your par- be delivered in voice-over? Will your doc-
ents or credit cards). Create a printed umentary be a balance view of an issue
proposal using these elements to pass for where both sides are equally and fairly
your fund-raising efforts to support your explored? What criterion should help you
project. Documentary film budgets can make these decisions?
run the gamut from low-budget to multi-
million dollar ventures, but many make it
on a very limited amount of hard capital. Point of View
Documentary filmmakers as a group are
notoriously successful at getting “sweat Whose story is it really? You can choose
equity” from people who volunteer their to not have a “voice” in your documentary
equipment and their expertise for a stock and make it “news” style and as impar-
in the project. There will always be some tial as possible or you can choose the
hard costs though, and if you are not in individual or group that is most affected
a position to cover them yourself you by your story and let it be their story.
should see an attorney and get help set- This doesn’t mean you can’t explore both
ting up a simple system that will enable sides of an issue, it just means that you
you to accept funds on behalf of your are going to put a real face on one side
not for profit project. Some filmmakers of the issue and allow personalization
seek financial support by asking existing of the story. A compelling documentary
non-profit organizations to sponsor their should not only be factually correct but it
project, then take in the funds, and allo- should be engaging and emotionally com-
cate them back to the filmmaker. pelling. You can also personalize both
sides of a story. We have said for years in
FULFILLMENT OF THE DREAM the advertising business, “Don’t just sell
Considered an art form by many, the steak, sell the sizzle.” Find the siz-
documentary video production has its zle in your story because that is what is
own special challenges and rewards. going to eventually get you distribution
Now let’s explore how to plan your and remember that even a personal story
approach, find your subject and begin should have some universal appeal.
the process of bringing your vision to
fruition.
Sound Issues
Once you’ve chosen your topic for your
documentary, you still have many choices Never take sound for granted. Nothing
facing you. How do you want to approach ruins a video that is shot on a budget
your subject? Will your documentary quicker than bad sound. I always fight to
simple and clean. As you gain confidence

you can shoot “walk and talks” but when
you’re starting just find a safe, pretty envi-
ronment and shoot.
Conducting Interviews
I rarely have a subject speak directly to

the camera. Unless they are doing a direct
appeal to the people watching the video,
they should not speak directly to the lens.
Figure 42-7 Sound matters. Pay attention Sit directly next to the lens either to the
to your setup and shoot on location for great
emotional reactions. left or right with your eyes at the same
height as the lens and have them speak
directly to you. Don’t feel like you have
get a sound person who is solely respon- to just jump right into the subject of the
sible for sound because it is that impor- interview. If you don’t know them, spend
tant to me. If we truly can’t have the extra some time getting to know them. Ask
body I will listen for sound as I direct as I about what they like to do. Find out who
don’t feel a camera operator can split his they are and then lead them into the sub-
attention well enough to both shoot and ject you want. The cheapest component
listen effectively at the same time. That of your project is the videotape so let it
said, there have been times when I have roll. This is a technique to make them
both shot and monitored sound, you just feel more at home in front of the camera
increase your percentage chance of hav- but sometimes you also discover gems
ing a problem. Use a lapel mic on the you didn’t think you’d find. Also, listen!
person you are interviewing and if possi- Don’t be so wrapped up in the questions
ble put a pole mic on the other channel that you have planned to ask that you
right out of your shot. Blending these two don’t listen to what is actually being said.
microphones together in post will give Ask unscripted follow up questions and
you a rounder and fuller sound. If you closely explore their reactions. Let them
only have access to one mic make sure control some of the content of your inter-
the sound is as pristine as possible. Listen view. Be very open to finding a surprise
to the room before you shoot and turn off and letting it blossom into something
air changers if you can. Also take the time wonderful.
to record room tone (everyone sitting in
the room making no noise for 30 sec-
onds), or outside ambient sound, as this B-Roll
will help your editor remove background
noise in post. Keep track of everything your interviewer
says and keep in mind possible B-roll
shots that could highlight what is being
Shooting said. A-roll is when the camera is on the
subject and the words are coming out
If you don’t know the camera well, you of her mouth. B-roll is footage without
can probably survive mostly on factory sound that is shot to break up the talk-
settings. You do want to be aware of the ing head portions of an interview and
iris setting and watch out for backlight is inserted in place of the talking head
that becomes overwhelming. Be sure to during the post-production process.
white balance every time you change Documentaries many times rely on old
locations. When in doubt keep your shots pictures or licensed stock footage but
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 42-8 Shoot plenty of cutaways and angles. Your B-roll shots will be invaluable for
insertion over your interview audio.
those elements can be expensive even

for smaller projects and the licensing can
limit how and where you can show the
finished piece. Reenactments are a way to
create footage that can help fill the needs
of the project. If you are doing a piece
about the sixties, you can find old civic
buildings that still look as if they are in the
sixties. Go to someone’s attic or to a thrift
store, locate appropriate wardrobe and
create your own footage. You can pull this
footage into sepia tones or make it black
Figure 42-9 Go back to the locations where
and white in post. You can blend this cre-
pivotal events happened within your story
ated footage with the old photos you can to give your audience some additional
find and it will give the piece a sense of perspective.
movement.
who helped them at one time, don’t just

Discovery In the Moment talk about it, shoot them meeting, and get
the energy of that exact moment.
If your documentary is taking a person
back to an event or a moment that changed
his/her life, if you can afford it, don’t just Finding Your Vision
talk about it but go there. Shoot the first
time they see this place after so many years Every documentary should begin as a blank
and let them just describe what and how sheet of paper or a canvas to paint upon.
they feel. If there is a significant person What colors you use and what format
Your Own Backyard
Look locally. There are at least 15 film

festivals each year in Iowa that fea-
ture projects created within the state.
Contact your state (or even county) Film
Commission and get a list of all the local
Figure 42-10 film festivals. If you can, speak with
someone in the film office and tell him or
her about your film. Their job is to pro-
mote films produced in state, so allow
should come from a combination of you them to offer their suggestions for local
as an artist and the content of your story. distribution and attention.
Content should always dictate form but
you are in this equation as well and it will
be your passion that drives this project.
Five filmmakers could attempt the same Public Television
topic for a documentary and each would
mostly likely create a piece that only Accessibility to public television will
resembles the others by subject matter vary greatly from state to state and even
and that is as it should be. Find what regionally. Iowa, for example, has a very
excites you then find your own means to developed Public Television programming
express it. department that is very accommodating in
What’s left? Distribution. How do you terms of providing information and support
get that video seen? First determine Who for our documentaries. They even offered
is your audience and Where they will most seed monies for one of our projects, but
likely go to view your Masterpiece. we decided to self-fund and maintain
complete rights until the project was com-
SHARE THE DREAM pleted. They did, however, refer us to ITVS
(Independent Television Service), which
You found the “story” that needed to
is a service that assists filmmakers and
be told, you scraped together enough
showcases independent producers.
funding to shoot and post it and now
Unfortunately, much of what you have
you have an end product that you and
heard about the state of Public Television
your small circle of best friends think
is probably true. They still seek first-
is great … but now what?
quality programming and though open to
documentaries, they are no longer the land
Festivals are one of the first places you
of “milk and money.” Public Television has
should look to get your project noticed.
become quite dependent upon grant and
Start by building lists of potential places
gift monies to support project funding.
to show your film and group these into at
least two categories: 1) Festivals that are
well known and often lead to distribu-
tion. 2) Festivals that are grouped by pro- Cable Distribution and Television
duction type or topic, i.e., an all female Syndication
film festival if your work was all done by
females, or a film festival that celebrates What cable outlet or Broadcast channel is
stories from the south for documentary the best possible match for your project? As
about Freedom Summer in Mississippi. more and more channels become available,
Most festivals will involve some cost to the appeal of each channel becomes more
enter and you need to count this as a loss selective and niche oriented. Many cable
even if your film doesn’t make the selec- channels run a high level of documentary
tion cut. programming and much of it is tied to a
(a)
(b) (c)
Figure 42-11 A satellite uplink sends video to a satellite, a microwave dish sends video
to a TV transmitter and movie theaters send video straight to the viewer.
very specific topic, (E Entertainment, Style, will help move your material to the proper
The History Channel, Bravo). Some Cable cable outlet.
Channels are connected to entire cable net-
works. The Discovery Channel is a flagship
cable station connected to 14 other cable The Internet
stations including Animal Planet, The
Learning Channel, The Travel Channel, The Internet is exploding with show-
and FitTV. If you contact the Discovery case opportunities. Many Websites allow
Channel distribution office they can send for very extensive streaming video. Does
you the required forms for submission and your project relate to or help clarify some
aspect of someone else’s Website? Could a

portion of your documentary play on their
Website via streaming video and then be
offered for purchase? Do you have your
own Website where you can sell your end
product? If not, and your documentary is
one that people might purchase if they
knew it existed, you probably should be
selling it through a Website. Make sure
the site is clean and simple and has a Figure 42-12 A well-designed Website may
be the best tool available to get your project in
shopping cart that allows others to pur- front of thousands of eyes across the globe.
chase your documentary in a variety of
either downloadable formats or DVD.
catalogues and services that specialize in
Vidcasting videos and documentaries appropriate for
classroom and educational purposes. If
Vidcasting (also known as video pod- your documentary qualifies as a possible
casting, vodcasting and other names) is option in one of these catalogues, it would
different than streaming. It is a method certainly be worth further investigation.
of transmitting up to broadcast quality Be prepared to create a study-guide for
video via an RSS feed [Really Simple your documentary if they request one.
Syndication] to a computer. This method
of video sharing provides a low-cost, broad
Finding Funds for Distribution
and immediate marketplace for video dis-
tribution by enabling users to receive con-
Fund-raising to help find distribution out-
tinuous, high quality updates directly to
lets and marketing opportunities for your
their personal computer. Independent pro-
project is different than looking for “seed”
ducers and filmmakers can benefit greatly
money. You already have a relatively fin-
from this technology as it enables them to
ished end product and now you simply
cut out the middleman and make their vid-
need help finding ways to get people to
eos instantly accessible to a wide audience
see it. In our small town, there are many
at TV broadcast quality.
known businesses that routinely give to
Independent filmmaking, especially
special projects. The cost of underwriting
documentary filmmaking, is by nature a
the marketing for your documentary will
challenging area of video production and
probably not be much more expensive
finding a viable distributor presents a spe-
than underwriting a good-sized event for
cial challenge all of its own. If you are
your town or for an organization.
new to the documentary arena, this is an
Take your outline, your budget and a
opportunity for others to see examples of
one-page synopsis of your project which
your work and for your exposure to net-
includes not only your subject matter but
working and marketing opportunities.
why your “subject matters,” along with pos-
If you are ready to start selling or market-
sible areas for distribution to the meeting. If
ing your work you can create a sample or a
you can create a short 3–4 minute DVD that
trailer of your documentary and encourage
can function as a sample reel of your docu-
those who see your sample to go to your
mentary, it can be a very motivating portion
Website to purchase the entire piece.
of your pitch. Take a portable DVD player
to the meeting just in case. Have a detailed
Educational Video marketing plan for your project that shows
all the festivals you plan to enter, all the
An Internet search for educational vid- ways you want to present your documen-
eos will bring up a substantial list of tary and the costs for this exposure.
endeavor while promising no more than

a credit listed at the start and finish of
the documentary. PBS won’t allow much
more than a simple acknowledgement of
support. You do, however, need to know
how you plan to accept the funds if an
individual or a company offers them to
you. If PBS partners with us on one of our
projects, anyone wishing to donate to the
project designates the funds as a gift or
grant to Iowa PBS. PBS then re-allocates
the funds back to the project. Sometimes
the organization which functions as the
“pass-through” will charge a “processing”
percentage to cover its time and effort.
Last Thoughts
Figure 42-13 Organizations such as the
Foundation Center can assist video producers We have now traveled the full course of
with fund-raising right from the Internet. documentary filmmaking. We have dis-
(www.foundationcenter.org.)
cussed finding a subject, defining your
style, the technical requirements for bring-
You don’t need a formal business plan ing that vision to video and how to mar-
at this point, unless you are truly attempt- ket that video to a group of people. Like
ing to raise a substantial amount of money. any artist or craftsman, you are now
If that is the case you will need to create a equipped with the necessary tools of your
formal business plan that includes projec- trade. I look forward to one day hearing a
tions for how the money will be returned breathless documentary filmmaker at the
to those who invest. Many documen- Academy Awards stating how an article
tary filmmakers have been very success- in Videomaker Magazine helped get you
ful at raising dollars in support of their started. Hey, I can dream too you know!
Sidebar 1
Budgeting
Once you have made the initial choices about your documentary you will need to create a
budget that reflects accurate estimates of the costs involved. First estimate how many days
of shooting it will take to film your documentary. Divide the total into days when you will
record sound and days when you will just shoot images. In the industry, they call this type of
film/video budgeting as defining your “Day of Days.” Create a proposed set of crew costs for
both types of days. Even if your crew is volunteer, you will still need to consider food, travel
and ancillary costs. Next create a list of equipment for each type of day and project any “real”
or “hard” costs. Determine if you will have to rent support equipment (sound, lights, etc.,) and
get estimates for this equipment that you can put in your budget. Will you have to get permits
or insurance to shoot in any of your locations? Include these and any projected expendables,
such as videotape, in your projected budget.
If you plan to use much of your own equipment (camera editing system) and these will not
constitute “hard” costs in your budget, create an “in-kind” contribution section of the budget
that demonstrates the savings created by your “sweat-equity” (volunteered hours) and owned
equipment. This is helpful when soliciting contributions to cover the remaining “hard costs”
because potential investors can see exactly where you allocate their contributions. Create a
post-production budget and be sure to include both editing time and costs for licensing stock
footage, existing film footage, photos or music.
Video/Film budget templates exist on the Internet that can help you create your budget, just
be sure to eliminate any line items that don’t apply to your project.
Sidebar 2
Why Doc?
Documentary filmmaking is the art of telling real stories in imaginative, entertaining and
insightful ways. A documentary can retell an old story with a new twist, or present a never
before heard of issue, person, place or event that has universal appeal. It can be fair and impar-
tial, presenting both sides of a split issue, or pure propaganda. A documentary provides its
audience with an intimate look into the lives and worlds of the people and places captured
therein. There are documentaries that explore major historical events and ancient civiliza-
tions, documentaries that take us from the bottom of the ocean to the top of Mt. Everest, works
that can show us the lives of a local quilting group, or teach us to ride the most powerful and
impressive ocean waves. Documentary filmmaking is about finding a subject that you are pas-
sionate about and using the medium of video/film to share that passion with a larger audience.
The key to finding a good subject for your documentary is starting with a personal experience
or opinion that you know is shared or opposed by others, and finding a way to educate your
audience about that subject in an entertaining and thought provoking way.
Sidebar 3
Release Me
Devising an effective paper trail for your project is not the most fun you’ll ever have as a doc-
umentary filmmaker, but it is an essential step for avoiding potentially costly legal suits. It
doesn’t matter if everyone appearing in your documentary is a friend or family member, you
should still have them sign a simple release allowing you to use their Name and Likeness at
no charge to you. I have witnessed too many cases where someone who was fine with being
shot initially, but insisted later upon edits or complete removal from the finished product. The
way to protect yourself is to get a release before you shoot them.
“I hereby consent and authorize the use of my name and likeness, which may appear in any
film, videotape or still photograph released by (you and your address), in connection with the
distribution of an as yet untitled documentary (The Documentary).
I hereby authorize (you) and/or his/her assignees to use, reproduce, sell, exhibit, broadcast
and distribute any promotional materials containing my name and likeness for the purpose of
The Documentary.
I hereby waive any right to inspect or approve the finished videotape, soundtrack or adver-
tising copy or printed matter that may be used in connection therewith or to the eventual use
that it might be applied.”
You will need each individual to state whether he or she is over or under 18 or 21 years of
age, depending upon the legal age of adulthood in your state. If he or she is under that age, you
will need to have a parent or legal guardian undersign the release. He or she should provide
you with name, address, date of birth and signature and you should have a witness present at
the signing. Some producers also state directly in the release that there is “now nor will their
ever be any recompense for this recording” if that is in fact the case. I realize that this sounds
a little like overkill but these kinds of releases aren’t often read before the shoot, but they may
save your project down the road.
Sidebar 4
The Purpose of a Documentary Is:
Depicts the real lives and opinions of the filmmaker and/or his subjects
Offers a fresh perspective on an old problem, or presents an entirely new issue
Communicates a shared experience in an intimate way
Universal accessibility
Motivates people to think and take action
Entertains
Niche filmmaking, speaks to a specific audience determined by a shared interest
Teaches audiences
Arranges perspective to support or refute one or both sides of a split issue
Real
Yet dramatic
Follows local and global politics, events or characters
Insightful and imaginative
Looking at life
Medium of video/film
43
How to Use Available Light
Garret C. Maynard
If you show up on a shoot or have a spon- the camera’s desire to overcompensate. In

taneous need to roll tape with no light kit: situations where you have a choice to use
relax. Today’s cameras and their ever- sunlight or incandescent, use the former.
improving contrast ratios and light sensitive Sunlight is more colorful than the house
electronics are very forgiving. However, if lights. Remember to white balance for the
you’re not so lucky to have the ideal situa- dominant light source and, if the light
tion in which to make use of the sensitive varies a lot in the shot, write down the
electronics, here are some tips to help you f-stop for the lightest and darkest spots in
get that shot and look like a pro. the shot and then, using the manual set-
ting, place your final f-stop in between the
two readings. When all else fails, use the
Available Light Indoors backlight button, but be proactive. Make
the light work for you. Don’t let the light
Indoor lighting scenarios are innumerable, make you work.
but, for the most part, you will be dealing At night with incandescent light sources,
with sunlight and incandescent mixed you’ll have more freedom to move both the
sources in the day. subject and the light. Again, it’s a good idea
The first tip is a no-brainer: don’t place to keep the light source out of the frame,
your subject in front of a bright window. but this time you don’t have to compro-
Move the subject to a place where the mise framing, just move the light. Another
light source (window) falls on the front. If reason to remove the light from the frame is
that is impossible, frame the shot tighter because table and floor lamps (practicles)
so most of the window is not visible. In sometimes leave a halo around the subject
most cases, the auto iris of the camera will when placed in the frame. The light falling
adjust as you remove the light source so on the subject should be the brightest spot
exposure will not give you an undesir- in the frame, with as few deep shadows as
able backlight or silhouette effect. Turn possible. Try to mold the light across from
on as many lights as possible to offset the one side of the subject to the other so the
stronger sunlight behind the subject. Use difference between lighter and darker helps
the manual aperture setting to counteract create the illusion of three dimensions.
206
How to Use Available Light 207
Figure 43-1 Don’t place your subject in front of a bright window. Frame the shot tighter so most
of the window is not visible.
Available Light Outdoors: Nighttime much of the sky as background, since the
dappled light under a tree will contrast
We’ve all come across the difficulties strongly with the full sunlight in the back-
of lighting outdoors at night. If all you ground. Keep the camera angle higher so
have is the porch light, try to bounce the you can avoid too much bright sky or a hot
light or at least remove the light source background. Sunlight provides plenty of
from the frame. Don’t place the subject light for a reflector, however. Position your
directly below the light, this will cause subject in the shade and then use a reflec-
harsh shadows under the eyes, nose and tor to bounce sunlight onto your subject.
chin. Headlights from a car can work but This is really an ideal situation.
they are hard and will act like spots: try If you have to deal with varying light
bouncing them also to diffuse the light. intensities, because the subject is moving,
I’ve seen flashlights bounced off clothing for example, set the aperture to manual,
work, but this is really tricky. Moonlight take a reading of the brightest and darkest
is unlikely to work well, no matter how areas and then set your f-stop or aperture
bright it looks to your eyes. In any event, in between the two. If full sunlight with a
move your auto focus and aperture to beach or snowscape setting is unavoidable,
manual. At such low light levels, the auto at least position your subject with the sun
sensors do not work well. to the side so she doesn’t have to squint
directly into the sun. If available, you can
bounce light from the sun with a white
Available Light Outdoors: Daytime sheet, poster board or foam core. You don’t
need a big piece, just enough to illumi-
A sunny day is okay, but overcast is a bet- nate the face. The upshot is to avoid sharp
ter situation. An overcast sky throws dif- shadows and great contrast. Some shadow
fused light, creates very little shadow and is good on people, because it results in a
you can shoot all day. If there is full sun, stronger three-dimensional look. In shoot-
your subject may cast deep shadows, since ing inanimate objects, less shadow is desir-
sunlight is very hard. The stronger and able because you want to see all the detail
higher the sun, the deeper and more con- that shadows may hide.
trasty the shadows, so there’s not much If the light is too hot, your camera may
opportunity to create 3D molding. Try to overexpose the shot or overcompensate
avoid shooting from 11:00 am to 2:00pm. in the auto mode. What you really need is
During this time, the sun is high and cre- a neutral density filter, even a cheap one.
ates overhead lighting, which is very flat. These gray filters don’t change the quality of
In this situation put your subject under the light, just the intensity. They screw on to
a tree in the shade, but don’t show too the front of your lens and come in two-stop
Figure 43-2 To avoid having the subject washed out amongst the bright light (left), use a piece of
white foam core to bounce sunlight back to the talent (right).
how you apply your creativity to solve the

problem that will allow you to get the best
exposure. These tips will help but you can
come up with your own problem-solving
ideas if you are thoughtfully patient.
One time, I shot a wedding in which I
had only candlelight, and very little of that,
during a portion of the reception. The host
would not let me use my camera light. I told
him I could not get a good exposure with
such limited light. He shrugged his shoul-
ders. I knew the client would be asking later
Figure 43-3 Candles can provide soft why the interviews were so dark. I thought
illumination in places where on-camera lights
are frowned upon. of how I could exploit the situation to solve
this problem. If I could not bring light to the
increments. Also, if you want to shoot sky subjects, then I would bring the subjects to
and create fuller and deeper looking images, the light. I gathered as many candles as pos-
try a polarizer, it acts like an ND filter but sible, put them on a single table, and then
changes the quality of the light much like brought subjects to the table to conduct the
polarizing sunglasses. interviews. The final results were actually
better, more natural and lovelier than if I
Candle Power had whipped out my artificial light kit.
Most of the time, you will have at least

some control over your lighting. It’s all in
Sidebar
Cheating with Dimmers
In an indoor situation where you have bright light from a table lamp or floor lamp, try using
dimmers. Dimmers are very easy to make and you can safely wire one into an extension cord
without too much trouble. If you are in a situation where the lights are bright just whip out
your handy dandy home made dimmers and make that light as bright or dim as you want with-
out the need to rearrange the furniture. The color temperature of the light will change, but as
long as you white balance first, you should be OK.
44
Practical Special Effects:
A Baker’s Ten to Improve Your
Video Visions
Bernard Wilkie
Most videographers fall into one of two More exciting footage is possible with
groups. First, the snapshotters—people an underwater periscope, enabling videog-
who record scenes until their tapes are full, raphy beneath the surface. Camcorders
then view the disconnected events using become underwater cameras without the
the search button. Second, videographers need for expensive blimps or aqualung
and pros, who edit their tapes and employ equipment.
all the techniques and processes necessary The periscope is simply a rectangular
to obtain professional results. box with a sheet of glass cemented into the
It’s not that people in the first group bottom of one side. It contains two mirrors,
are unimaginative. They may not want to one at the bottom, one at the top. Surface-
assemble their pictures or lay down sound- coated mirrors provide better pictures, but
tracks, but often they do wish to add vari- even ordinary mirrors will produce good
ety to their videography. Thus this chapter results.
can serve snapshotters as well as the more Set up the periscope poolside and record
advanced. This list of special effects may events above or below water while hold-
also remind the experts that simple solu- ing the camera and peering through the
tions can be the best. viewfinder in the usual manner. Weight the
device to overcome its natural buoyancy.
Clamp it to something solid, like the pool
Deep Water steps. Those going to sea can mount the
periscope on a boat or sink it into the water
Children mucking about in the pool occupy for shots of marine life.
many tapes. However, all the action com- Another trick to improve waterside
monly occurs above water. close-ups involves the simple trick of
209
placing a shallow tray filled with water Mirror Dimension

and broken pieces of mirror below the pic-
ture. Ensure that the sun’s reflections fall Video pictures are two-dimensional, with
on or around your subjects. Then tickle height and width but no depth. This fact
the surface of the water with your fingers. is used repeatedly to fool viewers.
Voila! The ripple effect says your subjects The scene outside a window may be only
are waterside though they may really be a painted backcloth, but who can tell? A
nowhere near water at all. photograph of an object can look the same as
the real object. Use photos when you can’t
acquire the real thing—a priceless museum
Sound Skills exhibit, for example. Photographs, or even
photocopies, can simulate multiple items
Sound is perhaps the greatest special effect such as meter dials or control panels.
of all. The fifty-fifty semi-coated mirror, or
The videographer seeking to create the beam-splitter, is a most useful piece of
atmosphere of a shopping mall need only videography equipment. Used to super-
shoot characters looking into a store win- impose one picture over another, it works
dow. Sound effects added later will pro- because half the light passes through the
vide the essential ingredients—children glass while the other half reflects back from
calling, skateboards whirring, the voices of the surface.
people walking by, a distant police siren. Often employed to produce ghostly appa-
For the best location atmosphere, shoot ritions, it also has other, less spectral, uses.
scenes where you can capture the best and For instance, superimposing captions over
most interesting off-camera sounds. When pictures. With the mirror placed at a forty-
on vacation, don’t always aim for peace five degree angle to the lens, illuminate the
and quiet. If you want footage of your fam- words as they appear. This technique can
ily on a foreign railway station platform, create opening titles, or overlay words or
wait for the moment the train pulls out. arrows on a demonstration video.
When creating a drama, always think Superimpose graphics with a box housing
sound. Sound can often say more than the mirror and shielding it from stray light.
pictures. Imagine a scene with two people Stand the rig in front of the camera. Light
watching TV. Suddenly they react to the the caption from front or back. If lit from
sound of squealing tires on the road out- the front, place the lamps to either side. To
side. The sound of the crash that follows remain in focus, the superimposed material
has them leaping towards the window. The must lie approximately the same distance
skillful use of sound effects has fooled view- from the camera as the main subject.
ers into believing something horrific really Used with a spotlight, plain mirrors stuck
did occur. to a revolving drum provide a strobe effect.
Bet you didn’t know you can create a Two stuck back to back simulate the flash-
simulated echo using a length of garden ing lights of emergency vehicles.
hose and a funnel. Just stick the funnel in
one end of the hose. Place both ends close
to the microphone of a cassette recorder. Gun Fun
Then speak. The effect is certainly weird.
Different lengths of hose produce differ- It’s not unusual to see a TV actor, chest rid-
ent delay times. This contraption is use- dled with bullets, stagger and fall to the
ful for adding echo or creating monstrous ground. If he seems to move awkwardly it is
outer space voices. probably due less to his supposed wounds
An even better echo results from linking than to the fact he’s trying not to trip over the
funnel, hose and microphone to one input operating wires running up his trouser leg.
channel of a stereo recorder while using the This effect, using small explosive squibs
other channel and a second mic straight. secreted under clothing, is too complex
Practical Special Effects 211
and dangerous to discuss here. But there fire, smoke or explosions without assis-
do exist safe alternatives, which, if used tance from experts.
imaginatively, can appear as convincing Movie and TV producers often rent an
as those in the movies. empty house or store when they need to cre-
You can use a bicycle pump for bullets ate an outdoor fire sequence. To record in a
in the chest. Record as a separate closeup, studio is too impractical and too expensive.
for it works only with a short tube close to However, property is property, so these
the pump. big fire scenes are rigidly controlled to
Suck some fake blood into the tube and ensure they don’t get out of hand.
seal the end with a small piece of tightly In many cases fire can be simulated
stretched party balloon. Hold the balloon in without actual flames. At night, backlit
position with several turns of a rubber band. smoke rising from behind a building sug-
Placed under thin cloth, the pump will rup- gests it’s on fire. Rooms powerfully lit,
ture the diaphragm, flipping the cloth real- with smoke pouring from the windows,
istically and producing a spatter of gore. imply a house afire. Stretch a clear plastic
For continuity, shoot the garment on a sheet behind the window and pump smoke
stuffed sack. Then remove and place on up underneath it. This ensures maximum
the actor. A limp balloon containing blood effect at the window while preventing too
and worn under a garment will produce a much smoke from filling the room.
spreading stain when punctured by a spike But the fact there’s no flame doesn’t guar-
attached to a ring worn by an actor. The antee total safety. Always ensure crew and
flow will increase by keeping the hand in artists have a clear exit to the outside. No
place and pressing hard. one should have to stumble around in thick
A rat-trap set up behind scenery can smoke and darkness.
punch out a piece of wall or knock a hole Smoke, of course, is essential for all fire
in a door. The hole must be pre-made, filled sequences. Much depends on the sort of
with appropriate material to disguise its true smoke used. In moviemaking there are two
nature. Insert a captive peg from behind. types: pyrotechnic, and machine-made. Of
When struck by the trap the peg ejects the the two, only the smoke machine is con-
filling, leaving a hole. trollable. Pyrotechnics, once lit, will burn
Rat-traps can also simulate a bullet hit- to a finish.
ting a mirror. Protect the front with a sheet You can rent smoke machines; those who
of rigid plastic and cover the back with self- don’t know where to look should contact a
adhesive vinyl. This is essential to produce local theater or TV studio.
a really good shattering effect; without it Smoke from reputable machines should
the glass just breaks. cause no breathing problems, even when
A bicycle pump with some talcum pow- discharged indoors. Pyrotechnic smoke
der in the barrel will produce a convinc- is appropriate only for exterior work or in
ing spurt of dust from rocks or concrete. places where it won’t be inhaled.
Use energetically and apply a good rico- Movie studios produce controlled flames
chet effect on the soundtrack. by igniting propane. The gear usually con-
No bullet effect will impress without sists of a fireproof and crushproof hose
realistic sound. Conversely, a poor effect with a shut-off valve and pressure reducer.
can often pass with a professional sound- At the business end is a length of copper
track liberally sprinkled with gunshots. tube terminating in a sort of flattened
funnel.
You can smatter small areas of flame
Smoke and Flames around a set by using absorbent material
treated with a dash of kerosene, burned
This can be a touchy area; as always, on metal sheets or fireproof board. With
Videomaker does not recommend you the appropriate amount of smoke this will
endeavor to create sequences involving simulate the aftermath of an explosion.
House Mess knife. But if you cut the letters or words as

rectangles from white paper you can stick
Many videographers must shoot in their them to a white backing, the joins between
own homes, which can cause problems painted over with white artist’s paint or
when trying to capture scenes of dirt and typing correction fluid. Photocopied, the
degradation. Fortunately, it’s usually pos- joins disappear.
sible to obtain materials easily cleaned up You can apply rubdown lettering or reus-
at the end of the day. able vinyl stick-ons to a sheet of glass and
Freely spread sawdust, dry peat, coco- place over various fancy papers or illustra-
nut fiber, Fullers Earth, rubber dust and tions. You can also place the glass in front
torn-up paper; all will disappear beneath of three-dimensional objects like flowers
broom or vacuum at the end of the shoot. or coins. Tabletop captions are simple to
It’s not easy creating convincing scenes produce and offer more variety than stereo-
of mess and filth. The camera has a habit typical electronic images.
of prettifying even the nastiest setups. It’s A tracing paper screen and a slide projec-
therefore often necessary to exaggerate the tor are also useful for graphic backgrounds.
dirty scenes. You need not project slides onto a flat
For oil, food or paint spills, pour liquid screen; you can project them onto textured
latex onto a sheet of glass or metal. When surfaces like rumpled cloth, rough plaster
set, spray paint the mess with any color. or piles of snow.
Peel off to provide a movable puddle; place Interesting animations can result by fix-
where required. ing the lighting, the camera and the lettering
Dead and dried vegetation often comple- to a common mount in which loose objects
ment this sort of scene. Torn plastic sheeting such as marbles, sea shells, sand, sugar or
sprayed nasty colors and wrapped around liquids are free to move around. When you
pipes, faucets and radiators also looks good. tilt the rig, the camera perceives no move-
To make metal appear rusty, wipe with ment of the backing; meanwhile, the loose
a smidgen of petroleum jelly. Then blow objects react strangely, defying gravity and
cocoa atop the grease. moving in a random and seemingly unpre-
Cobwebs are great for dirty scenes, pro- meditated fashion.
duced by spinning liquid latex in a special
device called a cobweb gun. These guns are
for rent, the fluid available from TV and the- President Matte
atrical supply houses. Spin webs over a col-
lection of objects bunched close together for Miniatures are models placed in front of
the best effect. Cobwebs won’t straddle open a set to extend the scenery or provide an
spaces; string thin cotton across voids. Blow effect unobtainable by other means. Mattes
talcum powder onto cobwebs to make them perform a similar task, but are simply flat
visible. Don’t apply to absorbent surfaces. paintings on glass.
This is an oversimplification, because
there also exist creatures like “hanging min-
Caption Making iatures” and “traveling mattes.” But these
characters would take us into deep techni-
Electronic devices to produce lettering for cal water, and we’re interested here only in
videos are now available, either as separate the simple stuff.
equipment or as integral camera circuitry. Say the action occurs in the oval office
Stick-on or rubdown letters come cheap of the White House. They won’t let you
and offer a variety of typefaces. Even maga- tape there, and a recreation would eat up
zines and newspapers will produce usable your entire budget. So go for the special
opening titles. effect.
No one wants to engage in the laborious You may have to hire a table and some
chore of cutting round letters with a stencil chairs—pretty safe stuff, because who,
Practical Special Effects 213
after all, recalls exact details of the White which in fact sits right in front of him.
House? Keep him stationary: if he strolls across the
Sensibly, you’ll video your fake president set he’ll pass behind the model and expose
against an easily obtainable neutral wall. the trick.
But at some point you’ll have to show the If you’d like to try a matte shot, paint on
room, or at least a convincing recreation. a board a simple sky and set it up where it
One option is a matte. If you can procure will cover a busy background. Make sure
a talented artist, take a large pane of glass, the bottom of the board lines up with the
mount it on legs and position it between top of a wall or some similar feature. Shoot
Mr. P and the camera. With constant ref- it. The effect can be quite extraordinary.
erence through the camera viewfinder the
artist can paint the oval office, leaving a
hole in the middle to perceive Mr. P, his Cardtoon Creations
desk and the back wall.
Suppose you don’t have such an artist. Children exposed to television since birth
So get a photo of the scene, blow it up, accept everything on the screen without
cut out an area where Mr. P will sit and, if question, and quite often without interest.
your photo is black-and-white, add some So why not give them the chance to par-
color washes. There. The White House. ticipate as creative artists?
A cardtoon is the electronic counterpart of
the puppet theater, where little figures move
Miniature Quixote around on sticks. Recording the cardtoon
technique on video gives youngsters the
Let’s try a second example: the story of opportunity to design their own characters
Don Quixote, the man who tried to kill and write their own scripts. After the show
windmills. they can sit back and view the results.
Unable to take your unit to Spain, you’ll Unfortunately, video cameras don’t work
use plaster-of-paris, sawdust, sand, card- in the same way as the movie cameras that
board and other materials to construct a film Disney cartoons, so the action and
baseboard model of a sandy plain. On the movement must take place in real time.
horizon position a model windmill with This is accomplished by cutting charac-
motor-driven sails. Finally, mount the ters from stiff card and articulating them
model on a rig supported from one side with tiny rivets and paper hinges.
only. Put in a sloping floor in the studio and Animation comes from fixing the vari-
cover it with sawdust and sand. At the back ous parts to hidden sticks or incorporating
paint a ground row to provide the horizon. cardboard levers hidden behind parts of
Finish up with three components: the the background.
sky backing, the main scene on the floor A simple example involves a picture of
and, sticking in from one side with its the sea, drawn as repeating lines of stylized
supporting leg out of vision, a model of a ripples. Suddenly, up leaps a fish, attached
sandy plain and the windmill. Make sure to a cardboard lever and rotated between
everything lines up and adjust the lighting two layers of the wave pattern.
to insure a complete blend. Still at sea, imagine a pirate ship sailing
When using a miniature, join the model across, pushed or pulled from one side. Or
to the set along natural boundaries—hedges, a diver surfacing from beneath the waves.
woods, roads—where the foreground, All videography is a combination of
which we see as the background, will blend long shots and close-ups, so we’ll have to
unnoticed. see the faces of the pirates onboard ship.
Don Quixote will stand on the opposite You can make them speak using a simple
side of the set from the windmill, pointing up-and-down movement of the jaw. It’s
towards the background and yelling, “Kill! the eyes moving that give the characters
Kill!” He’ll look at the distant windmill, the most expression.
A few versions of the same heads—left vehicle is moving because the background
and right profile, large and small—will is receding—achieved via chromakey—but
result in a really satisfying cardtoon. the scene would look dead if it weren’t for
You can usually manipulate the parts by the fact that shadows continually sweep
hand, though certain creatures may have to across the faces of the actors. A spotlight,
move faster than your digits can. In these some plywood, flags on broom handles and
cases you can employ thin dressmaking some keen staff to wave them about and we
elastic as pulling springs. achieve the effect of an auto in motion.
For night shots sweep a hand-held lamp
from front to rear.
Trick of the Light The prison scene looks a lot more sinis-
ter if a spotlight, trained on the floor, shines
Light, like sound, is too often taken for through a cutout silhouette of iron bars.
granted. It can suggest things which aren’t Many of these effects cause the autofocus
really there; backlit smoke that looks like to hunt. Switch to manual whenever this
fire is but one example. occurs.
Take a look at movie scenes set in the
countryside. The trees and the dappled
sunlight through the leaves say we’re in a Give Them a Try
wood, but the effect is truly produced by
shining a lamp through holes cut in thin Does any of this sound like fun? It is. Just
plywood sheets. remember, you’ll never know unless you
Look at the two people in the front get out your camcorder and do it yourself.
seat of a studio automobile. We know the All it takes is a little imagination.
PART IV
Post-Production Techniques
How to edit all that footage you’ve got “in the can” with precision and style.
45
Editing from Start to Finish
Bill Davis
Figure 45-1
If you’ve been dragging your heels get- special effects, editing and sweetening
ting started with video editing because your sound track. When done, you should
you think it’s just too complicated, you’re have a good overview of everything you
in the right place at the right time. This need to know about how editing works in
entire article breaks down a typical video a modern, computer driven edit bay.
project and covers a step by step expla-
nation of the process a well-organized
videographer might follow to produce a Defining the Project
quality program.
We’ll start by showing you some impor- The example project we will follow is a
tant steps to begin the preparation before simple family history video. We’ll be com-
you begin to edit, by showing you the best bining photos and live video clips with
ways to log scenes and capture video so music and graphics into an easy-to-watch
your editing process is smoother later on stroll down memory lane for family mem-
down the road. Next, we’ll cover ordering bers who’ll be gathering for a 30th wed-
clips, trimming and pacing. Then we’ll ding anniversary celebration. Our project
tackle adding titles and graphics. And goal is to create a video master that will
finally, we’ll discuss how to add music, be shown at the party and eventually used
217
to make VHS or DVD copies for family

members who can’t attend.
Prep It
Step one is to do a review of the assets we Figure 45-2 Log and Capture: Batch capture
need in order to create our video. For our is where all the time you spent logging really
project, our assets include a box of fam- pays off. All you need to do is load your log
ily photos, some old 8 mm films and some and hit the Batch Capture button.
more modern home movies on Hi8 and
VHS videotape. We also have home cas- them to the project. Finally, you’ll want to
sette recordings of Aunt Martha playing make sure you have enough drive space
the piano. We even have some songs on for the length of project you’re planning.
CD and Mini DV tape from the very recent We’d recommend about 30 GB of space for
past. These will be easy to get on the com- an hour-long program, although that all
puter, however. depends on how efficient you are during
the logging and subsequent capture phase.
Get Organized
Transfer It!
Organization for any video project starts
with the script, even for projects that rely For our project, we’ll need to scan paper
on archival material and stock footage. photos into our computer. We’ll also need
Without some kind of script, it’s hard to to convert analog video and audio tapes to
break down the shooting process into man- a digital format. Often, the easiest way to
ageable steps. A clear script also helps you accomplish this is to dub analog sources,
prepare your storyboard. like old VHS tapes, onto digital videotape
Storyboards don’t have to be compli- using a DV camcorder. Many DV cam-
cated, but they are the best way to orga- corders accept analog input via S-video or
nize your video on paper in preparation RCA video (composite) and audio jacks.
for logging and capturing. Whereas your Although the conversion process takes
script will indicate what you’re saying as long as it takes to play back your tapes
to the audience, your storyboard should (otherwise known as “real time”), the dig-
show where each scene or still fits into ital conversion process is easy and high
the overall flow of your project. When you quality. As a bonus, you’ve just backed
review your storyboard, you can consider up your aging tape archive. (Don’t throw
elements such as program themes, pacing, away the originals!)
fonts and color pallets, and make note of This process also works for music. Take
where you need music and special effects. the audio outputs of your cassette player or
Pre-production (as this phase is called) turntable, attach them to the audio inputs of
is also the time to organize your other pro- your digital camcorder and make a digital
gram assets. Take the time to make sure tape copy. The result will be black video
you label every tape with a unique name. with a digital soundtrack, ready to import
Open your editing software and set your into your editor like any other DV source
preferred storage locations for clip cap- material. Film is much, much trickier and
ture, audio and render files, establish your is another article entirely. Remember to
frame rate and compression settings and allow plenty of time for transferring if you
preview parameters. have to send your old home movie film out
This is also the time to establish the struc- to a photo processor to have dubbed. Those
ture of your project files, bins and folders old treasures can take weeks if you have to
with names or number codes that connect mail them out to a dubbing agency.
Editing from Start to Finish 219
Figure 45-3 Analog Capture: Often, the Figure 45-4 JKL: Tape logging is all about
easiest way to capture analog sources to your simple keyboard commands in your editor.
computer is to first digitize the footage to your
DV camcorder.
to mark the In and Out points. This process
Log and Batch of marking In and Out timecode points on
individual clips and then collecting these
If you just need to capture a single clip, individual clips into a list is what we mean
all video editing software allows you to by logging. The L key moves the play head
manually capture a scene simply by roll- downstream, much like shuttling tape for-
ing your tape and then clicking a button. ward on a deck. The J key moves the play-
This immediately initiates the capture head upstream, like reverse shuttling or
process and writes the footage to your rewinding a tape. Hitting the same key mul-
hard drive until you hit escape or click tiple times typically increases the speed of
the Stop button. This is adequate for only the shuttle. The K key stops the playhead.
the most simple of projects. Try holding down the K key while pressing
During more serious productions, you’ll either L or J to advance a frame at a time:
likely have multiple takes, duplicate shots, KL moves you forward one frame at a
bits and pieces of chance happenings and time, while KJ moves backward frame by
surprises, all captured on your field tapes. frame. Some programs let you shuttle frame
Logging is when you get to review each by frame using your arrow keys, too.
shot and decide if it’s the right element to The I and O keys typically mark the In
contribute to your program. So insert your and Out points of your scenes. Finally,
source tape and bring up your application’s your software program will have a “save
batch capture logging tool. The software clip” keystroke (F2, in some programs) that
will probably ask you for a reel or tape will bring up the clip-naming window. Clip
name at this point: settle on a convention naming is important since if you name clips
and match the name you enter to the name carefully, it’s easier to arrange them in the
on the label of the tape and you are set to go. proper order when you move them to the
Pay attention to this step, however. Labeling timeline. Once the I/O points are marked
tapes and your projects in an orderly manner and the clip is named and saved, you can
in the beginning of a project will save you consider it logged.
many headaches later on in the process. With just a little practice, you’ll reach
Tape logging is all about simple keyboard a point when logging keystrokes become
commands in your editor. Most apps follow automatic as you shuttle through your foot-
the Avid convention of using keystrokes age. When you’ve logged your final tape,
centered around your right hand’s position you’ll likely have bins full of “offline” clips
on the keys J, K and L (see Figure 45-1).The (sometimes marked by a red slash through
spacebar lets you play your footage in order their icon), which are merely pointers to
our clips in some kind of sensible flow.

For our program, we’ll lay our clips on the
timeline in a rough chronological order,
with the oldest photos and clips first.
The simplest way to get our clips onto
the timeline is often just to drag them
from their bins onto the timeline one at
a time. If you’ve been careful with your
clip names, you can often automate some
of this process by moving clips onto the
timeline in batches, especially for material
that is ordered chronologically.
Figure 45-5 Database: A Batch Capture log Many editors are set up to insert batches
loosely mirrors your production logs and
can be a sophisticated database if you use it of files onto the timeline in the order of
properly. their names. This is a powerful function
since you can roughly pre-order your
clips by simply naming them in groups.
the original tapes that hold your digital
For example, a clip titled 01-001 will be
footage. They contain the reel number
placed on the timeline directly ahead of
and start and stop timecode of the scenes
one titled 01-002. After the numbers, you
you’ve selected, but don’t actually contain
can name the files with something more
any video information. If you have labeled
descriptive to help you remember. Most
your tapes well and named the tape prop-
editing software also lets you add com-
erly in your log file, you can save this tiny
ments to the database that makes up your
log file on your computer and return to
clip bin, so go ahead and use that if you
capture the actual footage effortlessly, even
find it useful. Most editors also have a way
a decade from now.
to pre-set the duration of a still. The result
Batch Capture is where all the time you
of our batch insert of the section one still
spent logging really pays off. All you need
shots will be a series of 6-second clips on
to do is load your log and hit the Batch
the timeline.
Capture button. Your computer will work
Next, we’ll insert the video clips for sec-
with your deck or camcorder to rewind
tion one onto the timeline. If there are pre-
or fast forward as necessary, cue the clip
built title screens, other graphics, sound
and capture all of your clips. Just sit back
effects or whatever, they get placed on our
and watch as your trusty computer does
timeline next. We’ll need to start paying
your bidding. Or take a stretch and go
attention to the different tracks on the time-
walk the dog.
line so that titles that will be superimposed
Our goal so far has been to organize our
over video will be displayed properly.
work, then capture and store the fundamen-
tal source media for our project. Next we’ll
cover moving our newly captured digital
assets onto the timeline, trimming and bal-
Order on the Timeline
ancing the timeline elements in a way that
Now that our clips are on the timeline, we
gives our program the proper pacing.
can look at them and decide how to move
them around into a more pleasing order.
Get Editing! Order of Battle One way to time your edits is by look-
ing at the soundtrack. The tempo of our
Unlike narrative work such as a play or music track can often be seen as spikes in
movie, the kind of family history highlights the audio waveform. Lining up the cuts
video we’re planning doesn’t come with between the images and video with the
a predefined story arc. Therefore, we’ll spikes in the waveform gives you an auto-
need to establish our goals for ordering matic way to edit.
(a)
(b)
Figure 45-6 Image Duration: Most video

editors have a way to pre-set the duration of
a still.
Many beginning videographers start by

doing their cuts on the beat in the sound-
track. But let’s look closer at our content.
The first still image here is a group shot.
There are quite a few family faces in this
photo compared to photo #2, which is a (c)
still of Aunt Martha playing solo. Still #3
is a closeup of her hands on the keyboard.
The video is a talking head clip of Aunt
Martha talking about the fun the family
always had gathering around the piano at
the holidays.
Rather than just marching through the
photos, let’s look at how a creative editor
might use them to help the audience absorb
the full content of the visuals and build a
more effective shot progression. The open-
ing still image covers two measures of the
soundtrack, giving the audience more time Figure 45-7
to look at the multiple faces in the photo.
Photo #2 has been shortened and, half-
way through, it’s been composited with
the keyboard shot. Next, the talking head The video no longer simply marches to the
replaces the single shot of Aunt Martha, so beat of the underlying music, while it is still
that she can make her comments. totally in sync. Also notice the split edit
The result is that the same information is where Aunt Martha starts talking before we
presented to the viewer in the same amount see her. This is a common technique that
of time, but we’ve given more time to the helps increase viewer interest by providing
complex shot with the multiple faces and them with new information (the live audio)
given the audience a more interesting edit. before seeing the clip associated with it.
are only relevant to the project and your

source material remains unchanged.
The Order to Retreat
It’s also critical to learn to see the big pic-

ture, even when you’re working on the
smallest edit. With the kind of precision
control that editing software offers you,
it’s easy to get caught up in trimming
a frame here or a frame there and forget
to stand back and watch a complicated
sequence in its entirety.
There’s nothing more frustrating than
working for an hour on a small sequence,
tuning it up until it’s nearly perfect, and
then discovering that your video is too
Figure 45-8 Trim It: The Trim function allows long. Then you have to face the realiza-
the editor to move the In and Out point of tion that the best thing you can do for your
a clip in small increments. The trim bar is
highlighted here. video is to simply remove the entire sec-
tion that you’ve just perfected. Be cruel
and merciless and cut where you can.
Making the Cut
Close Order
Another skill that makes many beginning
editors feel uncomfortable is determin- So, the bottom line for editing is that there
ing exactly where to make a cut between is not one right way to do it. The whole
two scenes. In a non-linear edit system, object of the exercise is to arrange and trim
it’s easy to experiment and fine tune edit your material in a way that keeps your
points using the trim function. audience involved in the presentation.
The editor sets up In and Out points and Accomplish that, and your edit is right.
then plays that edit, plus a good chunk of No matter how you got there.
the material coming into and out of the
edit, again and again (i.e., loops it). The Graphic It!
Trim function allows the editor to move
the In or Out point of a clip in small incre- Now that we’ve covered preparing for the
ments using keyboard commands, all the edit and building the timeline, we’ll look
time watching the resulting edit and mak- at the next step in the post-production pro-
ing adjustments until it feels just right. cess: spicing up your video with titles
If you’re still unsure of an edit, another and graphics. Before videographers were
helpful trick is to play the original video empowered with the excellent titling
clip and mark your In or Out edit points functions built into most of today’s edit-
on the fly. This means just playing a clip ing software, creating good-looking titles
in real time and marking your edit where was difficult.
your instincts tell you the edit should go. Broadcast quality titlers were expensive
One famous editor has said that when and hard to operate. Less expensive stand-
he watches the same clip three times in alone titlers often had severe stylistic limi-
a row and hits the same exact Edit point tations. Today, video titling is much, much
three times, he knows he’s found the per- easier. Any quality software is likely to
fect place. Remember that when you are have built-in graphics and titling capabili-
trimming clips on the timeline, you aren’t ties that would have been the envy of even
really changing the file itself. Edit points a network TV station only a decade ago.
Each field consists of every other line of

information.
In practical terms, the effective resolution
of most household color TV sets typically
hovers around 260 lines. So what does this
all mean to someone wanting to do some-
thing simple and practical like putting a
title on the video screen?
Trying to put small stuff with fine
details, like text, on a TV screen can be
an exercise in frustration. There simply
isn’t enough effective screen resolution to
work with the size of type that works just
fine on paper. So the first rule for video
title creation is this: big and bold usually
Figure 45-9 Stripes: Using small fonts on works better than small and delicate.
interlaced video will result in parts of the
letter blinking on and off as the screen is
scanned.
Color Your World
NOT a Glorified Word Processor Video type designers have another chal-
lenge: movement. Unlike the print designer
You may be tempted to think of your soft- who has an even background once the
ware’s titling program as nothing more paper type and color are selected, the
than a glorified word processor. Don’t. The video designer sometimes faces the need to
techniques necessary for putting words layer text over moving video. This process
on a TV screen have only the most basic means the type designer must work with a
principles in common with the design background that changes from moment to
and layout of printed documents. The moment.
video editor’s goal is to get legible text to Imagine that you’ve decided to do a title
display on the comparatively rough reso- over a shot of a street scene. The wall of
lution of a video raster, which is, in many the building opposite is dark, so you’ve
ways, much harder than print on paper. selected a light type color. Things look
It’s a whole ’nother ballgame. great as you’re building your type. Then
you watch your program and, much to your
surprise, after just a couple of seconds, a
Raster Stuff white truck pulls up in the frame. The light
colored type that you specified to match
The term “raster” is just tech-speak for the the dark building suddenly disappears.
pattern of dots organized into lines that The experienced video type designer
make up a visual display of information on a will understand that it’s usually better to
computer or TV screen. Your computer typ- build titles in a way that they can with-
ically uses a display with a progressive scan stand the challenge of this kind of chang-
raster. In this kind of system, the display ing background. Try adding a drop shadow
image is written as a series of lines that are to your text, preferably in a sharply con-
generated left to right, top to bottom, one line trasting color and brightness. This can
after another until the picture is complete. help keep a title readable even when the
When the TV standards were set back in background shifts or when the title over-
the 1950s, they specified that our televisions laps two areas with different colors. Or
would work on an interlaced scan system. you can set a background mask behind the
Thirty frames of video are generated each type that dims or completely blocks the
second, divided into two interlaced fields. background in just the area where the type
(a)
(b)
Figure 45-11 Title Safe: Most editing systems

have a safe screen view for fonts within the
center 60–80 percent of the screen.
First, we’ll generate a title screen pro-

claiming Grandma and Grandpa “Saturday
Night Fever—Grand Champions!” The joke
resolves itself in the next scene where we
dissolve in the additional line “Wishful
(c)
Thinking Division” over the gyrations of
the on-screen couple.
This breaking of the invisible wall between
the program and the audience isn’t always
appropriate, but with the family video we’re
discussing here, it’ll be fine. Here there’s no
reason the videographer can’t comment on
the proceedings and share inside jokes with
the audience, even if they’re cheesy. And
it’s a good example of how adding type and
graphics to your program gives you another
Figure 45-10 Shadow Land: Try adding a drop
way to communicate with your audience.
shadow to your text to keep your titles readable.
occupies the screen. Or you could throw a Keep It Safe

geometric colored shape behind the title.
This doesn’t have to be an emergency fix Not all colors in the spectrum are colors
for a problem, either, but these ideas can that will play out well on your TV. Wild
and should be an intimate part of the crea- colors can look cool on a computer, but a
tive design and layout of a good title. psychedelic green on your PC might end
up looking seasick green when shown on
Practical Examples a regular television. You also need to be
aware of the safe title areas on the screen.
Here’s an example of what we are talking Most editing systems have a safe screen
about. In our scene, Grandma and Grandpa view for fonts. It’s within the center 60–
are disco dancing at a family celebration. 80 percent of the screen, and it keeps that
Let’s use our type generator to spice up the overly large title “Jenny’s Birthday” from
scene with a few humorous captions. playing out as “enny’s Birthd.”
Traditional Titling can take a good program and make it great.

We call this audio sweetening. We’ll tweak
Of course titling and graphics are also and adjust, adding little sonic touches that
at home in everything from business to can make your soundtrack stand out and
wedding videos. Anyone who has ever really sparkle. Sweetening includes apply-
watched a movie understands the function ing effects such as compression, normali-
of an opening title sequence. In the movies, zation or possibly reverb to your existing
it not only displays the title of the program, soundtracks as well as the addition of
but it often carries a lot of information rang- sound effects and other audio enhance-
ing from the production company logo, to ments. In most video projects, dialog is crit-
names of the stars, director and other key ically important to the story or message. So
players. Opening titles are the first impres- first up, let’s take a look at some techniques
sion we get of a movie and they strongly that can help clarify dialog and speech.
set the tone for what is to come. And titles
wind down the end of the picture as well.
Titling and graphics in your videos can Get Level
do the same thing, helping orient poten-
tial viewers to what they’re going to see Unless all your footage comes from the
and making sure that the people doing same source and the same setup, the audio
the hard work to create the program get levels you’ve recorded will probably vary
the credit they deserve. If you are not the greatly from clip to clip. If you want the
most accomplished design professional, audience to hear these clips clearly, spend-
our realistic advice is to keep it simple. ing some time adjusting the audio levels of
Use your titles to communicate as clearly your clips so that they’re more or less con-
as possible and try not to make them dis- sistent is a good first step in sweetening.
tracting. While it’s natural to concentrate You can manually do this using your ears
on your video and audio to carry story and the audio meter in your software or you
content to your audience, don’t overlook can use a filter to process your entire audio
the advantages of something as simple as stream so that it sounds more consistent.
on-screen type. So, no matter what type Compression and normalization are two
of program you’re working on, spending of the most common software processes
some quality time working out your pro- used on spoken content and indeed much
gram graphics and titles can be worth it. of modern popular music. Compression is
a process where we lower or reduce the
dynamic range of the audio, which is the
Sweeten It! difference between the softest and loud-
est parts of track. Essentially, it makes the
We’ve made it to the home stretch. Our softer sounds louder, while making louder
family tribute video example is almost fin- sounds softer. This leaves you with a more
ished. We’ve logged, captured, edited and consistent track. We’d recommend being
built the video portion of our timeline, cautious about using too much compres-
including everything from transitions to sion, however, as you’ll sometimes want
titles. So what’s left? Sweetening. your actors to whisper their lines and at
Sweetening your project is like the icing other times shout, but for parts like the
on the cake. A little finesse will “wow” your
fans. We do that by finalizing our audio
track and getting our program ready for
public viewing. We’ll also talk about what
you can do when you finish one project to
make your next project easier. First, we’ll Figure 45-12 Squeeze Play: A compressor
make one final pass to add a little extra stabilizes the audio of your project to prevent
something to our project, something that sudden volume changes.
Figure 45-13 Quest for Equality: An equalizer

allows you to emphasize and de-emphasize
individual frequency bands to improve the
overall sound of your project.
voice-over narration, compression is almost Figure 45-14 Sounds Good: There are
a required process. literally hundreds of sound effects libraries
Normalization is a variant of compression, available online or via disc.
where the dynamic range is not only com-
pressed, but after compression is applied, concentrate on consistency first. Applying
the volume is turned up to a maximum. reverb to one clip and not another can
Applied to a well-recorded track with a solid make them sound as if they were recorded
signal-to-noise ratio and no unwanted back- in two different locations.
ground sounds, normalization can yield an
excellent result for helping sonic elements SFX
like narration stand out in your videos.
But … one problem that may appear Once you have the dialog and voice-over
is that if your initial track isn’t clean, the tracks in top shape, the next step in sweet-
normalization process will take your noisy ening is to look at your program in terms
background and normalize it along with the of how secondary sounds can help you tell
speech you’re trying to enhance. The result your story. Let’s say our family history video
can be an even noisier track than one with- has a video section where dad is teaching
out normalization. If the recording is good, Junior to drive. We have silent footage trans-
a modest amount of compression will often ferred to videotape from old 8 mm film. Why
make it sound better. But if you discover, after not use the sound effect of a car starting
applying compression, that you’ve managed over the title slide as an audio introduction
to enhance elements of your soundtrack that into this section? Then as dad and son drive
are annoying, you can back off. away at a responsible and stately pace, you
could add a revving engine and screeching
EQ and Reverb brakes for a humorous effect.
There are literally hundreds of sound
There are two other digital enhancements effects libraries available online or via disc.
that are commonly used by professionals Sometimes, just browsing through the index
to sweeten the mix. The first is equaliza- of available sounds can spark some new cre-
tion or EQ. This is where you bring up ative ideas on how you can add some new
the bass a bit to warm the audio up or interest to your program. The point is that
perhaps bring down the high trebles to sound is a powerful communications tool
get rid of a nasty hiss. EQ is technically that reaches far beyond the basic processes
easy to use, but it takes a real artist to get of capturing and reproducing dialog.
it right. The second tweak is reverb. This
filter effect can add space to your mix and Master the Moment
even give a sense of stereo separation to a
monophonic recording. In both cases, but The timeline is complete and our program
especially with reverb, use restraint and is ready to master! In this digital era, the
why tape labeling, organization and a good

file naming convention are important?
That’s a Wrap
The video is finished. We planned care-

fully, logged, captured, edited, trimmed
and built a dynamic and interesting time-
line. We took great pains to make sure our
video and our soundtrack communicated
clearly. We also added some visual and
Figure 45-15 Pack It Up: Include batch sonic sparkle to our finished product. And,
capture lists, project files, graphics, pictures, at the end of production, we mastered our
sounds and other media on your backups. show and took care of our system house-
keeping chores in order to be ready for our
whole concept of making a master video- next project. After all of this hard work
tape is actually a little out of date. Since what are you likely left with? The simple
modern editing systems simply put out a answer is a video that will delight your
stream of digital data, making a program family and friends, but you’re also left with
master is really just making a copy of your what you’ve learned. And that’s probably
digital data in a form that someone can the most valuable asset in the entire pro-
watch. The tape can be digitally cloned duction process.
with each copy identical to another. Obvi- Editing software programs will come and
ously, this makes archiving our work more go. So will the cameras, lights, microphones
flexible than ever before. and even many of the people you worked
The final step in my typical produc- with on your productions. The one thing
tion process is to do a computer backup that will never leave you is your knowl-
of the data files I used in creating my pro- edge and understanding of the process of
gram. That includes the batch capture list making a good video. The ability to tell a
created by the editing software and any story in a way that can engage, inspire or
graphics, pictures, sounds or other media delight an audience is a very valuable skill
that I’ve created for the show. that will last you a lifetime. Show promise
I tend to keep the video clips on my hard in this field and don’t be surprised if you
drive from my last few programs just in case find yourself sought out by other people
I need to make changes, but sooner or later, who will want you to help them harness
they get deleted. If I need to recreate the the amazing power of video.
program later, all I have to do is reload my BIO: Bill Davis writes, shoots, edits and
master files and re-Batch Capture the clip does voice-over work for a variety of cor-
from the original tapes. Now do you see porate and industrial clients.
Sidebar 1
Copyright Concerns
Our fictional video features music by “Aunt Martha” performing her own compositions on
the piano. This would clearly be free of copyright concerns. Copyright-protected commercial
music used for family-style home video projects isn’t much of a problem. All producers should
be aware, however, that the use of any element protected by copyright without explicit permis-
sion of the copyright holder is a violation of the law and can make your project ineligible for
entry into video judging contests. The use of commercially available “buyout” music is always
a safer choice if you ever plan to use your project for any public or commercial purpose.
Sidebar 2
The Importance of Capture Settings
Modern editors don’t need to render material on the timeline that remains unaltered. If you
ever find yourself rendering even the simplest cuts-only sequences, you need to check your
project settings. The problem is likely that your clip settings don’t match the capture settings
you established when you opened up your new project. In most situations, you should only
have to render title sequences and transitions between clips.
Sidebar 3
Ripple Edits and Inserts
Every editing system works a bit differently in terms of specifying what kind of edit you’re
doing when you drop new material over old. In some modes, you’ll insert the new into the
old, pushing the previous material downstream (i.e., ripple edit). In another mode, the same
action might simply place the new content on a new timeline layer, overwriting the old clips
with the new ones. Both kinds of editing actions are valuable and as you get to know your
software package, you’ll learn how to switch among the various editing modes.
Figure 4-16
Sidebar 4
MultiSelect
There are often a number of ways to select multiple clips and move them as a group on the
timeline. In the most usable software programs, the technique mirrors the behavior of your
operating system. In other words: CTRLclick (OPTIONclick on a Mac) to select multiple
individual clips. You can also click and drag a selection area around your multiple clips in
some environments or SHIFTclick to select a range on a Windows PC. Some editors have
other kinds of selection tools that allow you to move clips more efficiently.
Sidebar 5
The Power of Type
The best titles give you an introduction to the tone and spirit of the film. Sit down in a theater
full of rabid Star Wars film fans and don’t be surprised if they start cheering the moment they
see the hallmark tilted back yellow type against a star field opening.
It’s clear that director George Lucas doesn’t have any type design limitations and could have
fancier titles if he wanted them. In his latest films, his modern supercomputer technology imi-
tates what was original done with painted words on a pane of glass.
It’s the same brand identification power carried by a well-known corporate logo or trade-
mark ID. So, while you may never be lucky enough to have your works become such a perva-
sive brand, there’s no reason you can’t give the same careful thought to designing your titles
and graphics.
Sidebar 6
Coming to Terms
As you explore your software’s titling and graphics creation menus, you’ll come upon some
terms that might not be familiar to you. Here are some common graphics and titling terms and
their definitions.
• Leading (pronounced “ledding” as in the metal lead) This is a typesetter’s term that refers
to adjusting the vertical space between lines of text.
• Kerning This is the distance between individual letters in a word. “Kerning pairs” are
special cases where two letters need special spacing in order to look correct. One classic
example is the letter pair “T” and “o”. When enlarged as part of a title, this pair typically
looks better if the “o” is slid over and partially tucked underneath the arm of the “T.”
• Tracking This is adjusting the space of all the letters in a group so that they are closer or
looser. One popular video type effect is to change the tracking of a short title over time so
that the letters seem to float together to form a word or phrase or drift dramatically apart.
• Gradient Fill A gradient is a blended region that smoothly changes from dark to light or
from one color to another. Gradient backgrounds are popular for titling.
• Slate This is typically a full-screen graphic that contains descriptive text or other pro-
gram information. It may exist to communicate with engineers and programmers.
• Drop Shadow A drop shadow is a small, often partially transparent, shadow cast by a let-
ter or graphic. It is a popular way to make a letter stand out from a background or to give
the viewer the sense that a title is floating above the background.
Sidebar 7
Send in the Clones
Since going digital years ago, I’ve found myself developing some new archiving habits. When
a program is finished, the first thing I do is make a digital clone onto a master tape for my
library. Then I output another clone for delivery to my tape duplicator. I usually add one addi-
tional step that I’d like to recommend to new producers: I dub another clone of my new pro-
gram onto the end of one or more of my original field tapes. Why? Why not? Since clones are
identical and cost nothing more than the time to burn them, and you have extra room at the
end of one of your tapes, there’s no downside to having an extra copy of the master around.
You can never be too safe.
46
Color Tweaking
Bill Davis
When we make video, our goal most of until years after TV sets started to appear
the time is to get lifelike images up on the in homes that engineers added a color
screen. We chase natural skin tones, good component to the broadcast signal.
exposure and proper white balance like The black and white part of the signal
racing dogs after mechanical bunnies. is referred to as luminance and given the
But if you watch what’s happening in the engineering shorthand, “Y,” while the
movies or on TV, you’re probably already color signal is known as chrominance and
aware that sometimes, realistic just isn’t given the designation “C.”
good enough, particularly when it comes The standard yellow RCA video plug
to color. mixes these signals together into a com-
We accept daytime scenes awash in posite. S-video cables, on the other hand,
exaggerated hyper-golden sunlight and are sometimes referred to as Y/C cables
nighttime sequences bathed in green or because they keep the luminance and
blue. And we even see the use of hybrid chrominance signals separated. If you
scenes, where some of the footage is pro- look at the end of an S-video connector,
cessed in black and white while other ele- you can see a number of separate holes or
ments retain their colors. pins used to carry the signals.
This split makes it a snap to take a
color TV signal from your camcorder and
The Countdown of Basics translate it into black and white. All that
your software has to accomplish is the
The first thing to understand about the elimination of the color portion of the
basics of video color is that at the base signal.
level, every television signal is actually a Diminishing the chrominance signal rel-
combination of two separate signal com- ative to the luminance yields a reduction
ponents—one for black and white infor- of color intensity and creates a muted pas-
mation, the other for color. tel look. Many editing applications have
In the beginning, all TV signals were basic chrominance or saturation controls
exclusively black and white. It wasn’t to adjust this aspect of the video.
231
But to dive into the more exciting creating a washed-out feel of pastels, or a
aspects of colorizing your video signal, hyper-real environment, where you deliver
we also need to break things down further suppressed midrange tones and the most
and delve into the three primary compo- extreme dark and light components of your
nents of your signal’s color: red, green and original signals to the screen.
blue.
To Boldly Go
Engineering RGB Space
Normally, these controls need to be han-
Color television is said to reside in the dled with a light touch, since they can
RGB color space. It is this arrangement of dramatically alter the look of your video.
mixing and matching three basic colors Remember, the beauty of working in a non-
to create the entire pallet of colors the TV destructive video-editing environment is
can display, that makes it a snap to manip- that a return to reality is always as close as
ulate the color of your video footage. an “undo” command.
Most editing software programs allow Special-effects filters and plug-ins can
you to change the balance of the three pri- often modify colors in interesting ways.
mary colors on a global, regional or even Just like the filters photographers have
pixel-by-pixel basis (see Figure 46-1). long attached to their lenses to change
Editing applications usually have some the image characteristics of their shots,
basic color manipulation tools, accessible the video filter is simply a way of chang-
through a panel in the main program or as ing one or more channels of information
a plug-in. As you manipulate the colors, to create a different look for your video. In
you can increase or decrease parameters, most situations, it is better to apply filters
such as the amount of red, green or blue in post-production, since you cannot undo
applied to your selected part of a picture. on-the-lens glass filters if you don’t like the
You can also alter brightness and contrast, results (see Figure 46-2).
Figure 46-1 Balance That Color—Most editing environments have basic controls that allow you
to adjust the balance of red, green and blue in the video.
Color Tweaking 233
Many filters have presets for popu- of manipulating color information. You can
lar color schemes such as sepia—a color simulate these effects with your color con-
effect that alters your footage with a trol tools (see Figure 46-3).
yellowish-brown cast reminiscent of old- But a note of caution. Look closely at the
time photographs. colorization examples in broadcast work.
Beyond these kinds of simple presets are You’ll notice that while the environment
direct controls such as tint, which you can around that fancy sports car often looks
quickly apply as a global colorcast of your surreal, the people still look pretty realis-
choosing to your footage. All those trendy tic. To achieve that kind of sophisticated
colorized commercials, where the world is colorized look, you need to be careful
awash in a slightly green tint are examples about maintaining healthy skin highlights
and other reality checks rather than just
slathering everyone and everything with a
greenish wash.
That’s where the power of channel-
specific effects comes in. Look closely at
your editing interface and you may dis-
cover that you can apply color corrections
to narrowly defined parts of your image.
Filters and Mattes
The real fun begins when you combine

basic image manipulation with the power
of masks, mattes and layers.
If you’ve ever watched a music video,
where a brilliantly colored character danced
through an otherwise black and white world,
you’ve seen the power of multi-layer mattes
and filters at work.
Shots like these stack two or more
synchronized layers of the same footage
on multiple video tracks. Then, a moving
matte applied to the dancing character iso-
lates it from the rest of the scene. The layer
with the foreground figure remains in color
while a desaturate filter, which removes
Figure 46-3 Combinations—To get exactly

Figure 46-2 Monochrome—Some color effects what you want, you might need to use a
require two steps: one to desaturate the image number of different filters. The order of the
and a second to add a color tint. filters can be important.
(30 of them for every second of footage). But

if you have the time and patience (or a team
of highly skilled animators), there’s nothing
to keep you from going in and isolating a
character by re-shaping and moving a man-
ually created matte to follow the character.
Don’t forget to tweak the softness or blur the
edges of the matte to make it appear more
natural.
Figure 46-4 Fancy Filters—More complex The Adventure Begins

color effects may require sophisticated filters
or even video mattes.
There’s literally no limit to this other than
your creativity and imagination. So, the
all the color information, applies to the next time you’re watching TV, pay special
background footage (see Figure 46-4). attention to how the producers use color
A word of warning: pulling a quality mov- tinting, layers and mattes to produce
ing matte out of a single video clip without eye-catching images.
advance planning is just about impossible Then, consider that many of those same
unless you are willing to go through and capabilities reside right in your own editing
paint a matte for every frame of your video application, awaiting your exploration.
Sidebar 1
Alpha Channel
The separate RGB portions of video are referred to as channels. Some formats also have a
fourth channel, called the Alpha Channel, used to specify transparency. If your editing appli-
cation allows you to view the Alpha Channel, it usually appears in grayscale with black
being 100 percent transparent and white being 100 percent opaque, although it is very easy
to reverse this. The flexibility of editing software even allows you to select a specific color or
range of colors to set as the Alpha Channel.
Sidebar 2
TV Can’t Show It All
A typical computer monitor uses over 16 million colors to draw a picture on your screen. This
includes the video-preview window in your editing application. The standard color television
picture in the United States is composed of only about 2 million colors. This means that the
wonderful color modifications you see on your computer monitor will likely not look the same
on a television. When doing any computer generated modifications to your video, you must
test your adjusted video on a television before declaring your movie complete.
47
Composition 101
Kyle Cassidy
Ask a lot of people what makes good art, single object, while long shots will often
and they’ll all have a different opinion, include more objects.
from an artist’s use of color and paint to Long shots are often establishing shots
the subject matter or design, but one thing that portray characters in their environ-
they’ll all nearly note what separates the ment. You may, for example, compose a
amateurs from the masters is composition. shot showing the Washington Monument in
the background and two tiny people sitting
on a bench in the foreground. What does
The Screen Is Your Canvas
this tell us? That they’re in Washington—
they may be politicians, or spies. Or, a shot
Videographers, photographers and paint-
of two tiny people with the vastness of a
ers are all very similar. Besides getting
mountain before them. What does this tell
invited to all the best parties, they each
us? That people are small and frail.
need to tell a story within the four walls
One of my favorite long shots in
of a frame. These frames differ in dimen-
recent history is in the climax of Ryuhei
sion, but the principle remains the same:
Kitamura’s martial arts adventure Azumi:
the screen is the real estate you are using
town gates open up to reveal our heroine
to sell your vision. Use it wisely.
standing alone in the distance. In between
There are movies like The Cell, Snow
her and the man she is supposed to rescue
Falling on Cedars and Sisters that I believe
are several hundred heavily armed pirates.
you could pause at random, print that
A gasp of anticipation goes through the
frame, hang it on your wall, and be happy
audience. What do we learn from this
looking at it for the rest of your life. This
shot? We know that Azumi must get from
is a worthy goal.
point A to point B through a very dan-
gerous expanse of pirate infested street.
The Long and Short of It How well those three bits of information
(heroine, villains and goal) are composed
Composition can vary slightly depend- on the screen is the difference between a
ing on what type of shot you’re using. movie that tells a story, and one that tells
Close-ups usually fill the frame with a a story beautifully.
235
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 47-1 Some novices will attempt to shoot extremely close-up, and forget that a good wide
shot will give the story feeling of magnitude, like this snow scene. A medium shot of a task, like
the dish washing, helps set the conversation stage, and an extreme close-up gives detail lost in
wider shots.
Medium shots are often used to show inter- composition. It asks that you divide the
actions between characters—two people frame into nine equal rectangles (draw a
sitting at a table, a person cutting vegetables tic-tac-toe board on it) and that you place
at a kitchen counter. Medium shots are how your area of interest at the intersection of
people living and working indoors usu- two of those lines. Next time you’re look-
ally see things. The medium shots Steven ing at still images or watching a movie,
Spielberg used in the boat sequences of see how often this is used.
Jaws give the viewer a cramped feeling,
reminding us that our heroes have very
little sanctuary. Leading Lines
Close-ups reveal facial expressions &
emotion, they take the world away and Leading lines draw a viewer’s eyes in a
leave us alone with a character. One very particular direction—railroad tracks, riv-
effective use of close-ups was in the intro ers, fallen trees, are all things that can be
sequences of Lawrence Kasdan’s The Big used to funnel the viewer’s eyes across
Chill—where a woman’s hands are shown the screen to a particular object.
buttoning a man’s shirt, adjusting his tie,
straightening his collar. At first the audi-
ence is misled into believing that a man Juxtaposition
is being dressed for a romantic evening
on the town by an attentive partner, only To “juxtapose” something is to place
as the opening credits go on do we realize two things together for comparison.
that the hands are that of a funeral director Sometimes this can be literal, like the
preparing a corpse for burial. millionaires in Trading Places juxtaposed
next to Eddie Murphy playing a panhan-
dler, or it can be symbolic, like the scene
Compositional Vocabulary
in Star Wars: A New Hope, where Obi
Wan Kenobi and Darth Vader first meet.
There is a language of composition just like
They are shown on the opposite sides of
there’s a language for football. Learning the
the screen, one good, and the other evil,
various parts, their definitions and usage
representing the breadth of the human
will help you immeasurably, not only in
condition.
composing your own shots, but in being a
critical observer of other work.
Headroom
The Rule of Thirds
Headroom is the space above a person’s
The “Rule of Thirds” is possibly the head. Too much or too little headroom and
most crucial lesson you can learn in the image will look unbalanced or cramped.
Composition 101 237
(a) (b)
Figure 47-2 Imagine a tic-tac-toe grid over your viewfinder and frame your key elements in the
intersections. Both of these subjects have a similar background, but the shot on the left is
framed with a more interesting composition.
(a) (b)
Figure 47-3 In the shot on the left, we have a good example of nose room. The man has
breathing room to walk into. The woman in the shot on the right appears to bump her nose on
the frame and doesn’t have lead space.
Nose Room Background
For some reason, it bothers us when we Be wary of what’s behind your subject.
see someone looking into space with no Through the viewfinder you’re often very
room in front of them. When shooting a concentrated on the principal and don’t
3/4 or profile shot, leave space in front of realize until later that there is a telephone
the subject’s nose. pole growing out of his or her head or a
window sash that looks surprisingly like
an arrow going in one ear and out the
Lead Room other. The background can also be used to
add to your shot. When interviewing your
Lead room is nose room for moving grandfather about his experience in the
objects, like a moving horse or a car— war, for example, hanging his uniform or
leave space for the horse or the car to a map in the background, slightly out of
move into rather than crowding the side focus, can add visual interest and useful
of the screen. information to the shot.
balance, adding vertical or angled lines

that take away from a balanced frame.
Tilting the camera a few degrees to one
side will keep your audience from relax-
ing. They might not even notice the hori-
zon being off, but subconsciously, there
is a feeling that something isn’t quite
right. Using a wide-angle lens that dis-
torts a shot so that lines aren’t parallel or
perpendicular also creates tension.
Figure 47-4 Framing your subject with good

Maintaining Your Composition
background gives your shot more interest. Try
not to have him too close to the wall so he has It’s important to keep consistency in your
more punch and depth. composition to keep from confusing your
viewer. Your actors need to look and
speak in consistent directions, two char-
Foreground acters facing one another over a dinner
table, for example, shouldn’t be shown in
Likewise, the foreground can be used to close-ups looking in the same direction.
add information—two people lying on a
blanket in the foreground, for example,
might suggest that the grassy expanse Using Color
we’re looking at is in a park. Put a deer
in the same place, and, suddenly, it’s a Color composition is a major part of many
meadow in the woods. Place in a few motion pictures—M. Night Shyamalan’s
well-dressed, out of focus people playing The Village, for example, made good
croquet, and it becomes an English manor. use of the color red to represent evil and
cooler blues to represent good. Months
before shooting begins, many directors,
Balance production designers, and directors of
photography will choose a color palate
Our own brain’s function to keep us for a movie, deciding what types of colors
upright makes us seek balance in compo- will work together to give the audience
sition. An equally weighted frame appears the proper “feel.” For an example of hyper-
to be at rest and makes the viewer calm. color composition watch Peter Green-
“Balanced” doesn’t necessarily mean two away’s The Cook the Thief, His Wife &
people equal-distant apart. A person on Her Lover.
the right-hand side of the screen might be
“balanced” by a clock hanging on a wall
on the left-hand side. Conclusion
Don’t get that cap and gown out of

Tension mothballs yet, it’s not quite time for
graduation.
You don’t necessarily want the viewer to We showed you the basics, next month;
feel peace and harmony all the time. One we’ll show you some advanced tips on
thing you often want to achieve is ten- composition to take your shots from video
sion, which can be done by skewing the postcards to masterpiece showcases.
48
The Art of the Edit
Janis Lonnquist
When Oliver Stone turned over the mas- Whether you’re creating a Hollywood
sive amount of raw footage that became feature film or tightening a vacation video,
JFK, editor Joe Hutshing knew it would be the challenge is to take raw footage, and
a challenge. “I wondered if it could even within the limitations of equipment and
be watchable,” Hutshing says. “It was so budget, transform it into something com-
incredibly complicated. It was like look- pelling and watchable.
ing at a schematic for a TV set and then
imagining actually watching the TV.” Shooting with the Edit in Mind
From the mountain of raw footage, to
the first five-hour cut, to the final three- Editing may be the final step of the pro-
hour-and-eight-minute editing master- duction, but to make a truly successful
piece, Hutshing had to make decisions, video, you need to begin making edit-
consider choices and re-examine goals. ing choices in the concept stage. What
This is editing. will the overall look of the piece be? The
Editing systems may range from sophis- mood? The pacing? Will you cut it to
ticated digital suites with all the bells music? What kind of music?
and whistles to basic single-source sys- There are several techniques that will
tems consisting of a camera, TV and help you plan. Prepare a shooting script, a
VCR. Still, the functions of editing remain storyboard or—if it is not a scripted produc-
the same: tion—an overview for your program. This
will be the blueprint for your production.
1. to connect shots into a sequence that A shooting script lists the action shot by
tells a story or records an event, shot, along with proposed camera angles
2. to correct and delete mistakes, and framing.
In a storyboard, actual sketches illus-
3. to condense or expand time and trate each scene. It’s a good opportunity to
4. to communicate an aesthetic. see what will work before you shoot it.
239
An overview should include: the chro- box. Other than featuring a dream house
nology of shots as they will appear in the with no kitchen, we had no option but to
video; approximate timing for each shot; use the embarrassing piece of footage.
and information about accompanying “There will always be things in shots you
audio, graphics and titles for each scene. don’t see when you’re shooting,” Corcoran
Next, prepare a shot sheet. Make sure it says. “Things reflected in mirrors or win-
includes every shot listed in your script or dows, things in dark areas of the picture. It’s
overview. Get several shots of each item important to change your framing to avoid
on the list. having problems like this in the edit.”
“You need a variety of shots,” says Kevin If you will edit your video to music, select
Corcoran, vice president of Pacific Media the music in advance and time zooms and
Center in Santa Clara, California. “In a bas- pans accordingly. If this isn’t possible,
ketball game, for example, you get shots of shoot a slow, medium and fast version of
the crowd, shots of the scoreboard, shots each camera move. In general, shots should
of the referee, shots of the environment. In be five to 15 seconds in length. Know the
action that’s typically long and drawn out, pacing and shoot accordingly.
you need to consolidate information. You You’ll enjoy a lot more options in your edit
need to have images to cut to in order to sessions if you aren’t desperately “fixing
make it look smooth.” it in post.” Taking the appropriate techni-
Even in scripted productions, Corcoran cal precautions saves you from having to
recommends getting a variety of shots. scrap otherwise good footage due to light-
“I always try to get a wide shot and a ing, audio or other technical problems.
head and shoulders shot for each block of “In an event, things will only go wrong,”
text,” says Corcoran. “Who knows what Corcoran warns. “In weddings, for exam-
you’ll find when you go into an edit? There ple, the light is nearly always bad. A cam-
may be something that bothers you with era light is essential, especially if you
continuity in the background of a wide don’t have gain control. And you’ll need a
shot. Now you have a place to go.” lot of batteries for that light.”
While Joe Hutshing had massive amounts Good lighting greatly enhances the
of material to edit for JFK, Corcoran says quality of your videos; invest in a lighting
the more common problem is too little seminar if you need more information. As
material. a rule, the brightest spot in your picture
“Often there are large sections to be should be no more than 20 to 30 times
removed and no smooth way to cut,” says brighter than the darkest spot or you’ll be
Corcoran. “This is especially true when you’re editing silhouettes.
editing on a two-machine, cuts-only system. You’ll have trouble in your edit if you
Ideally, you will have some other framing, don’t white balance several times during
another angle, a reaction or some other an event. This is particularly true during
activity happening in the environment. If weddings, which may move from bright
it’s a person at a podium talking, you need sunlight, to a dimly lit church, to fluores-
an audience reaction shot or two or three. cent lights in a reception hall. If you don’t
You must have cutaways to consolidate a white balance, the shots won’t match—
half-hour speech without jump cuts.” you may end up dissolving from a well-lit
You also invariably end up with foot- scene of groomsmen decorating the get-
age you can’t use, often due to the unex- away car to a blue, blue reception.
pected appearance of objects on tape that
you never noticed during the shoot. Once,
when editing the “dream house” segment Production Pains
of a TV program, I discovered a power sup-
ply right in the middle of the kitchen floor. Production can be exhausting, with long
Nobody saw it in the field and every sweep- days of hard physical labor, but it’s vital
ing pan—all wide shots—included the ugly to stay alert.
The Art of the Edit 241
On a particularly grueling corporate pro- camera for two seconds before and several
duction a few years ago, a camera operator, seconds after a narration. A quick, side-
who was also monitoring audio, removed ways glance for approval, a swallow or
his headset during a break and forgot to a lick of the lips before or after speaking
put it back on. Our talent, the president may be difficult to edit out.
of the corporation, removed his lavaliere If you don’t have control over the talent’s
microphone to stretch, and sat down on it timing and delivery—for example, when
for the remainder of the production. Try to shooting a training session or wedding—
fix that in post. your cutaways and reaction shots will be
Microphones can fall down, batteries can critical to mask cuts. Remember to shoot
die, a cable can go bad. Without headphones, plenty.
you may not know until it’s too late.
“If you know from your headphones
there’s no hope for that microphone,” In the Frame
Corcoran says, “you can unplug it and let
the camera mic try. It’s going to be better Good framing and composition are vital
than what you’ll get otherwise. Nothing in achieving aesthetically pleasing video
can kill a production faster than bad audio. that is cohesive and makes sense. A well-
Wear your headphones all the time.” composed shot provides viewers with the
For most productions, steady images information needed to follow the story. It
make the most sense. Always use a tri- reveals, through spatial relationships, the
pod. Hand-held looks, well, hand-held. comparative importance of individuals
There’s a trend right now to overuse this and objects, and the effect they have upon
technique, but avoid the cinema verité, each other. It focuses attention on details,
or “shaky cam” look unless you’re after a sometimes subtly, even subliminally. Good
strobed look or the effect is actually moti- composition can also disturb, excite and/
vated by something in the script. or heighten tension if the script calls for it.
Be sure to allow for preroll. When you You can’t fix poor framing and composi-
switch a camera from the stop mode to tion in post. A lack of headroom will make
record, it rolls back several seconds before your subject seem suspended from the top
it achieves “speed” and begins taping. of the TV monitor. Framing a shot to cut
Allow five seconds, 10 to be safe, before at the subject’s ankles, chin, hands or hem
cuing the talent to begin speaking or exe- line is an uncomfortable look that doesn’t
cuting your shot. allow “closure,” a process in which the
Unless your edit system is very precise mind fills in the missing elements.
(plus or minus two frames) you will have Remember the rule of thirds: place
trouble editing to the word, so make sure important elements in the top or bottom
that you have two seconds or more of third of the screen. In a closeup, place
silence before your talent begins. the eyes at the one-third baseline. In an
This is better than saying “action” to cue extreme closeup, the eyes are at baseline
the talent: if the narration begins too quickly, of the top third, the mouth is at the base-
you may end up losing two seconds of nar- line of the bottom third and, through clo-
ration in edit to cut out your cue. Instead, sure, the chin and forehead are filled in.
count “five, four, three” … and cue talent Distracting or inappropriate backgrounds
after a silent count of two and one. are nearly impossible to work around so
With high-end systems, you can encoun- pay attention to every detail when you
ter a similar problem. If the tape is checked shoot. In one production, a children’s sing-
and action begins too soon, you won’t be ing group performed a number in front of a
able to back up over the break in control blackboard. In the edit, I noticed one little
track to execute the edit. girl standing directly in front of a large let-
To allow time for a good transition, ter “M”—creating the look of two perfect,
instruct your talent to fix a gaze on the pointed ears. Again, saved by the B-roll.
Sometimes even balanced and thought- of vision. Cut to a low angle shot of the cat
fully composed shots don’t cut together from the child’s point of view. The edited
well. For example: if you’re editing an sequence is fluid and believable.
interview or dialogue, cutting between There are two kinds of continuity you
head shots of the interviewer and guest, should monitor for successful editing. First:
you need the heads angled slightly toward continuity of the environment. A made-
each other (to imply the interaction of the for-TV movie has a scene in which a man
two) and off center, leaving “look space” speaks to his doctor. He wears a shirt with
or “nose room.” Without look space, your the collar turned up. Cut to the doctor. Cut
interviewer will appear to address the back to the man, and his collar is flat. Cut
edge of the TV screen. Centered, we have to a two-shot and the collar turns up again.
no sense of the spatial relationship of the Productions on all levels are full of goofs
two. They could be sitting back to back. like this one. To avoid adding blooper
Similarly, maintain “lead room” for your footage of your own, pay close attention to
subject to walk, run, bike or drive into. detail both in production and in the edit.
For the best possible editing situation,
you also need to watch continuity of action.
Walk the Line If your talent can give you numerous takes
with identical blocking, you’ll have lots
One production basic that can cause of editing options. Cuts-only editing is at
major consternation in the edit suite is its best when you can achieve a multicam
“crossing the line.” look by cutting to different framing on
Let’s say you’re shooting a parade pass- action. Look for the apex of the action—
ing in front of you, from left to right. the full extension of the arm, the widest
A politician waves from a passing float, part of the yawn, the clink of glasses in a
her back to you. You dash across the street toast—and use that apex as the marker to
and resume shooting, getting a great shot cut to a new angle of the same action.
of her smiling face. When you go to edit,
however, you’ll find that you crossed the
line: half of your parade marches left to Motivate It
right and the other half marches right to
left. Cutting together footage from both Transitions should occur only when moti-
sides of the line will create a bizarre mon- vated by something in the story.
tage where bands and floats and motor- A cut is the instantaneous switch from one
cades seem to run into one another. shot to another. The most common transition
Respecting the line is especially impor- device, it duplicates the way we see. (Just try
tant in shots that track movement or where panning or zooming with your eyes.)
geography, such as movement toward a A dissolve is the gradual replacement
goal post, is critical to the viewer’s under- of one image by another. Use it to show a
standing of the action. passage of time or create a mood.
Camera angles also play a role in the A wipe is a special effect of one image
viewer’s ability to interpret and believe the pushing the other image off screen. With
action. Let’s say you want to show a child digital technology, the options are nearly
trying to coax a kitten from a tree. First endless. A wipe can erase, burn, fold, kick
we see the child looking up. We cut to the or flush the first image from the screen.
kitten cowering on a branch. We cut back Wipes signify the end of a segment and the
to the child. The scene gains impact with complete transition to a new time, place
the right camera angles. We see the child, or concept.
framed left, looking up. Cut to a reverse A fade is the gradual replacement of
angle shot looking down at the child, over an image with black or vice versa, used
the cat’s shoulder, with the cat framed right. primarily to begin or end a program or
The camera angle duplicates the cat’s line video segment.
The Art of the Edit 243
Creative editing, using a variety of tran- and display frame numbers either from a
sitions, is still possible on a cuts-only pulse-count or time code system such as
system. If you can’t fade in or dissolve, SMPTE or RCTC.
begin your shot out of focus and gradually These editors perform the preroll func-
make the image clear. A very fast pan—15 tion automatically and start the machines
frames or so of light, color and motion fly- together. Many systems give you: 1) the
ing across the screen—is almost as effec- option of insert or assemble edit, 2) the
tive as a dissolve. Allowing your subject to ability to “trim”—add or subtract a few
exit the shot ends a scene with the finality frames without resetting in and out points
of a wipe. Cutting to a static shot, such as and 3) the ability to preview your edit.
a close-up of a flower, a sign or a building, Some perform audio or video only edits
defines and separates scenes. and interface with a computer to store an
For greater insight, learn from the pros. Edit Decision List (EDL).
Rent a well-done video and create an over- You can also expand single-source edit
view and shot sheet. systems with an audio mixer, a switcher
There are also seminars and many excel- and character generator.
lent books available on framing, composi- Multiple-Source Systems. These give
tion and technique. For an in-depth study editors the capability of A/B Roll Editing.
of media aesthetics, look for Herbert Zettl’s The typical system consists of two or
Sight, Sound and Motion. Of course, edit- more source VCRs (A and B), which sup-
ing is a practical as well as an aesthetic ply material to the video switcher or com-
skill. On to the practicalities. puterized editing control unit. There, the
material is edited, combined with effects
and sent to the record VCR. Audio from
Editing Systems the source decks is also mixed and sent to
the record VCR.
Practically speaking, editing is simply cop- Multiple-source systems allow an editor
ying selected video from the source tape to to connect two moving video sources with
the edit master or record tape. A wide vari- dissolves, wipes and other transitions.
ety of systems and methods are available. In nonlinear systems, every frame is
Single-Source Editing. You can perform stored in digital form and is instantly
single-source editing from your camcorder available to the editor. Once you’ve desig-
to your VCR. Your owner’s manual will nated an edit and transition on the compu-
include complete directions; basically, you terized EDL or storyboard, the computer
control the edit by pressing PLAY on your executes the edit instantly. You can grab
source deck (camera) and RECORD on the a scene from anywhere in your source
record deck (your VCR), pausing and releas- footage without waiting for a tape to cue.
ing as you go. The transitions are cuts only. Experimentation becomes effortless.
This type of editing becomes frustrating As you move up to the more complex
quickly. As the editor you must locate systems, do your homework. Read prod-
edit points, manually set preroll, start the uct reviews before you make the invest-
machines at the same time and react at ment. Find out what peripherals you need
precisely the right moment to control the for basic operations and efficient editing.
edit. Frame accuracy is usually a problem. Investigate the availability of classes
If you hit RECORD too soon, you suffer and user groups in your area. Is there a
video noise between edits. Too late, and local production facility that rents a suite
you lose frames on the edit master. featuring the same system? You may need
Expanded Single-Source Systems. The a back-up plan if your system goes down
first investment single-source editors usu- and you’re facing a deadline.
ally make is an edit controller. Most edit Advanced Editing Systems. These sys-
controllers allow you to shuttle to locate tems feature Digital Video Effects (DVE),
scenes, to mark in and out points, to read better compression, exciting animation,
special effects, pro titles and more. They are to correct this. Others have found systems
revolutionizing editing, providing greater that meet their needs well, and are using
options, accuracy and speed. them to produce amazing programs.
The ramping of capabilities means a Again, do your homework. If you can,
ramping of complexity; you’ll need educa- rent a suite and actually do an edit on a
tion and practice to get up to speed. The given system before you buy.
systems are relatively expensive and the
technology is constantly changing. It isn’t The Final Cut
easy to know when to make the investment.
Some videographers complain that editing It’s payoff time. You planned ahead, you
functions have not been designed with edi- paid attention during production and now
tors in mind; they’re waiting for upgrades you can relax.
49
Title Talk
Bill Harrington
You’ve created the perfect video, great to right, top to bottom. The bottom right
lighting, clean audio and beautiful editing. corner of the screen is the last thing you
But be careful. All your hard work can be will read. That logo stays imprinted on
overshadowed if you are not careful with the mind, and when the friendly folks
your titles. Titles, also called CGs (short at Nielson ask you what station you
for character generator), are the words watched, you can remember quite easily.
you see on the screen. But adding titles is You can use that same knowledge to your
more than typing words onto your video. advantage when you build your titles. The
Good titles look balanced on screen and corners of the screen are the most power-
add to the message. Bad titles are like an ful place for small informational graphics
out of tune instrument—they make the like logos or names. They also work well
whole orchestra sound bad. because titles placed there are less likely
When it comes to making great titles, to interfere with the action in your video.
there are a few rules to follow. Just like mak- If you want to make a major statement,
ing good video, it takes a certain amount of then place a title in the center of the
planning, knowledge and a lot of experi- screen, demanding your audience to take
mentation. An eye for composition doesn’t notice. This is where you would typically
hurt either. Here are some basic concepts find the title of a program. Placed in the
you can use to enhance your titles. center of the screen, the title becomes the
most important thing on the screen. More
Location! Location! Location! important than even the video that plays
beneath it.
Watch network television tonight and see
if there is a logo in the bottom corner of Play It Safe
the screen. It’s not there by accident. The
big guys understand that when it comes There are some places that you really
to the video screen, every pixel is a pre- cannot put titles, though. Most CG soft-
cious piece of real estate. In real estate, ware now has a safe title reference built
location is everything. We read from left in (see Figure 49-1). These lines represent
245
recommended limits to where you place and the font you choose will have a direct
your titles within the viewing area. Any impact on the final product.
titles outside of the safe title zone risk Let’s say you videotaped a local
being unreadable due to the cropping and Christmas pageant and want to add a
curvature of the TV screen. Keeping your graphic as an introduction. A font that has a
titles within a safe title area is not an abso- cowboy feel wouldn’t make any sense. Unless
lute, but you reduce the effectiveness of the name of the pageant was Christmas
your titles if they are outside of the safe on the Prairie, such a font would just confuse
title zone. the viewer. A Christmas pageant screams
Lastly, the text on the screen has to work for something with a holiday feel. Scripted
with everything else the audience is see- letters would look nice and would convey
ing. Your subject’s name won’t look good the holiday spirit more effectively.
superimposed over his face. It has to bal- Look to the video itself for clues as to
ance with the video you’re using. If you what font to use. The font you use should
interview a vet about his WWII memories tie into the theme of the video (see Figure
and he’s on camera left, try putting the title 49-2). Don’t overwhelm your audience
on the right to balance the overall picture. with a lot of different fonts either. Stick to
just one or two. If you need two separate
lines of text to stand out from each other,
The Font Is the Message try making one line bold or italicized
rather than changing the font.
Sometimes it’s not what you say, but how
you say it. This applies to the fonts you
use for your titles. Graphic designers can Now We’re Styling
spend years learning about font theory,
but you don’t need a master’s degree The style of a title is the sum of all the
to understand that the font—the actual specific attributes that give it a particular
shape of the letters—sends a message to look. The font plays a crucial role, but so
the viewer. Does the text look like ancient does the color, edge, shadow and framing
Greek writing or is it more futuristic? of the text. These characteristics, or the lack
There are thousands of fonts available, of them, also contribute to the message you
Safe Title
Figure 49-1 Safety First—Remember to observe the safe area whenever you’re
creating titles.
Title Talk 247
Figure 49-3 Correct Colors—Different colors

send different messages. Make sure you choose
a color that communicates what you want.
Figure 49-2
are sending. For example, lighter colors Figure 49-4 Warning Signs—Some editing
tend to be easier to read and seem happier, software will alert you if your color is too
while darker colors can add a more urgent saturated.
or even ominous tone to the title.
Color is a great tool to reinforce the Yellow tends to be the easiest color to read
theme of the project. Let’s go back to the (next to white) and is often used for video
Christmas pageant title. Should you titles (see Figure 49-4).
use black and orange for your text? Of
course not. That would be more appro- What Did That Say?
priate for a Halloween project. Christmas
colors—like reds, greens and whites— After learning all of the different ways to
would work better (see Figure 49-3). present your title, you still need to ask the
Adding color can be a tricky task. Video most important question, what will your
tends to have problems with certain colors, title say? First, determine if you need
particularly shades of red. The concentra- graphics at all. Your titles should be lim-
tion of chroma/color tends to bleed across ited to only those that advance the story
the screen. If you must use red, try adding a in some way. Video artists often use titles
thick black outline to contain the bleeding. extensively to add a poetic layer to their
Remember, colors will look brighter on TV work, however, graphics with no real pur-
than they do on your computer. Make your pose tend to irritate the viewer more than
reds and greens slightly darker than you’d anything else.
like them to appear on tape. Many titling How long should a title stay on the
software applications have a “safe color” screen? Rule of thumb says that a title
mode that will warn you against using a should stay up long enough for the viewer
color that will over-saturate the video. to read it aloud three times. Any shorter
is too short. Any longer and your viewers you plan your project the better off you
may become distracted by the presence of are in editing. Titles are no exception.
the title. Obviously, the longer the title the Remember, your titles are written in video,
longer it must remain on the screen. A per- not in stone. When you’re building your
son’s name may remain on the screen for titles, look at them critically. Do they make
as little as two or three seconds, a graphic sense visually? Is your spelling correct? Do
spelling out a five-sentence quote may they add to the message? Don’t hesitate to
need to stay on the screen for thirty sec- experiment with your titles. Try something
onds or more. Of course, there are excep- different. If you go too far and the visuals
tions to every rule. If you have the quote just don’t work, you can always change
read by a narrator, you can take it out after them before going to tape.
he has read it through just once. When it all comes together well, the
titles complement the video and vice
Putting It All Together versa. This seamless integration of titles
and video can make a word worth a thou-
Great titles don’t just happen, they take sand pictures.
knowledge, planning and a lot of experi-
mentation. Like good video, the better
Sidebar 1
Glossary of Common Titling Terms
Font. The shape and style of the letters. There are thousands of fonts available; each
unique font can send a different message.
Border. The border of your font is the edge surrounding the letters. Changing the size or
color of the border can have a dramatic impact.
Shadow. Separate from border, the shadow can either attach to the letters or not. Shadows
can be solid or have a degree of transparency.
Justification. Where the words are in relation to the screen: left, center or right.
Kerning. The spacing between the letters of a word. Some fonts are not consistent with
their spacing and may need some manual kerning.
Leading. The spacing between lines of text.
Safe Title Area. The area of a video screen where titles are easily read and without distor-
tion: roughly the inner 60% of the screen.
Sidebar 2
Shadows and Outlines
Whether or not your text has a soft drop shadow or a hard outlined edge can add a subtle
difference. Soft shadows and outlines communicate a softer message, while hard edges often
imply boldness or urgency.
Sidebar 3
TV Is the Key
Want to make better titles? Watch more TV! Study the titles that you see on television, note the
colors, fonts and styles that are used and try to copy them when you build your own titles.
50
Adventures in Sound
Editing:
Or How Audio Post-Production
Can Make Your Videos Sound
Larger Than Life
Armand Ensanian
Imagine the tape you made of your kids’ Know Your Sound
last campout. It’s got some crickets on the
sound track. At night, didn’t those crick- To make good video, you need to under-
ets seem to chirp louder as campers grew stand light; likewise, to make good audio,
quieter and the sky grew darker? you will need to understand sound.
When Bobby started telling Billie Jo the Webster’s defines sound as “mechani-
story of the cricket that ate sisters, didn’t cal vibrations traveling through the air or
those chirpings seem even louder to other elastic medium.” How many times
her? With some equalization, reverb and these vibrations occur in a second is the
creative mixing of your original sound frequency of the sound. A tuning fork
track, you could let your viewers hear vibrating back and forth 1,000 times per
those monster crickets the way Billie Jo second generates sound (with a frequency
heard them. of 1,000 cycles per second or Hertz (Hz).
Sound editing can turn commonplace If it vibrated 200 times per second, we’d
video events into adventures that seem hear a frequency of 200 Hz.)
larger than life. With some simple elec- Variations and combinations of fre-
tronic equipment—some of which you quencies account for all the sounds we
may already have on your stereo system— hear. At best, the human ear can recognize
you can polish up any raw sound track. frequencies between 32 and 22,000 Hz.
Here’s how. We can perceive frequencies below 32 Hz,
249
but as vibration, not sound. This range cassettes or CD players. Output will be
deteriorates with age or abuse. It is not mono or stereo, depending on your VCR.
uncommon for senior adults to top out at Mixers have sliders, or faders, that con-
9,000 Hz, while losing all low-frequency trol volume for each channel. A master
sounds below about 150 Hz. fader controls overall volume. Mixers will
People with ear damage will adjust also feature all or some of the following:
sound to match their deficiency. For attenuation, equalization, cue sends, pan
example, a sound engineer at a rock club pots, solo switch, monitor control, Volume
may set up the PA to produce ear piercing Unit (VU) meters or Liquid Element
highs to compensate for such a loss of his Displays (LEDs) and echo/reverb.
high frequency sensitivity. So if you plan Attenuation cuts down high input sig-
to use the services of a studio, make sure nals to prevent overloading.
your sound engineer can hear. Equalizers allow precise tone adjust-
The interaction of two or more frequen- ment of selected frequency ranges.
cies creates a third sound called harmonic. Cue sends can send the signal to the video
Harmonics, also known as overtones, give tape, headphone or monitor speaker.
sound its life, allowing the human ear to Pan pots control the spatial position
distinguish one voice from another. Poor between right and left stereo channels.
recordings reduce or eliminate harmonics, The solo switch “listens” in on any indi-
turning sound into an unintelligible mess. vidual channel without interfering with
Good recordings recognize the har- the recording process.
monics of a sound track, and enhance Monitor controls adjust headphone or
them—with the help of some snazzy audio speaker volume. We’ll look at echo and
post-production devices. reverb later.
The Mixer The Equalizer
The single most important tool for audio An equalizer (EQ) is the most common
production is the mixer. piece of signal processing equipment.
A mixer’s number of input channels It allows you to divide the entire (human)
determines how many different signals— 32–22,000 Hz audio spectrum into sepa-
read sounds—you can work with simulta- rate bands you can adjust independently.
neously. You need at least two for mono With an EQ, you can raise or lower the
recordings and four for stereo. More inputs levels of these bands to change the tonal
allow you to control more sound sources. characteristics of a sound, reduce noise
Remember that the tape speed and audio and even create certain audio effects.
recording format will determine the fre- Many mixers have a simple EQ built-in,
quency response of the recording medium. allowing you to adjust high and low fre-
A VHS tape recorded on the linear track at quencies independently. This is fine for
EP speed may yield a frequency response broad tonal changes, but for more control,
no higher than 7,000 Hz. So stick with hi-fi you’ll need a graphic equalizer. Though
audio if possible. a handful of mixers offer this level of tonal
The first step is to hook up the right control, most graphic EQs are external
cables to the proper inputs and outputs. units.
Do not scrimp on cables, because bad Whereas simple EQs use knobs—one for
connections can create a lot of buzz and treble, one for bass—graphic equalizers
noise. A good mixing console will allow have vertical sliders that show the amount
an input signal to be either microphone or of correction you applied to each band of
line level. This compensates for low-level frequencies. Thus you can tell, at a glance,
microphone signals and high-level line what the graphic EQ is doing to the audi-
inputs, such as those arriving from VCRs, ble spectrum. Hence the term graphic.
Adventures in Sound Editing 251
Think of the graphic EQ as a vastly Changes in dynamics, at least within

expanded bass/treble dial. The more slid- reason, are good. It’s the dynamic range of
ers, the greater the selective control. a recording or vocalist that conveys real-
Say you have some music on your sound- ism and power. Streisand’s vocal style is
track that sounds flat and unexciting. Try dynamic, my grandmother’s isn’t.
boosting the 100 Hz and 10,000 Hz sliders, But when recording sounds, too much
while lowering the 1,000 Hz to 500 Hz slid- dynamic range can be a problem. Thank-
ers. The graphic pattern on the equalizer fully, there’s help available from a nifty
will look like a suspension bridge–what device called a limiter. A limiter reduces
you’ll hear is rock concert sound. instant signal peaks, such as a loud scream
If you’re working with classical music, or feedback from an electric guitar. A lim-
you may need to elevate the middle fre- iter allows you to set a maximum signal
quencies to bring out specific instruments. level; the unit holds all sound under that
And Aunt Trudy’s squeaky voice may limit.
require you to slide down the high and A compressor works somewhat like
upper midrange frequencies. a limiter, though its effects are less dra-
Hooking up a stand-alone EQ is easy— matic. Radio stations use compressors to
simply connect it between the source out- maintain high signal levels without fear-
put and mixer input. Or, if you want to ing distortion. The small sacrifice in real-
alter your whole sound mix, place the EQ ism may be worth it if you plan on taping
between your mixer and record deck. loud live concerts or monster truck rallies.
Good production mixers have limiters
built in, for controlling sounds at the time
On the Level of recording.
In the world of audio post-production,

the strength or “level” of an audio sig- Reverb
nal is as important as the way it sounds.
We have our ears to tell us that a sound Sound loses energy as it moves through
is tonally correct; for clean recordings we the air. Sound strength drops 6 dB every
need something to tell us about the sig- time you double the distance between a
nal’s level. mike (or ear) and the sound source. This is
VU meters and LEDs monitor the levels why good microphone technique includes
so you can prevent overloading and dis- moving the mike close to the sound source
torting the signal. VU meters use a unique during live shooting or narration dubbing.
scale calibrated in decibels (dB), which Sound waves bound off walls and hard
measure actual signal strength. objects. Echoes are bouncing waves that
VU meters boast an ascending scale of follow more than 1/20 second after the
values that start with negative numbers. original sound; reverb is repeated reflect-
Instead of being at the bottom, zero is near ing waves that sound almost continuous.
the top of the range. Why? Because zero Post-production electronics can simu-
dB indicates a full-strength signal. This late both these effects. Echo and reverb
way it’s easy to remember that if a signal units can run the gamut from simple tape
strays much above zero, distortion may loops, playing back what you record imme-
result. diately, to sophisticated digital reverbs
Sometimes, simply setting a record level simulating rooms of all shapes and sizes.
based on the VU meter isn’t enough. Reverb units bring fullness to sound.
Some sounds jump wildly from loud to With a reverb you can make a three-piece
soft, making them distorted one second band playing in the basement sound like a
and virtually inaudible the next. The dif- major concert hall event. Reverb emulates
ference between these very loud and soft the sound of a big hall. But watch out—too
sounds is the dynamic range. much reverb will make things muddy.
Reverb also adds authority to a narrator’s audio through use of both technique and
voice. Rock and roll’s ultimate DJ, Cousin equipment. You may need to clean up and
Brucie, uses a lot of reverb. equalize the live audio vocals a bit.
Reverb, particularly when applied to You’ll also want to work on the sound
drums, can make a band sound bigger from your outdoor segments—selectively
than life on tape. Now you know how rock equalizing background noises or reduce
bands maintain the ambiance of the con- them manually during spoken passages.
cert hall on recorded media. That waterfall, for example, near the wed-
Once it’s on tape, you can’t eliminate ding party blocked out some of the vocal
reverb easily from a recording. That’s why interaction. An EQ can help, as well as a
recording engineers add it later for maxi- touch of reverb on the vocalists’ voices.
mum control. Use sound-absorbing damp- When possible, record musical inter-
eners—rugs, blankets, egg cartons—in small ludes preceding the ceremony—such as a
studios whenever recording to capture a soloist’s number—on cassette rather than
clean dry sound. Then employ electronics relying on a room mike during the shoot
in post-production to simulate real room itself. If the bride doesn’t object, the artist
resonance. may have a professionally recorded tape of
Digital delays are similar to reverbs. the same material you can use to replace
They electronically delay the input sig- the live track. After all, we are not focusing
nal for a selected amount of time. You can our attention on the soloist unless there are
produce echoes of extremely short dura- a lot of close-ups requiring lip sync.
tion. Use digital delays to double a vocal, In almost any kind of production, con-
and you can make it sound as though two sider using background or “wallpaper”
people are singing together. And, if you music track for continuity. It will fill in
take one output channel from the delay those silent gaps often associated with live
and run it through an EQ, you may even footage. One cheap trick; try an inexpen-
make it sound like two different people. sive keyboard with built-in rhythm sounds
The possibilities are infinite. as background. Use the individual slider on
Phase shifters delay the incoming sig- the mixer to boost the volume of the back-
nal slightly, causing the delayed signal to ground gently during these silent periods.
partially cancel the original. This causes If you’re relying on pre-recorded music,
whooshing sound effects—good for planes, find selections that don’t clash with the
trains and other speedy objects. theme of your video. For a wedding,
don’t use anything overly aggressive or
dynamic; instrumentals are a safe bet. You
Going for the Take may wish to sprinkle in some sound effects
like ambience or laughter. Stock music of
Okay, you’ve got your mixer and your applause and laughter may follow special
equalizer. Now you must decide which introductions at the reception.
sounds you need for the mixing session. By now you will have run out of hands.
Much pre-recorded material is avail- Starting the CD player just in time while
able, but you may want to experience the cross fading from the live track to an over-
thrill of creating your own sound effects dub makes this a job for an octopus. Pro
(SFX) like they did in the old radio shows. studios use computer sequencers and
Crumpled cellophane, for example, makes remote controls to help. It is best to try
good rain or eggs frying. But keep in mind a few dry runs before actually recording
you only have two hands to work with onto the final tape. While practicing, send
and will need them for the mixing board. the mixer output to a cassette recorder so
If you can, have an assistant with you dur- that you can listen later. It is very difficult
ing a mix. to be objective while working the mixer.
Say you’re audio mixing a wedding tape. With most projects, you’ll find it chal-
You can “sweeten” up all your location lenging at best to audio edit the entire
Adventures in Sound Editing 253
length in one pass. Use cuts and scene master directly onto the video. You’ll have
breaks in the video for audio transitions control over each individual channel.
and segues. Have an assistant keep records Successive generations do add noise,
of tape count and time passed as editing but what a small price to pay for such
cues. Have him or her act as an audio direc- flexibility. You can also add noise sup-
tor, coaching you through the moves. pression or filters for the final mix-down.
Complicated editing may require sound Four, eight, twelve, sixteen and twenty-
recording the output to a tape recording four track audio recorders are available at
before laying it on the videotape. A mini- recording studios for complicated mixes
mum of two output channels will be sent of numerous audio elements.
to corresponding tracks on a tape recorder. It takes a lot of practice to learn proper
You may use the individual left and right audio mixing technique. Even a small
channels of a stereo cassette recorder for video switcher/audio mixer demands a
two-track mono recording. This is ideal for lot of attention. The results, however, are
adding narratives that may require numer- light-years ahead of what you produce
ous takes. You can then mix the two-track in-camera.
51
In the Audible Mood:
Sound Effects and Music—
Evocative, Legal and
Inexpensive
Armand Ensanian
Imagine Popeye without toot toot, Casa- at the track or some Benny Goodman to
blanca without As Time Goes By, Jaws Grandma and Grandpa’s 50th anniversary
without bum BUM bum BUM bum BUM. party tape. After all, you’re not planning to
The soundtrack is the very lifeblood of a make thousands of copies for distribution.
video, setting the mood and enlivening What are the chances that the composer,
each scene of your work. publisher or lyricist of the songs will ever
The trick is to find the right set of sounds see this tape, anyway? Slim at best; no
to accompany your video. The options are one’s going to bust you for borrowing a
many, from creating sound effects your- tune or two for personal use.
self—a la old-time radio—to buying mood The trouble begins when you turn pro
music from a music library. In this chap- or even semi-pro.
ter, we’ll explore these options, and dis- Every serious videographer will even-
cuss the legal and financial ramifications tually land a real-world assignment: a
of your choices. wedding video, local commercial or con-
test entry video. Whatever the applica-
tion, you cannot use someone else’s work
The Copyright Challenge without permission in any video offered
for sale, profit and/or distribution. Music
The availability and affordability of a is like photography, sculpture or any art
simple special effects generator (SEG) you can hold in your hands. Yet the fact
with built-in audio mixing has prompted that you can’t hold it in your hands makes
many videographers to try adding music music ripe for theft by otherwise law-
to video during editing. abiding citizens.
It’s harmless fun, attaching a favorite song You needn’t stoop to theft. You can buy
to a tender moment between mother and great sound effects and music for your
child, a hot rock tune to fast-paced footage videos from a number of sources. The first
254
In the Audible Mood 255
is the most expensive. It involves buying You’ll find, however, that the more peo-
the rights, for one-time use, of a pop song ple involved, the longer the process. Just
performed by a noted artist. make sure all parties sign an agreement
Your clients will request this sort of transferring the rights to use the material
thing often. After all, most clients can only over to you. Handshake deals don’t carry
relate to what they know and hear on the the weight they once did.
radio. You’ll have to explain that you sim- The simplest solution, and perhaps the
ply can’t use the pop song without getting best bang for the buck, is to buy the music
permission from the artist’s representa- from a music library. The quality of the
tives first. material will be as good as or better than
This means the artist’s publisher or licens- you’d expect. You have heard music library
ing agency, such as the American Society soundtracks all your life. Commercials,
of Composers, Authors and Publishers opening scenes to sport events, TV news
(ASCAP). You’ve seen the name on almost shows and presentation videos all use
every record, cassette tape or CD you own. music made to augment video produc-
ASCAP operates like a big collection agency, tions. In fact, most of the music is so much
collecting fees for the use of its artists’ like what you hear on the radio that it’s
material. It’s a fair system that keeps art- often easy to persuade clients to use music
ists from getting ripped off—but it’s an library tracks. Moreover, much of what’s
expensive one for videographers. available was written and composed by
The price you pay for one-time use award-winning musicians; the quality is
rights of a pop song depends on how you first rate.
distribute the tape. Radio stations, TV sta-
tions and local bars with a jukebox pay
agencies like ASCAP a blanket fee. Libraries
This fee may range from thousands of
dollars for a radio station to a few hun- You’d be surprised at how well music
dred dollars a year for that jukebox. (For libraries categorize music—broadcast pro-
more info, call ASCAP in New York, motional; broadcast show theme; corpo-
212-595-3050.) rate imaging; corporate icon build; credit
Unless you expect your video to make roll; documentary; events such as wed-
a big profit, paying for rights to use a hit dings, birthdays and anniversaries; indus-
tune may be unwise. There are cheaper trial presentations; news and information;
ways to go. movie soundtrack; retail presentation; retail
One way is to create your own music. promotional; sound-alike; sports/action
If you’ve the talent and the time, this is and underscore—to name a few.
a worthwhile option. You can use your All of us have a good sense of what these
desktop video equipment to make music; many categories sound like. Just watch
MIDI interfaces to Macs and PCs provide some TV or look at a promo tape at the
the musically inclined with unlimited cre- local travel agency. Still unsure?
ative potential. Music libraries will gladly send you a
Software and sound cards can produce tape or disk of material for approval for a
digital sound that rivals the best CDs. specific tune; some even offer sample CDs.
Some even come with hundreds of digital There are many ways to buy music from
sound samples, ranging from pianos to music libraries. The traditional method
xylophones. charges per needle drop. This means you
Despite all this automation, you’ll still pay only for a specific selection of music
need to have a musical ear, something used from their records, tapes or CDs. The
that’s not included. If you don’t have an term comes from the days of the phono-
ear for music, find local musicians to par- graph, but applies to tapes and CDs as
ticipate in your production. They’ll have well. Most large music libraries will help
both the equipment and the ear you need. you find exactly what you need. Computer
databases allow quick searches from tens year. You can also sign multi-year con-
of thousands of titles. tracts with CD upgrades.
The dollars add up quickly here, but The best value: a buy-out library. Here
you may obtain a very distinct tune, for you pay a one-time price for a CD, or set
a one-time production, that’s not avail- of CDs, that contains the music you need.
able from any other source. This is ideal You may use the CD as often as you wish,
for videographers who don’t produce a lot for as long as you live. You can better
of videos, but who need a unique style of appreciate this deal when you know that
music when they do. you can purchase buy-out libraries for as
Music library charges for needle drops little as $5 per sample tape from small
depend mostly on the extent of use. For independent producers advertising in the
example, the charge for broadcasting back of magazines.
the same music on the same video will But cheap can also mean poor quality.
vary, depending on whether it’s broad- Listen to sample disks and tapes before
cast in Smalltown, USA, or Metropolis. you buy.
Determined by the number of viewers,
needle-drop fees may range from $150 for
a network TV broadcast opening title to Sound Subscription
only $50 for a local TV program. The only
other cost: $20 for leasing the CD that con- You may want to subscribe to a library
tains the material. You make your choice service. Here you receive a CD every month
from the CD, report the piece of music you or two, and have the option to keep it for
will use and pay for it. a one-time fee. Beware, though: you may
There are other methods of dealing with soon find yourself way overstocked, and
music libraries. You may buy a produc- stuck with soundtracks you’ll never use.
tion-blanket where you pay only for the It’s like that videotape collection you
music for a given production. Typically started a few years back; despite the vari-
you select a CD with a variety of musical ety you always seem to stick with a few
themes from a library, and use as much of favorites. A variation on the subscrip-
it as you wish, provided you restrict that tion theme: lease the entire contents of a
use to that production. Costs depend on music library for a term, such as a year,
the size of the project and distribution, but and receive new CDs every month or two
average in the hundreds of dollars. to add to that library.
Annual-blanket fees allow you to buy One last note of caution: music libraries
licensing rights to a group of CDs for are licensed to individuals or production
unlimited use during a given year. Popular companies. Borrowing a library CD from
with high-volume videographers, radio a friend, and then putting your name on
and TV stations, fees from reputable large the finished product is a direct violation
firms are around $1,000 for a group of over of copyright.
a dozen or two different theme CDs for the Stay honest. It’ll pay off in the long run.
52
Seeing Sounds
Hal Robertson
Think back to high school science for a Your audio editor of choice operates
moment. Remember how we were taught in a mode called “waveform view.” Many
that sound waves were invisible and NLEs have this feature as well, but you’ll
could only be heard and felt? The humble probably have to find and activate it. The
audiometer offers a simple way for video waveform view offers a clear picture of
producers to visualize audio volume as your recorded sound from beginning to
they record and post their projects. But end. Tall spikes indicate loud passages
what if I told you there are ways to look while softer sections are visibly lower in
deeper into the content of your sound- volume. Using the zoom feature, it’s easy
track? Would you be interested? This to magnify various areas of the waveform
month, we’ll explore a couple of different for further analysis. Zooming is perfect for
techniques for better understanding what’s finding edit points in dialog and music.
hiding inside your audio soundtracks. Learning to interpret what you see is the
key professional audio editing.
Figure 52-1 is a small segment of voice-
over dialog for a movie trailer. What you see
Information Please is the word “starring.” Closer examination
shows the vowels and consonants of the
Level meters are an important tool for the word. The burst of sound at the beginning
video producer. During the shoot, they is the “S” sound followed by an intense
help identify correct sound levels, ensur- spike for the “T” sound. As the “A” sound
ing a clean, punchy soundtrack. During melds into the “R,” then the “ING” you’ll
post, level meters keep things in check as see a combination of waves superimposed
you add audio elements to your produc- on each other. While it would be difficult to
tion—too strong and the audio will dis- guess the words and letters without hearing
tort, too weak and your viewers will lunge them, you can easily see the difference in
for the remote control. As useful as level the sounds. This makes it easy to identify
meters are, they only tell a small part of small clicks, pops and breath sounds, sim-
the story—namely, volume. plifying your editing duties.
257
The next figure (Figure 52-2) is a sam- and is important in editing your perfect
ple of music. The goal is to extract a four- loop. If you do not make your edit at this
measure section to loop under a DVD intersection, you will likely hear a small
menu. Waveform view makes it easy to see click or pop at the beginning of the loop.
the beats and musical changes in the piece. Most popular audio editing programs auto-
After a brief listen, you find the perfect sec- mate this process or at least provide a way
tion. After setting rough cue points, zoom to easily identify the zero crossing near-
in tight to find the actual downbeat of the est your edit point. I realize we’re talking
starting measure. If you zoom in close about fractions of a frame here but, if it’s
enough, you’ll see exactly where the beat easy to get it right the first time, why do it
begins. Notice where the waveform moves any other way? After you’ve set the starting
from negative to positive territory. This point, move to the end of the loop and find
point is called the “zero crossing” point the exact same point and move your cue
point accordingly. With a little practice,
this makes it easy to identify and edit the
perfect loop or cut for your video project.
The Whole Spectrum
Another useful option is spectrum or fre-

quency analysis. You’re probably familiar
with the histogram view in your photo edi-
tor. Spectrum analysis is the same thing for
audio, showing the intensity of specific fre-
quencies in your soundtrack. Let’s say your
voice-over artist sent an audio file of his
Figure 52-1 Though this may not look like performance. You’ve edited the best cuts,
the word “starring” at first sight, it is in the but it sounds too boomy. You could apply a
language of the waveform. graphic equalizer and fool with the controls
Figure 52-2 Waveform monitors make it easier for editors to make their own looping
sound bites such as this stereo four-beat piece (image left). By finding the zero crossing
point at the downbeat of choice, an editor can smoothly loop a group of sounds (image
right).
Seeing Sounds 259
the peaks and valleys in real time. Watching

your audio change over time is often the
best way to assess the content and plan
for adjustments. Some software allows you
to load a WAV file for analysis—the pro-
gram scans the entire file and displays fre-
quency content for the entire piece.
The frequency analysis function in
Adobe Audition offers another unique fea-
ture—pitch detection. With this option,
you can actually see whether individual
notes of a vocal performance are sharp or
Figure 52-3 A spectrum analysis is very flat, and by how much. Using this infor-
similar to a histogram view in photography, mation, you can apply a pitch shift to the
letting you see specific frequencies in your offending note or notes, correcting the per-
soundtrack. formance. Keep in mind, this only works
on solo instruments and voices, but it’s the
until the sound improves, but there’s a type of repair that can save your project.
better way. Using spectrum analysis on a
troublesome section, you can actually see
the buildup of sound in the exact frequency Scratching the Surface
range. This gives you the information you
need to apply the proper amount of equal- This is one of those topics that require
ization or filtering to correct the problem. some homework on your part. Reading
Spectrum analysis can be applied in sev- about visualizing sound is very different
eral different ways. The simplest is to high- from doing it. Experience is the key. You
light a small segment of your audio and won’t want or need all these techniques
have the program scan the content. This all the time but, by understanding the
produces an accurate snapshot of the audio principles, you’ll know when to use them
content for that particular piece. Another properly. Dig into your audio software, try
method is real-time analysis. Here, you some of the examples and you’ll soon see
play the audio while the software shows sound in a brand new light.
Sidebar
Everyone’s Different
Adobe Soundbooth (and Audition, for that matter), Apple’s Sound Track Pro, Digidesign’s
Pro Tools and Sony Sound Forge have advanced, integrated audio analysis tools. But what
if your editor doesn’t have this option or you do your editing and mixing with your NLE?
Google searching for “audio spectrum analysis” will reveal several options, but the king has to
be Elemental Audio’s InspectorXL. This amazing plugin sports every audio display you could
imagine—and a couple you couldn’t. Learning to interpret these displays will take time, but
this level of information puts your audio productions on the leading edge.
53
Setting the Mood
Hal Robertson
The table is set with wine and roses. music genre associated with the con-
Candles create a soft glow as the attractive tent of your project? If you’re not sure
couple enters for their dinner. He holds of the answers to these questions, look
her chair for her, then, before he finds his for examples of similar videos at your
place at the table, he selects some mood local video store, library or even online.
music for their dining experience. A CD While watching the samples, pay atten-
slides into the player … he punches the tion to the style, tempo and mix of the
play button, and … we hear the screaming music—you’ll find plenty of hints and
sounds of a heavy metal guitar solo shred- maybe even a bad example or two.
ding through the speakers. Dramatic stories often have orchestral
Now, I like a good head-bang from time music or a blend of pop and orchestra.
to time, but it just doesn’t suit this scene. Tender, thoughtful moments will likely
Music has the power to make or break your be accented with a solo instrument like a
project and selecting the proper piece is piano or guitar. Action scenes have a fast-
crucial for any job you tackle. Let’s take a paced music track that is full and aggres-
few minutes to consider how music sets sive, complete with pounding drums. Of
the mood in a video and how to find just course, there are other options, but this is
the right cut for your project. a good start.
Let’s get back to our viewer for a
moment. How do you want him or her to
Choose Wisely feel during your video? Music is perfect
for creating moods and enhancing emo-
There are obvious and not-so-obvious ele- tions. The right selection can make your
ments to selecting music for your video viewer feel sympathetic, angry or upbeat.
project. I always like to start at the end of In advertising and product videos, proper
the process—the viewer. Who will see your music selection can help your viewer feel
finished video and what do they expect. good about the product purchased or the
Will they watch it on television, DVD number he or she is about to dial. In a train-
or the Internet? Is there a stereotypical ing video, music can move the content
260
Setting the Mood 261
Figure 53-1 The correct music, whether a full score or used as background, helps set the mood
you want your viewer to feel. A battle scene might call for a full orchestra, but a romantic
interlude might require only a simple piano tickling. Drum solos or crashes make a strong beat
for hip action shots.
along, keeping the viewer’s attention Music from Where?

focused on the information and not the
clock on the wall. Maybe you don’t like Today’s video producer has many musical
country music, but a video about farm- options to choose from. There have never
ing or bull riding should probably have a been more choices in style, cost or variety.
country flavor to create a familiar feel for In fact, the hardest part may be narrow-
your audience. Regardless of the video ing the field to the right music for your
topic or genre, keep the viewer in mind. project. In any case, you can buy it, create
Figure 53-2 Garage Band is an easy to use yet sophisticated looping music
production program that ships free with new Apple computers.
it or shape it. Buyout music is a huge bass, keyboards, guitars, you name it—on
category for the video producer. A quick a timeline to create an original song. The
Google search for the phrase “buyout advantage here is the level of control you
music” will yield over 2,000,000 pages! leverage over the musical elements. Need a
Alternatively, you may want to start by hole for dialog? You can either leave some
leafing through the advertisements in loops out in that section or draw a volume
this magazine. You’ll find several ven- envelope to bring things down. Want to
dors supplying buyout or royalty-free create a suspenseful moment? Change the
music. Buyout music is what the name key of the music or create a whole new
implies—buy once and it’s yours to use as section from a different set of loops—you
many times as you want, in any number are in complete control of the mood and
of projects. Buyout music comes in many style of the music. If you’re new to loop-
forms—from MP3 downloads to variety based music, drop by AcidPlanet.com and
CDs and even entire libraries. Most ven- download its free version of Acid Xpress.
dors allow you to sample each song online It has everything you need to decide if this
to help find the perfect mood-setting is the musical path to take.
track for your project. Once you’ve found If buyout music is too rigid for your taste
the song or songs you need, you can and loop-based creation is more than you
download and use them immediately or wanted to tackle, consider shaping your
order the CD and wait a few days. If you music with these tools. Digital Juice has
can afford it, buying a variety of songs is created a unique option with its Juicer soft-
a great way to go. This offers flexibility in ware and the Stack Traxx libraries. Stack
both current and future projects. Traxx volumes contain 40 songs in a cer-
If you’re a musically creative type, you tain genre. By loading a song into the Juicer,
may want to build your own custom music you can create new versions by removing
with a program like Acid, Garage Band or certain instruments or tracks. Is that guitar
even Adobe Audition. This type of loop- solo a mood-killer? Just eliminate it and out-
based music creation software lets you put a new mix minus the offending instru-
combine short loops of sounds—drums, ment. Or better yet, use the multi-track
Setting the Mood 263
Figure 53-3 The intuitive SonicFire Pro 4 from SmartSound lets the producer define
the emotion with its Mood Mapping solution.
output option and load individual tracks way, but both have similar goals. This may
into your audio editor or NLE. Using key- be the perfect option for small producers
frames and volume envelopes, you can who need specific moods but don’t have
shape the song as you like—emphasizing the time or budget to hire musicians.
certain parts and moving others to the back
of the mix. It takes some experimentation,
but this may be just what you need to cre- In the Mood
ate the right mood for your video.
Alternatively, SmartSound and Sony This article has just touched the surface
have each introduced products that do of creating moods with music. You’ll have
something they call “mood mapping.” to decide which method is best for your
Both programs work with your finished production. Maybe you’ll use a different
video, allowing you to set markers at one every time, who knows? Just remem-
scenes where you want the musical mood ber the power of music to create a mood
to change. By selecting specific moods from and evoke a response from your viewer.
a list, the software will create a soundtrack Picking the right music for the right
that synchronizes musical changes to your moment is a compelling way to enhance
markers. Each product works in a different the quality and impact of your video.
PART V
Television Distribution
Broadcasting your programs through cable and over-the-air TV.

54
Commercial Distribution:
Mapping Your Way to
Financial Success
William Ronat
Making video means working with motion, they have to pull their money out of their
sound, color, words, composition, light— pockets and hand it to you.
all combined in a maximum creative effort. This exchange can take the form of tickets
That’s fun. at a theater, credit card information over the
Many have produced enough video to phone, money from the advertisers running
get good at it. This means putting in long commercials on your show or checks from
hours planning, shooting and editing pro- all those networks buying your product. It
grams. That’s work. all boils down to this: you get paid.
When you work for a company, you That’s what you want. You may travel
expect a paycheck when you finish your many paths to this destination. You can
work. That’s reasonable. sell directly to the consumer through
When you work for yourself, however, you magazine ads or direct mail; you can work
can expect to work just as hard to sell your through a distributor; you can sell your
product as you did to make it. That’s life. program to broadcast TV; or you can buy
airtime from a cable company, and then
sell commercials during your show.
Fun and Profit The path you choose (Figure 54-1)
depends on your product and, to some
To sell your product, several things have extent, how deep your pockets are. Being in
to happen. People have to know your business involves taking risks, which means
product exists. They have to decide that you sometimes have to shell out some cash
the product is something they want. Then before it starts to flow back to you.
267
Let’s say that (based on your long and suc-

cessful track record) your product is intellec-
tually compelling and technically flawless
(congratulations). Now you’re ready to dis-
tribute that perfect video. Let’s start with the
cheapest way to do it—by yourself.
Birth of a Salesman
This method seems fair and natural to most

people. You worked hard on your video;
it’s only right that you should enjoy all the
profit from this effort. Remember, however,
that this also means assuming all the risk
and fronting all the money for the advertis-
ing, postage, dubbing costs, shipping and
so on. Also figure in time and effort for
Figure 54-1 answering inquiries about your product,
as well as packaging and addressing these
packages when you do make a sale.
Is It Good? Let’s say your glorious video details the
proper maintenance of inboard marine
The first step in the process is to take a engines. Is this program any good? You think
long, very critical look at your product. so. Your friends think so. Even your ene-
Is this a show that other people will want mies admit to liking it. But these opinions
to watch? Would they pay money to watch won’t do you much good when it comes
it? Would you? Ask your friends to watch time to sell. What you need is a review.
it and tell you what they think. Now do Check all the magazines covering your
the same with your enemies. That should subject (Inboard Boating Illustrated, Mar-
give you a nice range of viewpoints. ine Engine World and so on) and read them.
Is the target audience large enough to jus- Do they review books or videos of interest
tify the production costs? You can produce to their readers? If they do, write a profes-
the greatest video ever on Growing Beans sional cover letter to the editor of each,
in Sandy Soil, but if this subject doesn’t describing your show in a straightforward
appeal to enough people, then you may not manner. (If they don’t, send out letters
get your investment back—even if every (Figure 54-2) anyway; your product may
potential member of your target audience be good enough to set a few precedents.)
buys your product. You have to believe Don’t hype your product at this point; jour-
strongly in your product—just make sure nalists don’t like that approach. Also send
you can justify that belief. along VHS dubs of your program for the
Your next consideration: production editors to pass on to their reviewers.
value. Producing on consumer-level equip- Don’t expect replies, unless you also
ment will work for some uses, but if you plan enclose an SASE (Self-Addressed Stamped
to sell your show to a broadcast or major Envelope) in each letter. If you want your
cable network, you may want to work with dub back, then send an SASE with enough
professional gear. Also, use the best crew and postage to cover its weight.
talent that you can afford. If your show is per- Getting a review is not a quick process.
fect, except for the lighting, or the audio, or The reviewer has to view your show, write
the on-camera spokesperson’s delivery, you up the review and get the review to the
could be in trouble; one of these flaws alone magazine. Depending on the publication,
could flag your project for rejection. it may be two to three months from the
Commercial Distribution 269
impact), the amount per issue goes down.

Magazines often offer breaks for running an
ad three times (3) or six times (6).
Fulfillment
Once the ad runs, the orders start to

pour in.
But how do you get them? Do custom-
ers order by credit card over the phone
(any time of the day or night)? Or do they
send you a check? Do you wait for checks
Figure 54-2 to clear before you send customers their
tapes? What if the check bounces? Which—
point the review reaches the editor’s desk if any—credit cards will you accept? What
until it actually gets into print. about a money-back guarantee?
If the review is favorable, your show has You can avoid some of these headaches
just taken a big step toward legitimacy. by working out a deal with a fulfillment
A major publication (Inboard Boating house. I once used a service from a com-
Illustrated, no less) has complimented pany that made dubs of my show and kept
your show in print. This tells your poten- them on hand. The company provided me
tial buyers that your program is for real, with its 800 number, which I used in my
that you did not just fall off of a turnip ads. My customers placed their orders with
truck and that the video is worth spending this company. The company performed a
their money to see. number of services for me:
Another way to lend legitimacy to your • recording the pertinent customer infor-
tape is to have an expert introduce the mation,
material. You can also put the expert’s
picture on the cover of the tape’s package. • accepting credit cards,
Potential buyers see their favorite inboard • waiting for checks to clear and
engine expert on the tape and say to them-
selves, “Hey, I trust Joe Inboard. This tape • sending out the videos, using a pre-
must be good.” Of course, Joe Inboard will printed slip sleeve that I provided.
probably ask you to pay for his image, or
At the end of each month, the company
he may even ask for a piece of the action
sent me a statement telling me how many
(such as a percentage of the profits).
units sold during that time, along with a
If Inboard Boating Illustrated uses a rat-
check—minus the fees they charged for
ing system (four little boats equal excellent,
their fulfillment services.
and three little boats equal good), then you
This is a good, convenient service; but it
have a perfect element for your next step
does mean additional expense. Also, fulfill-
in selling your product—advertising in
ment services typically require the assur-
the magazine. In your display ads, you’ll
ance that they make a minimum amount
feature “FOUR BOATS—Inboard Boating
of money per month, which means selling
Illustrated” as prominently as possible.
a minimum number of your videos each
The cost of your ad will vary accord-
month. If the total falls below this, you may
ing to the number of people who read the
pay a penalty.
magazine, how much space your ad takes
up and how many colors appear in the ad.
As you might expect, the price goes up as Direct Mail
readers, colors and space requirements go
up. If you run an ad more than once (which Another method of reaching potential cus-
you almost always have to do to have any tomers is direct mail. You get direct mail
from advertisers at home all the time; you

probably think of it as junk mail. But it’s
only junk if the ad is trying to sell you
something you don’t want. That’s why
you must make sure that the people you
mail your ad to are the people who want
your product.
There are companies that sell lists of
business names, preformatted on sticky
labels for easy use. These lists break down
according to type of business, number of
employees, region of operation and so on.
Be selective, and you can buy the right list
for your target market.
Also, Inboard Boating Illustrated prob-
ably sells its subscriber list to advertis-
ers. Consider buying subscriber lists from
appropriate publications.
Once you buy the right list, find a local Figure 54-3
company that handles large mailings. This
way, you won’t have to stuff any enve- of these publications reviews videotapes,
lopes. If you’ve ever licked more than so getting a review is a good place to start.
twenty stamps at a sitting, you’ll know The local video rental store (Figure 54-3)
this service is worth the expense. is another option. One method would be to
When you determine the price of your walk in, ask to see the owner and try to sell
program, remember to figure in the adver- the show then and there. But this would be
tising costs. For example, if you buy a list much like trying to teach a pig to sing. It
of 10,000 names from a magazine, print wastes your time and annoys the pig.
up 10,000 ads and stuff 10,000 stamped Rental stores buy their programs almost
envelopes for your direct mailing, you’ve exclusively from major distributors that
shelled out some serious money. The direct publish catalogs every week. One is the
mail industry considers a one percent Major Video Concept catalog (800-365-
response rate “good”; that’s 100 orders 0150), which boasts lots of four-color ads
from a mailing of 10,000. So you could for Hollywood features. One page adver-
lose money if you don’t charge enough for tises foreign films and other videos.
your product.
Distributors
Libraries and Video Rental Stores
When you distribute a product, such as
After you’ve fully exploited the inboard a videotape, there is a certain amount
boating market, exploit libraries. of infrastructure that has to be in place.
There are public libraries, college librar- You must let the customer know that the
ies, high school libraries and more. Most product is available, you must be able to
have videotape departments stocked with take orders and fulfill them. This is true
a variety of videos; especially popular are whether you have one product in your line
how-to programs. or a thousand. Obviously, this infrastruc-
Check out the magazines covering this ture is less expensive per product if you
market: Booklist (you won’t find it at the have a thousand products. This is why
newsstand, it goes out directly to librar- there are companies called distributors.
ians); School Library Journal; Library In the early years of the motion picture
Journal and Wilson Library Bulletin. Each industry, there were no major film studios.
Commercial Distribution 271
The people who owned the theaters needed Major film festivals are a good place to
product. Viewers didn’t ask for much, they show off your work to distributors. Events
would watch a man petting a dog or a horse such as the Berlin Film Festival and the
running down a road and be happy. But Sundance Film Festival are places to see
they always wanted more. and be seen by “the players.” Before you
Finally, the people who owned lots of can enter your show, however, check the
theaters and thus needed the most prod- entrance requirements. Pay particular
uct decided to make their own movies. attention to format. If you shot on video,
That’s how the major studios were born. you will have to transfer the master to
Distribution was the key. 16 mm or 35 mm. Expect to pay a couple
For video, there are hundreds of small of thousand dollars for this process.
specialty distributors. One distributor There are many video festivals as well.
might serve a market of gardeners. Every Entering and winning prizes for quality
few months the distributor sends a catalog and great content can’t hurt your chances
to these gardeners featuring all the books of interesting a distributor in your show.
and videos on pruning and planting. The And the price of a dub for your entry will
gardener can pick out several and order all be less expensive than a 35 mm film print.
of them at the same time. Convenient. Seeing your work “on the air,” either on
You can usually find a list of distribu- a broadcast or a cable station, is always a
tors at your local library. Books listing all thrill. Again, there are many avenues you
the video products available for the cur- can take to reach this goal.
rent year often include a list of distribu-
tors for ordering purposes.
The names may not tell you much about Vid News Is Good News
the distributors. So before you send out
copies of your program to distributors, call Many local news shows encourage vid-
the companies and chat with the owners eographers to be on the lookout for news-
about your product. Even if these people worthy events (Figure 54-4). Even in large
show no interest in your video, they may markets, a news director has only a lim-
recommend distributors who might. ited number of crews to cover the sta-
When a distributor decides to handle tion’s area. Given the improved quality
your show, you’ll negotiate a contract. You of consumer gear, stations are more likely
won’t sell the show, but rather license it. to get footage of dramatic events as they
This means that while you still own the happen if a quick-thinking videographer
material, the distributor will receive a per- happens to be on the scene.
centage of the retail price of product sold. The value of the footage depends on its
This could be a healthy percentage, like newsworthiness; most stations pay $50 to
75 percent. Or it could be less, depending $100 for short news pieces. You can expect
on how good a negotiator you are and how a lot more if you get the Loch Ness mon-
much the distributor wants the product. ster, Bigfoot or some natural or man-made
When negotiating remember that the disaster on tape.
distributor is paying for advertising, ful- If you live in an area which has a low-
fillment, storage and so on; you assume power television (LPTV) station or a small
none of the risk. These services are worth cable company, you might be able to get
something. on the air by forging a partnership. If the
station or company doesn’t have a produc-
tion arm, make yourself useful to them by
The Big Screen offering to: 1) cover city council meetings,
2) produce promotional spots and 3) shoot
You’ve always dreamed of seeing your work public service work.
on the big screen. This means selling your Could you do this out of the goodness of
work to film distributors—not an easy sell. your heart? You could, or you could offer
Figure 54-4
to do all this work in exchange for airtime

on the channel, say an hour a week.
Figure 54-5
On the Air
Now you own an hour of airtime; how do may be able to lease your own time. The
you profit by it? There are a number of Cable Act of 1992 requires cable opera-
ways to boost your bottom line. If you live tors to set aside a certain percentage of
in an area that attracts lots of tourists, cre- their channels for lease by independent
ate a show that reviews restaurants, pro- programmers.
files interesting people and recommends This sounds good; but some cable com-
local hot spots. Sell 30-second spots on the panies hesitate to sell time to indepen-
show to some of these same businesses. dents, and others charge too much when
Then produce the 30-second spots for they do. Contact your local cable opera-
them, charging for production services. tor (Figure 54-5) and ask about its leased
Or take your hour of airtime and sell it to access policy; be ready to fight for the time
a syndicator. The syndicator will then fill that is legally yours.
the time with an infomercial or an enter-
tainment program, commercials included.
Or you could run a telethon and ask for Destination Distribution
donations from viewers in order to keep
your telethon on the air. (If you succeed at Distribution paths are many. Some involve
this one, be sure to tell me about it.) risking your money; some involve spending
your time and others involve sharing your
profits with others.
Leased Access and Satellite Time The key is to find the ones that work for
you and your video. Persevere and you
If you have a great programming idea can sell your show.
and live in an area where the cable com- All it takes is a little effort and a little
pany carries more than 36 channels, you luck … and a great product.
55
Public Access:
Produce Your Own TV Show
Sofia Davis
You can have your own TV show. It’s eas- Getting Started
ier than you might think and best of all,
it’s absolutely free! How, you ask? The The first step is to contact your local
answer is public access. public access station and sign up for an
Public access television is non- orientation class. Most facilities have
commercial airtime made available to the ongoing seminars and continuing educa-
public, free of charge. The only require- tion to help you increase your production
ment to utilize public access, is that you knowledge. If you have questions during
live in the community where the show will a shoot, a staff person is usually available
be produced. Most public access facilities to help you (see Figure 55-1).
offer training in shooting, audio and edit- Once you finish the orientation and get
ing, and provide all the equipment you’ll tested on the equipment, you’re ready to
need. produce your show. Usually, you must
While the law no longer requires that submit a finished program to the public
cable companies air public access pro- access facility before it airs so someone can
grams, a certain percentage of cable rev- view your tape and make sure it fits the sta-
enue in any market must go to the host tion’s guidelines. Once approved, you will
city or municipality. A portion of this receive a time slot for your show to air.
money goes towards public access televi- Remember, your program has to be non-
sion, so most markets (even small ones) commercial; that means you cannot say
have a public access channel and a mod- or show phone numbers, dates of events,
est studio. prices or store names within the show
Does producing and broadcasting your itself. You can put phone numbers at the
own public access TV show sound entic- end of the show, typically for no longer
ing to you? This article will tell you how than 10 seconds. Anything longer than
to get started. that is considered advertising.
274
Public Access 275
Figure 55-1 Teach Me—You often need to be trained to use the

equipment. This is a great opportunity to learn.
Figure 55-2 Equip Me—The gear at the station might be ancient or it

might be the latest and the greatest.
Everything You Need

rooms and more. This is a big help for a
If you have no experience with video or beginner or a person that does not have
TV production, public access can be a equipment (see Figure 55-2).
great place for you to start. At most pub- Although most studios now have well-
lic access stations everything is provided maintained digital equipment, this is
for you—a studio for shooting, editing public access, so don’t necessarily expect
facilities, digital video cameras for loca- cutting-edge equipment. They will, how-
tion shooting, computer editing systems, ever, provide everything you need to shoot
microphones and audio cables, dressing and edit a program.
Other producers are usually available the air (if your show has been airing for
to crew for you, and in turn, it is expected a period of time), to give new producers
that you will crew for them. Most facilities a chance.
have a book that lists people who are certi-
fied and available to work on a production
crew. The Golden Rule
Each station will have its own rules and

Different Time, Same Channel regulations about the use of equipment,
crew and time slots. Check with your
Depending on your city, you may have to local access station for specifics. However,
wait for a time slot before your program there is one guideline to which all public
can air. And, you don’t always have the access programs must adhere: You cannot
option of choosing the time slot you like. make any money from the show.
Typically, you will not have a time slot The station staff will watch your show
for more than 13 weeks, so it can be hard carefully. If they find that you’ve produced
to build an audience to follow your pro- a commercial show, you can be banned
gram. You may be on Saturday at 8 p.m. from having a show, or using the facilities
and then moved to Wednesday at 7 a.m. and editing equipment.
Your 8 p.m. audience will wonder where
you went. You cannot advertise the move
in advance, because you won’t know You’ve Got Access
where you’re going until the move has
been made. There is typically nothing you The opportunity is there for you to take
can do about this. The facility has to make your own program to the airwaves. Despite
space for new producers. some restrictions and scheduling irregu-
If you are in a facility that has a lot of larities, managing your own public access
producers, you may be asked to go off time slot is a wonderful opportunity.
Sidebar 1
Insurance?
Since your show is non-commercial, insurance is not required. You do not have to have Errors
& Omission Insurance to produce a show.
Sidebar 2
Public Access Hints
• Take as many educational classes as possible.
• Crew for everyone you can. If there are people that are particularly experienced, crew for
them; you will learn a lot.
• Volunteer to help edit someone else’s show. Sit in with them to learn how they edit and
why.
• Follow the rules of the facility. Most provide these services free; if you had to pay for it, it
could really cost you. Therefore, be respectful of the rules.
56
PBS and ITVS:
Fertile Soil for Independent
Videographers
Alessia Cowee
If you’ve ever dreamed of seeing your misconception, but PBS is not a televi-
video production on television or bring- sion network. Instead, it is a membership
ing your vision to a broader audience organization made up of independent pub-
than friends and family, now is the time lic television stations around the country,
and PBS is the place. PBS—both inde- funded, in part, by the Corporation for
pendently and through its liaison with Public Broadcasting, a private corporation
ITVS—offers unparalleled opportunities created by the US Congress in 1967. PBS
for videographers with unique vision and is available to 99% of US households and
a compelling story. You’ll find a surpris- strives to reach all portions of the popula-
ing number of opportunities with ongo- tion with quality, accessible, relevant pro-
ing series (such as Frontline, American gramming. Pat Mitchell, PBS President
Masters, POV and American Experience), and CEO, says key components of the
limited jointly curated series (like Digital PBS mission are “to inform, to inspire and
Divide and Independent Lens) and one- to educate.”
offs (stand-alone, independent films). Independent producers frequently chal-
This chapter will help you evaluate lenge convention and provide in-depth
whether your project is PBS/ITVS mate- analyses of complex topics. PBS makes
rial and show you how to break into this available programming designed to spur
ever-expanding market. discussion and active community involve-
ment in social issues. Its goal is to provide
thorough examination of a story, theme or
PBS, ITVS and You: The Time Is Now issue, including all conflicting points of
view.
PBS has a strong tradition of working with The Independent Television Service
independent producers. It’s a common (ITVS) was created in 1991 in response to
277
Figure 56-1 Acting as guide and gateway into the public television
arena, ITVS links independent producers with public television
programming opportunities.
demand from independent media produc- for them? The most obvious question is
ers and community activists for program- often the most overlooked: Do you want
ming by and for diverse, underrepresented to produce a program or a series? If your
audiences (such as minorities and children) long-range goal is theatrical release, PBS
not adequately served by the networks or is probably not the proper venue for your
by PBS. project. Some films, however, do get addi-
Acting as guide and gateway into the tional play after a public TV release, for
public television arena, ITVS links inde- example, in educational distribution, at
pendent producers with public television festivals and in home video and foreign
programming opportunities (see Figure broadcast markets.
56-1). ITVS offers producers feedback Though the guidelines and needs vary
during the creative process (including for each program and funding initiative, it
programs which apply, but are rejected can be said that PBS and ITVS seek innova-
for financial aid), content development tive, adventurous, compelling stories told
assistance, funding options and an exten- in distinctive, contemporary and engaging
sive marketing and publicity package in formats. Of special interest are projects
conjunction with Community Connections that provide interactive opportunities for
Project (CCP—a network of community community participation. No subject is
organizers). taboo, though projects too narrow in scope
may not have many market options. Wide-
Content Confab: Programming market appeal creates more programming
Possibilities possibilities, but success is not strictly
about raw ratings in public broadcasting.
What are PBS and ITVS looking for and You should also avoid controversy for
how do you know if your program is right controversy’s sake. Journalistic integrity
PBS and ITVS 279
Figure 56-2 An excellent way to keep abreast of developments is

to subscribe to the Beyond the Box newsletter.
in research, documentation and develop- for producers who pair up with a specific
ment is expected. public television station and is perfect for
Is it easier for emerging or established programs with a more local appeal.
videographers to break in with a one-off PBS is currently implementing a pro-
or with a series segment? ITVS Executive gram, called In The Works, to support
Director, Sally Jo Fifer, explains, “It’s production on a limited number of proj-
always difficult to get funding because the ects for use with its series POV as fund-
competition is so fierce. The one essential ing becomes available. An excellent way
is to have a great idea and tell it in a crea- to keep abreast of developments is to sub-
tive, thorough, smart proposal. Tell a great scribe to the Beyond the Box newsletter
story in a unique, ‘the viewer can’t stop (see Figure 56-2). Available funding and
watching’ way.” application procedures vary for each pro-
gram and initiative.
Public television is commercial-free,
Funding but other outside opportunities exist for
acquiring financial assistance. Corporate
ITVS offers several initiatives for produc- and minority consortia funds are available
ers seeking financial support for com- for resourceful producers, as are grants
pletion of a film, although it actually from state and national arts councils.
funds less than five percent of proposed
projects. Open Call accepts proposals in
any genre and funding rounds occur twice Getting the Green Light
yearly (in February and August). LinCS
(Local Independents Collaborating with ITVS uses a peer-reviewed process to screen
Stations) provides matching ITVS funds applicants for funding. ITVS selects juries
based on diversity of ethnicity, voca-

tion, religion, geographic region and other
demographic criteria. The jury consid-
ers each application on its own merits,
individually evaluated and scored. The
screening process has three levels, with
weaker proposals eliminated at each
stage. The panels often request additional
application materials from producers who
advance to the next level during the review
process. At the full panel meetings, mem-
bers advocate for their favorite projects
until they can arrive at a consensus on
which proposals to fund for that round. Figure 56-3 Your video must meet all of the
Criteria the panel may consider when very rigorous PBS technical requirements,
reviewing your project: as set forth in the Technical Operating
Specifications (TOS).
• Is the project accessible, relevant, for-
matted in the most effective manner? Technical Specifications
• Is the treatment thorough, concise, writ-
ten with passion? Does it clearly show Almost any shooting format is viable for
the project trajectory and structure? PBS/ITVS programming. Choose the format
that most effectively showcases your sub-
• Is the audience easily identifiable? Is it ject matter or the one that is most readily
broad enough? Does it represent ITVS available. In the end, however, the final
and PBS mission statements? video must be digitally mastered and
• Is the producer or the team experi- must meet all of the very rigorous PBS
enced enough to complete the project technical requirements, as set forth in the
on budget and on deadline? Technical Operating Specifications (TOS)
(see Figure 56-3). This handbook and the
Ms. Fifer warns that producers frequently ITVS production manual are available
do not read the application guidelines care- for purchase online. Standard program
fully enough. She also suggests that pro- lengths for PBS/ITVS are 26:40 and 56:40.
ducers weigh the appeal of their projects, Feature films of non-standard length are
“Programmers tell us repeatedly that they considered on a case-by-case basis.
don’t need six shows on one subject. They
especially don’t need six okay shows on
one subject. What they need is one great Ready, Set, Video
show on that subject.”
Sample materials and written treatments You’ve set your sights on PBS and chosen
must outshine their competitors. There the appropriate funding initiative. You’ve
are not nearly enough programming hours studied existing series strands and talked
available for the number of submissions with producers who have worked with
received by PBS and ITVS, of course, and PBS. Your sample and treatment are flaw-
top-notch productions often do not make lessly prepared and you can meet all of the
the cut the first time around. You may find technical specifications. The story you’ve
the keys to the public programming king- chosen to tell is unique, passion-filled and
dom in the feedback you get even if your appeals to a broad audience while remain-
proposal is rejected. But remember, not all ing interesting and diverse. Now what?
venues are suited to all programs. Keep Once you mail your application, the
reevaluating your project to determine review process may take up to six months.
where it fits best. If your proposal is selected, you must
PBS and ITVS 281
typically complete the project within one or other subscription services such as
year of acceptance. Should ITVS license Independent Lens or POV.
your film, it may offer it to stations directly, It takes perseverance, persistence,
without benefit of a time slot or an air date. resourcefulness and a dedication to vision,
The film could be distributed over PBS voice and mission, but dozens of independ-
Plus or on a soft-feed, which allows mem- ent video producers share compelling sto-
ber stations to fit the program into avail- ries and unique perspectives via PBS every
able airtime. It might even earn a spot on year. This could be the year the spotlight
the National Program Service (hard-feed) shines on your work.
Sidebar 1
Electric Shadows
ITVS is breaking ground with digital technology. If interactive media and Web release are what
you crave, check out Electric Shadows, an extraordinary blend of digital audio, video, inter-
views and still photography, enhanced with feedback forums and lesson plan suggestions.
Sidebar 2
PBS.org
Stay current with the needs of PBS. PBS updates its Web site frequently with content priori-
ties. Preview the strands you are interested in producing for before submitting your film or
applying for funding. Does your format, vision, style and subject matter fit within the pro-
gram’s parameters? If not, consider another strand or funding source.
Sidebar 3
ITVS Information
Independent Television Service
501 York Street
San Francisco, CA 94110
Phone: (415) 356-8383
email: [email protected]
Sidebar 4
Online Resources for Producers
Producing for PBS
http://www.pbs.org/producers/
Online Version of PBS Redbook
http://www.pbs.org/insidepbs/redbook/index.html
PBS Production Guidelines
http://www.pbs.org/insidepbs/guidelines/index.html
Beyond the Box Online Content:
http://www.beyondthebox.org/
ITVS Funding Applications and Guidelines
http://www.itvs.org/producers/funding.html
57
Paths to Broadcast
Television
Mark Bosko
Let me relate to you the story of a fellow as it happens, was on the board of the local
videographer who “made good.” John public television station. He was primarily
started like most of us, goofing around responsible for development of new local
with his parents’ film equipment. Though programming.
just a child, the creative art of cinematog- Thinking of John’s desires, and some
raphy really clicked for him. He created of the super productions the students
one film after another to the delight of his were showing, the teacher came up with
family and friends. a “Young Filmmaker’s” showcase pro-
Though the passion for this “art” fes- gram. The show would give aspiring film
tered inside John, he became frustrated and videographers (now John’s medium of
with what seemed like a wasting of his choice due to cost and time considerations)
time. The whole purpose of producing a a place to present their programming to a
movie was for an audience’s enjoyment. potentially large viewership.
After five years of basement screenings, Happy ending: John got his audience, the
family and friends hardly qualified as a station got quality programming, and view-
legitimate audience anymore. John knew ers got some alternative shows to watch.
there just had to be a better way, but didn’t Not all stories involving broadcast TV
latch onto it quite yet. Much later, in col- are so inspiring, and sometimes PBS net-
lege, John enrolled in the school’s telepro- works are the hardest nuts to crack. But the
duction class. He knew a little bit about TV example above does point out the many
production, but was still mainly a “film” opportunities that exist for videographers
guy. It was here that he discovered what looking for distribution of their produc-
would later “rule” his world—videotape. tions within these “hallowed halls.” For
Even with excellent marks, John still some reason or another, broadcast televi-
yearned for that elusive “audience.” sion stations have the image of an “insid-
Luckily, he was outspoken about this need, er’s club.” You’ve got to know someone or
and a professor took notice. The professor, already work there in a lower capacity to
282
Paths to Broadcast Television 283
get an in. If you weren’t a part of the com- to be fulfilled? What does broadcast televi-
munity’s filmmaking “elite,” your chances sion offer you in the form of distribution?
for broadcast were nil. Maybe ten or so
years ago that was true, but today, this is
simply not the case. Especially for dedi- VHF
cated, experienced videographers.
One of the reasons for this “opening” may You’ve got a job (that you like) and possess
be attributable to the increase in number some fine-tuned production abilities. You
and types of broadcast outlets on the map. own a little equipment, no Industrial Light
Before everyone in America had cable, there and Magic, but a respectable “studio” on
existed a strong distinction between broad- your own right. You’ve made some indus-
cast and cable fare. Broadcast programming trials, a whole slew of weddings, even an
was free, contained some locally produced instructional tape on gardening for your
programming (created at the station, not spouse. You got some good ideas for pro-
by independents), and carried the network gramming that you think will go over big
shows as they “came down the line.” Cable, with the locals, but how do you get it on
on the other hand, carried new movies and the tube?
other, non-traditional television material. Time saving tip number one: skip the
It was also perceived (rightly so) as being VHF channels in your broadcasting area.
very costly. VHF slots, usually reserved for network
As the years passed and more media affiliates, offer the independent videogra-
moguls developed, the number of cable sta- pher little in the form of finding an audi-
tions quadrupled, the cost for the service ence. The stations are network controlled,
plummeted and the demand by consum- meaning they have mega-bucks at their
ers who “wanted their MTV” skyrocketed. resources. They’re not rude, but why would
This led to the confusing mix of cable and they want to mess with your $1.98 Talent
broadcast stations that currently exists on Show when they can program a re-rerun of
your channel selector. This influx of new Who’s the Boss? It just doesn’t make sense
entertainment choices spurred a huge void for the big boys to play with you.
in the supply of programming able to ful- About the only exposure you may achieve
fill the scheduling needs of the stations. through a VHF outlet is sale of news-type
Another reason broadcast stations footage. And this comes from personal
unlocked their doors to outsiders was the experience. My town was literally burning
fact that now they wanted to compete with down. A huge fire started in the historical
the trendy and popular cable networks. district, and I happened to be at the right
The old, stodgy rules of operation were place at the right time with my camcorder.
changing, and any new face that had some- I got some great shots before any of the
thing to add to the party was welcome. large news crews showed up. They were
And, in recent years, a new broadcast aware of my presence and asked to buy
outlet, Low Power Television (LPTV) the footage for inclusion in the coverage of
became popular. The limited signal put the story. I was only too glad to succumb
out by these stations reaches a relatively to their wishes. But don’t plan on getting
small, geographically close audience. The rich from selling news footage. These deep-
LPTV stations tend to be carriers of down- pocketed network guys could only scrape
loadable national satellite programming, together $50 for the whole 30-minute tape.
mixed with an unusually high amount (for And then I didn’t even get an on-air credit!
broadcast) of local fare.
While all of this is certainly encouraging
(if not educational) for the future of aspir- UHF
ing videographers, what real opportunities
exist now, in the present, for those of you If you’ve seen the Weird Al movie of the
who can’t wait a lifetime for your dreams same name, then you are aware of the
possibilities available for independent WAI-TV, part of a three-channel LPTV

programming to air on these channels. network in Cleveland and Akron, offers
While it’s not quite as zany as the Weird air-time for sale. Going for $250 and up
Al film, opportunities do exist (especially per half-hour (depending what day and
in smaller markets) for videographers to time you buy) the channel is a natural for
find an audience. independents. “We have space for sale just
Many UHF stations are becoming net- like every other television network. It just
work affiliates (FOX has conquered quite a happens that ours is available to the inde-
few), so the chances with these stations are pendent,” says Bill Klaus, owner of the
slimming. If you live in a large TV city (one station. Klaus makes it clear that the rea-
with more than four or five UHF channels), son an independent can buy time from his
then you should be able to locate a willing network is because it is affordable. “Sure,
outlet. In the Cleveland-area, a late-night someone with a home-grown production
television host on a UHF channel hosts could go to their local VHF station and buy
a viewer’s film’s series. It’s a great show a half-hour of time to broadcast the show,
comprised of shorts (one shot-on-video but they’d probably have to mortgage their
feature has played) broken up with inter- house to do it. My network makes it afford-
views of the videographers. There is no able, and we often barter time as well so the
pay involved, but the audience is pretty videographer can actually make a buck.”
big, and loyal. The program is also pop- Bartering, as Klaus mentioned, is another
ular with local advertisers who recognize favored option of UHF and LPTV pro-
the local customer base tuning in. grammers. What this means is that you
If there is a late-night gig in your city, retain some of the commercial time allot-
why not hit up the host with this idea? It ted within your programming block. As an
makes his or her job infinitely easier, and example, let’s say you buy a half-hour of air
becomes attractive to sales personnel at time for $200. That’s the flat rate. With that
the station. price, you are the owner of all 8 minutes of
Sunday morning talk and “city” shows commercial space. You can deal with the
also seem popular with UHF channels. station, letting them keep 4 minutes of ad
Easily produced, these programs focus time, dropping your payment to $100. And,
on community events and personalities. it also works in reverse. If they want to buy
Often, the production may center on one your show (yes—that actually happens
specific area, and the show is a submis- sometimes), they may offer you the com-
sion from a freelance videographer. mercial time in exchange for any payment.
Fairly new to the broadcast arena, Low This way they don’t have a cash outlay, but
Power Television stations are basically fill their schedule. You, on the other hand,
UFH stations, only with less signal ampli- have found a profitable distribution outlet.
fication. These stations function much like The large, network-affiliated stations
their big cousins, only with a greater con- will not likely be interested in your bar-
centration of the local goods. gain broadcasting, but many independent
stations will take a look. Local interest,
interview shows, documentaries, commu-
Cashing In nity affairs and sporting events are all good
ideas to present to any small broadcaster in
Knowing that there’s some distribution your neighborhood.
avenues available in UHF and LPTV is When you go door knocking, bring an
good news, but, you’d like some compen- attractive demo and a professional presen-
sation for your efforts, right? Well, just tation package outlining your program-
like the VHF networks, these stations pull ming ideas. This packet should present
in the reins when it comes time to pay. In your work in its best possible light. While
fact, you may be the one paying them to you may think you are the only indie
show your program. out there (or at least the only one in the
Paths to Broadcast Television 285
neighborhood), the fact is that program- it to buy time, he should prepare the idea
ming managers deal with many proposals as completely as possible. That would be
from many people. “It’s probably hard to the type of producer I would look to work
believe, but I get at least a proposal a week with.”
from independent video producers,” states There are no set rules here. Just remem-
Klaus. “Most of the production ideas have ber that it’s the fact that people are able to
no substance. If I got one backed by a demo, view your production through their televi-
or put together in a professional manner, I sion sets for free that’s important, not the
might pay more attention to them. But too amount of bills you have wadded in your
many of them look like a half-hearted effort pocket.
to get a show on the air. The multitude of small and low-power
“I don’t mind working with indepen- broadcasting outlets has created a void of
dents,” Klaus continues. “In fact I like it, original, low-cost scheduling alternatives.
but they just have to be more professional There are only so many stations that can
in their approach. If a videographer wants broadcast The Andy Griffith Show at any
to make some money by getting his pro- one time, and it’s that fact that opens up
gramming on the air, instead of spending the audiences to you.
58
Promotion Strategies:
Fame and Fortune on
a Budget
Mark Steven Bosko
If you don’t tell people about your video, what you want them to know about your
they won’t even know it exists. The more video. Media outlets such as newspapers,
aware the public is of your work, the magazines and broadcasters receive hun-
greater fame and fortune you’ll eventually dreds of these daily; to make sure yours
achieve. receives proper attention you need to a)
You can promote your work in many submit it in regulation form and b) make
ways—from buying expensive full-color it stand out from all the others.
magazine advertising to sending out a sim- Press releases follow a standard format.
ple press release. Full-blown promotional Deviate from this format and no one will
plans practically guarantee increased read it. This sounds harsh but it’s true. If
video sales, but they’re often too expen- you want the press to read it:
sive for the first-time videographer.
But there are less expensive ways to • Keep it short. You don’t need 10 pages to
promote your work. In this chapter, we’ll communicate your message. One page is
survey a selection of promotion strategies best, two is the maximum. If it is longer,
that will cost you little more than the price re-write it; include just the basics.
of pen and paper—and some hard work.
• Title it. Without a headline, they won’t
know what the release is about. Trust
me: they won’t take the time to read
The Press Release
it to find out. The best headlines are
short and to the point.
The press release is the most widely
used and abused promotional technique. • Say who sent it. The upper left-hand
This one-page synopsis tells the media corner of the page should set out the
286
Promotion Strategies 287
following information: your company’s Call the stations you know that air inter-
name, address, telephone number and— view programs and ask how they book
most important—a contact to call for fur- their guests. Send the person in charge of
ther information. You’re the best contact; booking a press release, some data sheets
if you can’t do it make sure you choose naming the subject, cast, crew, locations
a contact well versed in all aspects of and length of your video and a cover letter.
your video. The cover letter is important; think of it as
a sales letter selling you and your video.
• Provide a release date. Write “For
This letter should persuade the booking
Immediate Release” on the press release;
manager that your video is an ideal choice
this tells the press that they can use the
for the program—due to its exploitative
information revealed in your release
elements, controversial theme, local inter-
right now. If you don’t want the informa-
est or whatever “hook” will prove irresist-
tion released until a specific date, then
ible to the station.
provide this “embargo date” in place of
With any luck, someone will give you
the usual “For Immediate Release” (i.e.,
a call to find out more about your project
“For Release October 10, 2003”).
and determine if you would make a suit-
• Use the standard form. Type the release, able guest for the show. When you get the
double-spaced with ample margin call, be sure to answer all queries with
areas. Check for any errors in spelling, confidence and grace; you want to prove
punctuation, grammar or content; this you’re a coherent, interesting individual
kind of mistake screams amateurism. who won’t freeze up during the program.
Interviews are a great promotional vehi-
Now you think your press release is going cle, but they do offer one distinct disad-
to look like all the others—and if the format vantage: lack of control. You don’t have
is correct, it probably will. But Joe Reporter the benefit of complete pre-planning. You
down at the Daily Globe doesn’t care about can’t predict what the interviewer will ask
fancy formats; he’s looking for interesting you or what part or parts of the interview
content. Write your release so it not only will air. With live, call-in formats, you
answers the stock journalism questions— face the additional challenge of fielding
who, what, where, when, how and why— questions from the listening public, who
but also leaves the reader wanting to know may or may not approve of you and your
more. Appeal to the natural curiosity of video. Two suggestions for handling radio
the reporter—without getting cute—and interviews:
no doubt your video will see some press.
Mail, fax, transmit electronically or
1. Restrict contact with the media to
hand deliver your release to every possible
yourself or one or two other people asso-
media outlet. The wider the distribution,
ciated with your production. You should
the better your chances of getting press.
coach these people–talent, director, pro-
ducer–on appropriate responses to possi-
Radio and TV Interviews ble questions. You certainly don’t want to
hear your cameraman giving out details
Turn on the radio. Flip through the sta- that contradict your press release.
tions. Listen. You hear a lot of talk, don’t
you? Radio stations live on music and 2. Listen to the radio program before
talk; they have plenty of music, but they appearing on the show. Observe how the
need the talk. That’s where you come in. DJ deals with guests. By listening, you’ll
More than 80 percent of the 11,000 radio discover if the host and callers are
stations in the United States air some sort friendly or abusive, the show is live or
of interview program; getting on one of taped and whether the focus is straight
these interview shows is easier than you news or fluff. Prepare your answers based
might think. Best of all, it’s free. on your observations.
Now that you’ve successfully conquered The press uses screeners most often for
radio, turn your attention to the other half reviewing purposes; media outlets occa-
of the broadcast spectrum: television. sionally request them as well, primarily to
Compared with radio, the market for TV check out authenticity. Nobody wants to
guests is small; the chances of landing an devote space to a “phantom” video, espe-
interview are smaller still. To boost those cially national magazines.
chances, approach the TV station about an Providing these screeners for everyone
interview in the same way you approach who asks becomes an expensive proposi-
the radio stations, but do more follow up. tion. There is, however, a low-cost alterna-
Don’t wait for someone to call you; make tive: the trailer.
those return calls yourself. TV people Short compilations of your best scenes,
are always busy, and they believe that if trailers can accomplish all a full-length
you want to book yourself on a show you screener can—at less than a third of the
should do all the work. cost.
You do have one advantage: you’re A general rule of thumb: use screeners
promoting a video. Videos are visual and for press outlets that want to review your
naturally lend themselves to the medium program and trailers for those who just
of television. Include a trailer of your want to “take a look.” Some suggestions:
best scenes—those most visually compel-
• Use a disclaimer on screeners. When
ling—with your press release. This way
duplicating screeners to send to media
the person in charge will know you have
outlets, superimpose or key the words
something unique to offer.
“For Promotional Use Only” over the
Most local television interview programs
video during its entire duration. Not that
are not overwhelmed by low-budget video
the press is dishonest, but if your video
producers trying to land spots as guests on
lands in the wrong hands, nothing will
a regular basis. You’re one of a kind; play
stop those hands from selling the video
up the glitz and glamour you bring to your
as their own. The practice of using a dis-
hometown.
claimer offends no one; it’s always better
Tell the show’s producers about any
to be safe than sorry. This tip comes from
publicity stunts you plan and ask that they
a video newsletter in California investi-
cover it to air with your interview. Keep
gating a small cable station making illegal
the subject exciting and visual, and you
dupes to sell in Mexico. So protect your
shouldn’t have any problems.
property!
• Duplicate screeners and trailers on

Screeners/ Trailers
B-grade tape. Most of these videos will be
viewed only once or twice, making a high-
“We want to see the video.”
grade tape unnecessary. The press outlets
can handle a little dropout.
That’s what you can expect to hear hun-
dreds of times while promoting your • Use a copyright. Place a copyright
project. The press wants to see a screener. notice prominently on all screeners and
A screener is a full-length, promotional trailers. Put a notice physically on the
copy of your tape, provided free of charge tape and within the program itself.
to media personnel upon request.
• Limit trailers to 5 minutes or less.
They need to see first-hand what your
This is adequate time to show your tape’s
video is all about. Screeners allow reporters
highlights. Keep it “lean and mean.”
to check out such considerations as budget,
acting, effects and production values. Now • Make your trailer available in broad-
your video must live up to the expectations cast formats. Some broadcast press out-
you’ve created for it. Did you exaggerate lets may want to include your trailer as
too much in your press releases? part of the story on your project. Don’t
miss out on this free advertising by not masthead of the publication; copy it
having the proper tape available. Most and place it on the reproduction with
stations can work with three-quarter-inch the article.
format. It’s cheap and widely available.
5. Allow for only one article per page,
• Include any televised press on dis- unless the articles are extremely short
tributors’ screeners. Tag a mini-trailer and from the same publication.
of any televised news stories about
6. Use the proper tape formats when
your project onto the beginning of the
including televised or radio coverage.
screener. How impressed will that dis-
tributor be when he sees your story as 7. Put all the print elements along with a
it appeared on Entertainment Tonight? cover letter into a slick folder.
A lot more impressed than he’ll be when
you just tell him about it. Be sure to check The press release (P.R.) strategy alone
with news agencies concerning legalities should garner enough press for a substan-
of duplicating such stories. tial press kit. And if you’ve employed the
other promotional strategies as well, you
may find you cannot include everything—
Press Kit your kit would be so thick, you’d go broke
on postage. So choose only the best of
It’s now time to compile all of the press your material for your press kit.
you’ve received thanks to your promotion
strategies and organize it into a press kit. Publicity Stunts
The most useful weapon in your pro-
motional arsenal, a press kit represents Publicity stunts can be a great low-cost pro-
the culmination of all your efforts. Its pur- motional technique, attracting both media
pose: to show the attention your project and public attention to your video project.
has received, proving that your video is Used with great success by the film
worthy of further coverage such as news- industry, publicity stunts have tradition-
paper space and TV airtime. ally accompanied the release of new mov-
Some people say to include only the ies. The “golden age” of publicity stunts
big “headline” stories. I say include was the 1950s, when the following tactics
everything—from that one-paragraph blurb drew big crowds:
in your local newspaper to the full-page
story in Variety. • Nurses in theater lobbies, placed there
Press is press. The more you can show by smart promotional men asking view-
a media outlet, the easier it is to get more ers to sign medical releases, in the case of
coverage. heart attacks brought on by the shocking
Some tips on putting together a decent subject matter they were about to see. A
press kit: particular favorite of science fiction and
horror film promoters.
1. Use a high-quality bond for repro- • Bogus pickets, carried by “protesters”
duction of the originals. The heavier hired by a film company’s publicity
weight paper lends a classy look. department to demonstrate against a
2. Check the clarity of copies, especially film’s sex and violence quotients.
when articles include photographs. • Film “banning,” which implied that a
movie’s subject matter was so offensive it
3. Place articles in descending order of
should not be shown in certain areas.
importance, starting with the most
prestigious—usually national media.
Your own publicity stunts don’t have to
4. Articles buried in the editorial section be so melodramatic, however. Try setting
should be shown with the cover or up a live magic act in the video stores
stocking your Magic Made Simple video. 9. When making long-distance toll
Or, celebrate the release of your Keep Our calls, place them when it’s most cost
Town Clean video with a litter collection effective; keep time zone changes in
contest for local school kids; offer the mind. Contact your long-distance carrier
winners some free production time. Any for specifics.
stunt you can think of that involves the
public and creates interest in your video
makes for good publicity. The Bitter Fruits of Publicity
To ensure success: keep the press
informed and keep it legal. Check out all Execute a proper and thorough low-
local laws that may apply to your particular budget video promotional campaign, and
stunt. your life will drastically change.
The good news is people will see your
work. The bad news is more complicated.
9 Ways to Cut Promotion Costs
First, you’re apt to lose much of your
leisure time to your publicity efforts. Sure,
Mailing and distributing press kits and
it is great to come home, pop open a beer
screeners can prove expensive. Still, there
and settle in to watch Divorce Court. But
are ways to economize:
you’re not going to get on any magazine
1. Don’t use envelopes when mailing covers that way. Not that you must devote
press releases. Tri-fold the paper and sta- every waking minute to the promotion
ple the bottom. of your video—we all need some time to
relax—it’s just that sooner or later the mar-
2. For big mailings use pre-printed
keting machine you create will take on a
postcards—they’re cheaper to mail and
life of its own. Instead of playing cards
cheaper to produce.
with the guys or hitting the mall, you will
3. Order return address stickers bearing probably find yourself fielding phone calls
your company name from one of the many and writing letters. If the process threatens
mail-order catalogs that offer such mer- to consume you, write “free time” right
chandise. They look good and cost sub- into your work schedule.
stantially less than printed versions. Promoting your video does not have
4. Shop for supplies and copy services to alienate you from friends and fam-
at a large office supply store. Many of ily, though this often proves the case. So
these places duplicate the same document go shoot hoops with friends or spend
for as little as two cents a page. some quiet time with your spouse when
you can.
5. Mail screeners fourth class. Fourth The second source of grief that accompa-
class costs less than half the first-class nies promotion efforts: reviews. Reviews
rate and takes only two to four more days are a necessary part of the marketing pro-
to deliver. cess; you’ll need to develop a “thick skin”
6. Save on postage by using air bubble to survive the nastier negative criticism.
envelopes instead of cardboard VHS tape Remember, you are sending out your
mailers for screeners. video to literally hundreds of outlets, hop-
ing to generate publicity and resources for
7. Put together a trailer instead of mail-
a press kit. Among all these people watch-
ing out full-length screeners; this reduces
ing your tape there will undoubtedly
postage and duplication costs.
be some who don’t like your work, for
8. Save big on phone bills by using whatever reasons.
toll-free phone numbers when calling Who cares? What do critics do, any-
distributors, TV/radio stations and pub- way? They sit in front of a monitor all day,
lications. You’ll find them listed in the pointing out faults in something they never
toll-free directory at your local library. had the guts to try to do themselves. These
people make their living by proclaiming celebrity and if your video is a big hit,
what—in their own minds—is good and national fame will follow. Standing in the
what is bad. limelight is fun, but it can be dangerous.
At least this is what you must tell your- If you’re flitting around like some
self when bad reviews come in. You will, self-important media butterfly and your
on the other hand, admire the intelligence project takes an unexpected turn for the
and good taste of the reviewer who raves worse, your fall from grace will hurt all
about your show. the more.
There’s one sort of criticism to which Promoting your video should be a fun
you should pay special attention—that and exciting experience. Be sure it stays
of your fellow videographers. Send your that way!
video around to other producers who have
“made it” in your field. Suggestions and
insight from such individuals are very val- Tell ’Em and Sell ’Em Again
uable, often saving you time and money
on your next production. With the right promotion strategies,
A final thought: prepare yourself for fame and fortune can be yours. The key is
the fame that will haunt you after your persistence. It takes time to create and exe-
name begins to appear in the media. No cute a promotion plan, but it’s worth it.
longer will you be able to venture out into If you believe in your video’s success, as
the world a nobody. You’ll become a local you surely do, nothing can stop you.
59
The Demo Tape
Mark Steven Bosko
With so many of today’s videographers He’ll show the tape around to factories
relying on their video skills and equip- and large corporations. The vast numbers
ment for income, marketplace competition of employees within these companies per-
is keener than ever. To succeed, these cou- mit him to offer attractive discount plans.
rageous entrepreneurs (or hopefuls) need In production terms, the video sounds
all the help they can get. easy. Some interior shooting. A couple of
A good demo tape should be your num- staff interviews. You’ll finish it off with
ber one marketing tool. There’s nothing narration and graphics. You’re a member
like it to showcase (and sell) your videog- of the family, so getting the job’s no prob-
raphy talent. A well-done demo attracts lem, right?
new clients, creates good public relations, But during your meeting with Bob, he
and can even lure competent employees. asks to see something you’ve done. A rep-
Unfortunately, a good demo is not that resentation of past work. Some evidence
easy to make. In this chapter we explore you’re competent to make a video to his
elements of the demo tape—its reason liking.
for being, its creation, its uses. Once you
see what a demo can do, you’ll wonder
why you never got around to making one Uncle Bob Wants a Demo. You Have
before. One, Don’t You?
If you’re like many small video compa-

Why You Need One nies and independent producers, the
answer is probably no. But it takes more
Say Uncle Bob, the dentist, needs a mar- than smooth talk to convince clients—
keting video. He wants to feature basic even Uncle Bob—that they can trust you
information on his facility—friendly staff, with their money. Videos aren’t tangi-
low prices, after-work appointment hours. ble things. Until a camera comes out of
292
The Demo Tape 293
the bag, they’re just talk and writing. Creating a truly effective demo tape
Investing in someone’s videography skills takes more than some assemble edits
without having viewed his work is like and a blank tape. Careful planning is the
buying a car based on nothing but a sales first step.
pitch.
Videos often record those once-in-a-life- Consider the Content
time events. A potential client must be
certain you’ll get it right the first time. He You want to show off only your very best
can’t stage his daughter’s wedding again work in your demo tape. Scan all your vid-
because you forgot a microphone. He eos, noting outstanding shots, imaginative
needs a good look at your “credentials.” camera-work and good production values.
The demo also is a simple way to attract You want to show a broad spectrum of
new business. It shows off the power abilities.
of the medium. It gets your foot in the If a particular vacation video looks good,
door. include it. Earmark for use any wedding
As a fund-raising tool, a demo can’t be footage that came out better than normal.
beat. Whether you hope to make a low- Sporting events, community functions
budget feature, a social issues documentary and film-to-video transfers all provide raw
or an instructional tape, it takes more than material for a demo.
expendable income to pay for a vision. Don’t be impatient. Getting the best pos-
To paraphrase, “Demos talk. Bragging sible footage may mean scanning three
walks.” Investors must see proof of your entire weddings to find that gorgeous sun-
abilities. No amount of pipe-dream descrip- set kiss sequence. Any extra effort invested
tion will get you the cash you need. at this point will only make the demo that
Low-budget producers often shoot a much more powerful.
couple of scenes of the planned work, and Let’s say your video services have just
present this “demo” to potential investors. become available. Let’s also say that you
J.R. Bookwalter of Akron, Ohio, is the really haven’t had any legitimate (pay-
definitive real-life example. He admired ing) jobs yet. Sure, you’ve goofed around
the work of Hollywood producer Sam with camcorders for a couple of years.
Raimi (Darkman, The Evil Dead), and But until now, videography wasn’t some-
pegged him as a possible backer. Raimi thing you’d considered a career choice.
screened the novice filmmaker’s previous How can you put a demo together without
efforts. He was so impressed by the badly footage?
exposed Super 8 “demos” he agreed to
finance a low-budget film.
By Creating What You Need
To the Tune of $125,000 For example, to target the wedding and

event video market, you’ll need footage of
“Raimi told me that of all the proposals a wedding or two. Check nuptial sched-
he’d received at that point, only mine was ules of area churches and get permission
accompanied by a representation of my from some couples-to-be to shoot some
experience,” Bookwalter says. “I’m sure footage. You don’t have to cover the entire
if I hadn’t screened my films, the deal wedding. Just get a few shots good enough
would never have gone through.” to convince a prospective client you can
This isn’t a common scenario, but it handle the job.
proves the demo’s potential. Nobody wants to be your first client. If
Just remember: No demo has more impact you include wedding footage in your demo
than a bad demo, while a great demo pays you’ll appear to have experience in this
the bills. area.
One caveat. Be certain you really can lead busy lives. They have better things to
adequately produce a wedding video. do than sit through your 30-minute extrav-
Acquiring a few stray shots and actu- aganza. Like anyone else, they want to get
ally shooting and editing a cohesive and their information as quickly as possible.
attractive ceremony are two very different (You can always include supplemental
things. You don’t want to misrepresent materials with tapes you send to major
yourself. funders.)
Which leads us to another option You’ve decided on a 5-minute demo.
for acquiring demo footage: Shoot it for Now you’re ready to edit footage, right?
free. Wrong. We’re not done planning: Deter-
Don’t cringe. I realize making money is mine the order and style for presenting
the whole point. But we all should pay a your experience before you start cutting.
few dues. Free production work is one way And it’s a good idea to create a detailed
to do this. script. Map out the order of each segment
Hundreds of organizations gladly accept of footage.
the donation of video work. Any nonprofit Now consider style. Who’s your target
entity (your local food bank? SPCA?) is market? How can you reach them most
a good place to start. Call. Explain your effectively?
situation. Make your offer of free service. If they’re serious business people,
Beyond getting demo material, this phil- try a straightforward presentation—
anthropic practice increases your working interspersing your footage with defin-
experience. And it’s not bad for your repu- ing graphics and augment it with a clean
tation, either. voiceover. The key here is quick-paced
Inform local press of your charitable editing with a clear demonstration of your
video “donations.” This is great free adver- abilities.
tising. Doesn’t it feel good to help out Perhaps you plan to approach sev-
others? eral markets using a single demo tape.
Intersperse interviews shot expressly for
the demo—remarks from enthusiastic past
A Manual of Style clients—with cuts of your footage.
Taping these interviews means a lit-
How you edit your demo can have as tle extra work, but it’s well worth it. The
much impact as its contents. boast of a satisfied customer impresses
First, set an appropriate length for your potential clients more than any claim you
tape. Your projected audience pretty much can make.
determines this. A 3-minute demo isn’t The testimonial is popular for all facets
really long enough to warrant an award of of advertising—just check out the commer-
cash. cials during network prime time. Using
Nor would you want to solicit a com- this technique in a small-town framework
mercial account with a half-hour produc- pays off especially well.
tion. The client wants a 30-second spot, Business people and ordinary citi-
not a TV series. zens see neighbors and friends—familiar
Rule of thumb: Keep it short. For the faces—on the tape. If a prospect’s com-
general production market, 5 to 10 minutes petition or friend up the street is using
is about right. It’s not so long the viewer you, chances are good you’ve found a new
gets bored but not so short a potential cli- client.
ent will question your experience. There’s The truly motivated may want to
ample time to display your best work, pro- host their demos. The hosted demo is
fessionally and courteously. an innovative approach most smaller
Applying the term “courteous” to a demo production companies seldom take
tape may seem odd, but your customers advantage of.
The Demo Tape 295
If you’re not a smooth talker, find some- advantages of having videotape recording
one who is. Create a script and have the of their event.
emcee introduce each clip or segment.
You can structure this many ways, for a
serious, comedic or down-home feel. Following Up
Take care, though, if you’re going for
laughs. Your sense of humor might not be People can be lazy. Your demo may pique
that of the general public. It’s less risky to their interest, but you’re dreaming if you
be serious. think it’s enough to inspire every viewer
Consider your host’s setting, wardrobe to make the call. It often takes some addi-
and narrative. All these play a big part in tional sales effort to get the job.
the presentation’s effectiveness. Back to tooth-man Bob. As he considers
Experiment. You may want to combine a marketing plan, he gets your demo tape
styles. Try a hosted demo that includes in the mail. Until now, direct mail, print
interviews with satisfied clients. Voiceover ads and weekly shoppers had seemed the
client comments while rolling footage way to go. They require little effort on his
from a particular job. Incorporate shots of part, pricing is reasonable, and audience
your equipment in the demo. delivery is good.
Interview yourself—talk about customer But now he’s struck by the impact of
satisfaction, your state-of-the-art gear, your live, talking images. Potential patients
sincere goal of creating the best possible can “tour” his high-tech facility. Nurses
product. and staff can show their friendly faces.
Shameless self-promotion adds a per- Bob himself can make an earnest plea for
sonal touch, and it’s as popular as the healthy teeth. Done well, the demo may
testimonial. Again, just take a look at intrigue Bob enough to give you a call.
any network TV program for abundant Or you could call him. Dispel the high-
proof. cost myth associated with video produc-
tion. Explain how the video will attract
clients just as it attracted him to your
Show It Around work. Let Bob know he can be as involved
as he wants in making the tape.
There are a surprising number of addi- Putting together an effective, profes-
tional ways to get your tape to roll where sional-quality demo is not something you
it counts most: do one afternoon out of boredom. It takes
patience, planning, creativity and hard
• Event videographers should keep a work. You want to show yourself at your
tape available for loan at photography stu- best.
dios. Drop a couple at local bridal and tux To do just that, keep a few key ideas in
businesses. mind.
• Film-to-tape transfer specialists might
leave a copy at film shops. • Include only your best work. Don’t be
impatient when scanning your videos
• Attend county fairs, business expos
for footage. You want to show a broad
or video industry trade shows with demo
spectrum of ability. If necessary, create
in hand. These functions are tailor-made
the footage you need.
to sell your business. You’ll meet business
owners and potential clients face to face. • Set an appropriate length. Rule of
thumb: Keep it short. Five to 10 min-
• Present your demo to church, school
utes is about right.
and community groups. These organiza-
tions always have some sort of function • Plan order and style before editing
in the works. Allow them to witness the your footage. Keep in mind your target
market. When possible, create a • Follow up your demo presentations

detailed script. Try incorporating testi- with a personal sales effort. Dispel the
monials and self-promotion. You may high-cost myth. Explain how your
even want to host your demo. videos will benefit your client.
• If you need funding, shoot a couple of Rely on these key ideas and you’ll create
scenes of your planned work. Present a demo impressive enough to convince even
this “demo” to potential investors. Uncle Bob.
PART VI
Internet Distribution
Getting your videos seen on screens all over the World Wide Web.
60
Producing Your
Own Vidcast
Brian Peterson
With the explosion of the Podcast comes you still hadn’t gotten around to putting
a new way of sharing videos, vidcasting. up a personal webpage. And now your
Now, you, too, can be a broadcaster and e-trendy friend is cajoling you for not hav-
launch your own vidcast. ing a vidcast espousing all the cool stuff
Perhaps 10 years ago you had a techno- you do. Whether you call them vidcasts,
savvy friend who asked you for your video podcasts, vlogs or something else,
email address; chagrinned, you admitted episodic video shows are quickly becom-
you didn’t have one yet. Five years ago, ing an important form of content delivery.
299
And while they are not quite as ubiqui- So is a vidcast right for you? Well,
tous as personal websites, individuals if there’s even a little, “maybe” in your
and small businesses have found that a response, then read on!
vidcast can help them develop a dedicated
community by providing specialized
content. Format
We are going to review everything you
need to know to plan, produce, edit, and Your audience, delivery environment and
distribute your own vidcast. First, let’s content largely determine the format of
tackle the critically important planning your vidcast.
phase covering five key areas; assessment, Who is your audience? Will they be
format, quality, frequency, length and about your age or will they be much
cost. In each of these areas we’ll prompt younger or older? Do they have, or are
you to ask yourself important questions, they aspiring to acquire the same level
so have a pen and paper handy (yes, a of knowledge you have about your sub-
computer works too) to jot down your ject? You may not know right away, but
answers. At the end of this chapter, you you should have in mind a very particu-
should have a working outline for your lar audience. This awareness is critical to
vidcast. shaping the look and feel of your vidcast.
If you’ve poked around the net much,
you’ve no doubt noticed that the general look
Assessment: Is a Vidcast Right for of most vidcasts is markedly less formal than
You? the 6:00 news. In fact, they can be everything
from pseudo-slick to downright grungy. And
If you simply have a few thoughts you’d don’t think grunge can’t work. Diggnation
like to share with the world, then just set has been one of the most popular vidcasts
up a webcam, don a silly hat, and fire off to date with little more than a dumpy couch
a soliloquy or two and be done with it. If, in a living room and clothes that have never
on the other hand, you have special skills, seen an iron ... and perhaps even a wash-
products or information that would be best ing machine. This underscores how having
delivered in small chunks over the course compelling information presented by knowl-
of many weeks, months or even years, then edgeable and witty talent can overcome even
maybe a vidcast is just what you need. Do the most pedestrian settings.
you have a hobby, sport or interest that How will you prepare your content?
you have trained your camcorder on that Will you be providing mostly information
warrants methodic unveiling? Are you or will there be a dash of entertainment?
an educator that would like to share your Will it require research or are you already
knowledge with a wider audience? Do you able to talk for a sustained period of time
think there is a group of people that are on your topic? Will you memorize, refer
interested in what you have to offer? And to notes on paper, or use a teleprompter?
how important is it for you to develop a While not really a classic teleprompter
community of regular viewers? that allows you to look directly into the
Ask yourself these questions and don’t lens, software such as that used by Adobe’s
be daunted by thinking small. In fact, you recently acquired Vlog It, allows users
should. Developing and distributing niche a very intuitive and reasonably priced
content is precisely what a vidcast can do method of reading a scrolling script.
for you better than just about any other How will you deliver your message?
form of content distribution. Unless you’re Will you do this through the classic, “talk-
banking on an early retirement from selling head” or will you also use demonstra-
ing lots of advertising, you don’t necessar- tions, additional video and still images or
ily need thousands of people to make your even illustrations? Will you be the host or
vidcast successful. will there be others to serve as “on-camera
Producing Your Own Vidcast 301
got a camcorder; many have pretty decent

ones. What they often lack is a compelling
reason to turn it on. Spend the majority
of your time gathering information and
your thoughts, and you’ll already be well
ahead of a large number of current vidcast
“producers.” Good preparation and an
outline should not stifle your delivery or
make your vidcast stiff; just the opposite.
It should provide you with the freedom to
be casual and informative with a structure
that will prevent you from rambling.
If you need to invest in anything it’s
likely your lighting. If you’ve been using
hardware store lighting fixtures until now,
this might be the time to replace them with
real lighting instruments. A large softbox
or fluoropan for your main light, a focus-
able rim light or two, and some spotlights
with barndoors for the background, posi-
tioned correctly, will give your vidcast a
professional feel.
Your set is probably the biggest factor
in determining the “look” of your vid-
cast. It can also be one of the most time-
consuming and costly. Is a battered couch
all you need or are you conjuring up
blueprints that require planning commis-
sion approval? Starting simply is always
a good idea, but if you want to start with
some pizzazz on a budget, consider a vir-
tual set. If your shot will be static and not
Figure 60-1 If you’re using a teleprompter, try too wide, a simple chromakey set may be
to make the script easy to comfortably read.
just right.
If using notes, keep them in outline form, so
the talent doesn’t read verbatim with his head For now, if you have a camcorder you
buried in script. are happy with for general videography,
there’s no need to upgrade just for your
vidcast. If, on the other hand, you’re look-
ing for a feeble rationalization ... sure, a
talent?” What about interviews on your better camcorder will translate into better
set, in the field, or over the phone? images online.
Quality
Frequency and Length
There are three main areas you could invest
time and money to increase the quality How often you produce your vidcast has a
of your vidcast. In approximate order of lot to do with its popularity. Not only will
importance they are: content development, your viewers come to look forward to your
lighting and set-design and equipment. next installment, but it seems evident that
Fortunately, for the success of your vid- several of the leading RSS aggregators, like
cast, the most important area is also the iTunes and FireAnt, use frequency as a
least expensive. Just about everybody’s factor in ranking. We have found that a
Figure 60-2 Although every episode may differ, try to “envelope” each show with a common
video and/or graphic open, clean graphic bylines, and a closer that stays the same show to show.
weekly show will rank higher than one So while it may be a welcome “problem,”
that is less frequent. Releasing on the it’s a good idea to check with your current
same day each week, while not critical, web host provider what charges may apply
may also have an impact on ranking. if you go over your included monthly band-
Length is certainly determined by your width allocation.
subject matter, your capacity to sustain its
delivery and your intended audience’s atten-
tion span. However, there is another factor Cost
that you need to account for in this planning
stage; web server bandwidth. A few of the The last step in planning is to estimate
early vidcasts got quickly swamped with how much your new vidcast will end up
viewers that rung up hefty bandwidth fees. costing you. Review all of your answers to
We’re talking many thousands of dollars. the questions above and tally everything
couch into position. One of the first things

to consider is if there is a way to include
the theme of your subject matter into the
set. Let’s say you are developing a show on
the small world of scale trains; integrating
a train motif into your set design would
make sense. This might include rustic old
train signal lanterns or railroad crossing
signs. If you are putting together a set for a
genealogy show, you could populate tables
and walls with a large assortment of fam-
ily photos to create a sense of hominess.
You get the picture.
How much room will you have for your
set? If you are going to turn your garage or
living room into a makeshift studio, will
you be able to leave it in place or will it
need to be set up for each show? If you are
handy at woodworking, create set pieces
Figure 60-3 Learning simple “hand signals”
and techniques will keep your show tight out of easily collapsible components that
and help the talent stay informed of segment stack or fold. Also, try to estimate how
durations. many people will be on your set at one
time and design for that size. Will you
be using props or displaying odd-sized
you’ll likely need to get started. Don’t objects? If so, how many and how large
forget to allow for purchase of props and with they be? Give it your best guess and
perhaps some extra hard drive or optical have a table or flat area that will provide
media storage. enough room.
If you’ve been trying to answer these A virtual set might be a good solution
questions as you read along, you’re prob- if you’re in a small apartment or clean-
ably beginning to see how much there is to ing the garage would take too long. It does
consider in planning for your first vidcast. require a little more technical finessing,
But don’t let this dissuade you from learn- especially in post, but a simple chromakey
ing first-hand what works for you. It still background and some pre-built virtual sets
can be as simple as turning a camcorder on will make the most of your limited space.
yourself and talking about your passion. Remember that while the mini DV format
may not produce results as pleasing as
professional formats such as Betacam, if
Production you light well, it can be very acceptable.
If you survey current vidcasts, you’ll see
We laid the foundation of planning the some very Spartan sets; so don’t get bogged
production of your own, now let’s dig into down here. Simply set up your camcorder
the details of set design, talent and crew on a tripod and hook up the output to a
and equipment. There’s a lot to cover, so TV or monitor so you can easily adjust the
let’s get right to it. placement of your set elements the way
they look the best in relation to the framing
of your main camcorder. Note these loca-
Set Design tions and, if you do need to break down
after each episode, place gaffer’s tape on
Don’t let the term “set design” scare you. It the floor marking table, chair and other
can mean anything from creating plans and set object positions for quick placement
using power tools to dragging a beat-up next time.
(a)
Figure 60-4 Set design can be as simple as

filling up a corner with thematic gizmos and
gadgets. This can be practically any place you
decide to make your stage.
Talent and Crew
Who is going to be in front of and behind

the camera? It is certainly possible to do
it all yourself by locking down your cam-
(b)
eras, but you’ll be able to include higher
production value elements, like camera Figure 60-5 (a) Camera angle “A” is your
and even talent movement, if you have main camera, which your talent will address.
at least one camera operator. As you get When the crew is small, an operator can lock
more people to serve as crew members, it off and attend to Camera “B.” (b) Camera
you may want to add the following posi- angle “B” is your b-roll or cutaway camera
angle. This angle gives the audience a closer
tions in roughly this order: look while also giving you some room for
sneaky editing.
Camera B operator—this will be the close-
up camera on talent and props. Camera passionate about the subject and that this
A is your main shot and is locked down. passion comes across in your show. How
you do this will be up to you and the time
Audio—having a separate person con-
you want to put into your production.
centrating on just audio can save you a
Depending on the target length of your
great deal of pain in post.
show and the expertise of your talent, ad
Camera A operator—two cameras that can libbing may be perfectly fine. If, however,
move gives you much greater flexibil- you have several key subject areas to cover,
ity, however, it also requires more coor- you should at least create a one-page out-
dination and planning. line that they can rest in their lap or on the
table. This type of casual approach is the
Director/Floor director—if you have a sec-
norm for current vidcasts, but some pro-
ond camera operator, a floor director will
ducers are finding low-cost teleprompters
coordinate camera movement and pro-
add another level of professionalism to
vide cues to your talent.
their show.
A refreshing difference between vid-
casts and broadcast television is that the Equipment
people in front of the camera don’t need to
be professionally trained “talent.” In fact, There’s a good chance you already have
it’s more important that they (or you) are all the equipment you need to shoot your
vidcast. The bare bones include just a cam-

corder, a sturdy tripod, a microphone and
probably a few lights. But let’s look at each
in more detail.
• Your camcorder should have, at a mini-

mum, the following three features:
• A mic input (preferably an XLR
connection).
• Manual exposure control. If you light
your set dramatically (hard light
sources throwing dramatic shadowing),
or if your background is mostly dark,
automatic exposure control will likely
overexpose your subject.
• Manual focus. You’ll be supremely
frustrated if you must rely on your cam-
corder’s auto focus, particularly if you
will be using props.
Not as critical, but still very helpful,

other camcorder features include: manual Figure 60-6 You don’t need much gear to
control of audio levels, phantom power for make it happen. Even this line-up could be
external mics and smooth zooming capabil- reduced by taking the audio mixer out of
the mix.
ity. Also, having a second camcorder avail-
able for close-ups and cut-aways will give
you much more flexibility when editing.
Position this camcorder about 45 degrees
to either side of your main camcorder.
If space permits, set up your camcorder
just a little above the height of your talent’s
head and far enough away so that you are
not on your camcorder’s widest focal set-
ting. This will help prevent subject distor-
tion near the frame edges. If this is your
only camcorder, keep any movement to a
minimum. If you must get closer at some
point, it is better to stop that take, zoom Figure 60-7 Placing a lapel mic up high is
in, focus, and begin a new take. Cutting to good. However, be aware if your talent turns
the close-up will provide a much cleaner his head dramatically, it may not pick up as
transition than trying to unlock your tri- well.
pod head, take control of the camcorder
and zoom in all in the same take.
Your tripod legs and head should be that you have good cables and batteries
stable and smooth enough to tilt and pan always at the ready. That means backups
without any jerkiness. Try to avoid operat- too! A lapel-type mic is easiest to use as
ing the tripod at its full extension, as this it doesn’t require a boom operator. Just be
is usually less stable. sure not to position it up too high as you
The decision to use a wired or wireless may experience dramatic volume changes
microphone is less important than ensuring if your talent turns his head away from the
camera. If you will have two or more peo- is important. Since it’s the first thing new
ple on the set at one time, an audio mixer viewers will see, it has the awesome task of
also becomes necessary. compelling them to continue watching. It
The only equipment category you may can be as simple as cutting together a few
find you are a little short of is lighting. clips from your first show or as complex as
Traditional three-point lighting is by no a high-energy array of shots highlighting
means the norm or even necessary for all unique aspects of your subject matter
vidcasts, but it still provides you with the complete with custom graphics and logo.
most flexibility. Start by setting up your In either case, keep it short, say five to 15
main, or key light a little left or right of and seconds, and be sure to at least include
above your main camera position. Try using your show’s title and possibly the episode
a medium-sized softbox or umbrella to soften number.
the shadows. Your fill light should be closer
to your main camcorder but positioned
on the opposite side. This light should be The Edit
larger than your key to avoid introducing
secondary shadows. If you decide to use a Unless you have chosen to use special
third light, use it as a rim or hair light above hardware to encode and upload your vid-
and to the rear of your talent. You can use cast live to a streaming server, then you
additional lights to throw patterns on your have two types of editing ahead of you.
background or to highlight set features. The first we could call “best takes” and
the other, “live from tape.”
Quiet on the Set Best takes editing is probably very famil-
iar to you; after transferring footage to your
You’ve now got your set in place, your edit computer, you simply select the best
crew in their positions and your equipment takes from one or more camcorders and
checked and ready. Are you ready to roll? create a rough cut of your main or “cov-
Well, almost. As the producer, it will be erage” camcorder. Next, insert second or
your job to not to fall into the “it’s-good- third camera angles, tweak your in and out
enough-for-the-Internet” syndrome. With points, add your open, appropriate transi-
the proliferation of video sharing sites, we tions, music, graphics and credits and you
all have become somewhat numb to the have your final cut.
quality gap between “Internet” video and With two or more camcorders, you have
broadcast television. So even though you the option of editing live from tape that
will be distributing in a reduced resolution resembles a live studio production. This
online, keep in mind that good set design, requires a little more preparation prior to
camerawork, audio and lighting will be all shooting along with software and a com-
the more important to help your produc- puter capable of handling multiple streams
tion rise above the rest. of video, but it can result in significant time-
savings in post. With this method the whole
vidcast, or contiguous segment, is shot as
Editing and Distribution if it were live ... with the exception that if
you make a mistake you can start all over (of
We talked about key production elements course, this greatly slows down the edit pro-
like set design, talent and crew and equip- cess and somewhat defeats the purpose).
ment, now, wrapping it up with editing After transferring all of your footage to
and preparing your vidcast for the web. your edit computer, you sync each of your
video streams at the beginning and roll
For Openers all simultaneously. Your computer is now
effectively a live switcher and you are the
Having a short catchy open that visually technical director, “cutting” from wide-
summarizes what your vidcast is all about angle to close-up shots on the fly. In the
Figure 60-8 Editing a “live” style show can get a little messy on your timeline. Keeping common
elements on separate tracks can help make sense of it all.
Figure 60-9 NLE applications that have a multi-cam editing mode (e.g., Canopus Edius Pro v4)
can simplify an editing session when there are multiple “live” camera angles.
end, you should have a finished product, will play back correctly in a given player.
less possibly some graphics and music. Again, the most important question to
While there are not many unique aspects answer is which media player you believe
of editing a vidcast, there are several work- your audience will be using. Once you know
flow habits that will make your job easier the player, you will know the file type(s)
when editing episodic shows. First, be you will need to prepare. If your vidcast
sure to establish a consistent filing system. has lots of good information that does not
Have video assets you will reuse on each rely on just visuals, you may also consider
show, like your open, graphics, music, adding an MP3 version to your list.
credits and any other transitional elements The next question you’ll want to address
all in one directory. This will greatly speed is how big should you make your frame
up your edit session. Next, create and size and at what quality settings should
stick to a consistent project naming sys- you use to encode? As more people are
tem. There’s no need to get creative here; now connected with high-speed connec-
clarity is far more important. The episode tions, larger frame sizes are becoming
number and date work well if used like possible. Don’t be afraid to try full-frame
this—“2007_Episode_45_5-01.” This way 720 480 at medium quality settings.
when you go to sort your project files in This usually means video bitrates around
the same folder, they will be in order even 600–700 kbps. But it is still common prac-
across multiple years. tice to offer multiple media player formats
and in at least a high and low quality/size
offering. So, pick the top two or three
Preparing for the Internet media players and encode with those file
types. Once your show has been running
There are three general areas you’ll need to for a while and you are getting some traffic,
keep in mind when preparing your video you can analyze which files types are the
for online distribution; the media player most popular and possibly drop the least
your audience will use; the file size and accessed.
quality and, if you choose to also provide RSS requires doing an additional step of
your show by RSS, the requirements of creating an XML file that allows aggrega-
specific video aggregators like the heavy- tors to recognize, and people to subscribe
weight iTunes and others like FireAnt. to, your vidcast feed. An easy way to get
There are many media players and going is to visit www.feedburner.com and
related file types out there and it is no follow its instructions on how to proceed.
small challenge to decide which one or
several will be right for your audience.
But determining this is the first step. If Upload
you have a large email list of people that
are likely viewers, such as a club or social You’ve now got your vidcast edited and
group, simply send an email asking which encoded into a popular file type(s), now
media player they prefer. Another infor- where will your new show live? Do you
mal survey would be to post the same already have a website or blog dedicated
question on a user group site dealing with to your show’s topic? Perhaps you’ve
your vidcast’s subject matter. opted to deliver your shows exclusively
Some of the currently popular media via RSS. And what about those free video
players include Quicktime/iTunes, Win- sharing sites?
dows Media Player, Flash and RealPlayer. With the obvious exception of free
Others, such as DivX, Theora and Xvid hosting sites, be sure to check into a few
have their followers as well. Some of these details from your provider. The first is
players use proprietary codecs that you your monthly bandwidth allocation. If
will need to use to create file types that your show is lengthy, or if you’ve encoded
Figure 60-10 If manually creating your own RSS Feed sounds like brain surgery, consider using
an automated feed generator, such as FeedBurner (http://www.feedburner.com). It’s free.
using a high quality setting, you will It’s Up. But Now What?
likely have a large file that people will be
downloading. And if your show becomes Congratulations! You’ve got your first
popular, you could easily exceed a modest vidcast up. But we’re not done quite yet.
monthly bandwidth limit. Early popular While the incredible popularity of online
vidcasts like Diggnation found their ini- video may provide opportunities for us
tial bandwidth projections were way off ... as video producers, it also provides chal-
and excess bandwidth can cost a lot. The lenges as we shift our role to distributor
second detail is to confirm with your web and marketer. Because so many people
host that you’ll have enough server stor- are readily consuming video online there
age space for all of your future vidcasts. is a whole new level of access to poten-
You may find you’ll need to increase this, tial audiences. But the widespread deliv-
but it is usually something you can do as ery of online video makes cutting through
it becomes needed. the clutter that much more difficult. We’ll
What about uploading to popular free conclude our series with five tips that
video sharing sites, like YouTube? While will help get your new vidcast seen by as
it won’t hurt to use these additional free many people as possible.
sites, they probably should not form the
core of your distribution plan for episodic • Create an easily recognizable small
shows like a vidcast. This may change, icon (AKA, chicklet or avatar). This
but they are currently most popular for effectively becomes the logo for your
one-time videos rather than reoccurring show that aggregators use in their
shows. listings.
• Add your RSS feed to popular aggre-

gators and directories like iTunes and
FeedBurner.
• Send an email with a link announcing
your new show to everyone you know.
• Link with other vidcasters, forums and
user groups with complementary or
similar interests.
• If you’ve housed your vidcast on your
website, include a link to your current
show on your homepage.
Figure 60-11 These “chicklets” are small

thumbnails that graphically represent your
vidcast on feed aggregators (e.g., iTunes,
Feedburner, etc.). Due to their small size, it’s
best to keep the info simple and easy to read
to establish a clean icon.
Sidebar 1
Virtual Sets
Getting a good clean key is critical to making a virtual set look believable. To do this, make sure
you have very even lighting on your chromakey background. Video generally uses a green back-
ground, but it is more important to use a color that is not in your subject. And, depending on the
software you use to knock out the background, you may not even need to use a large backdrop.
Various companies make small to large paper and fabric backgrounds ranging in prices from
about $40 to $400. If you can spare a wall, special chromakey paint is even available.
Figure 60-12a and b

Sidebar 2
Direct to Disk Recorders
If you shoot with more than one camcorder and find that you are spending more time than
you’d like transferring your footage from tape, check out the latest generation of direct to disk
recorders now on the market. Since ingesting footage from tape is a real-time process, you auto-
matically gain one-to-one timesavings by having your material already on disk. And, as most
recorders allow you to edit directly from the portable disk, you don’t even have to transfer (at
least immediately) to your edit computer. Depending on the size of your camcorder and options
for external brackets, the only tricky part can be finding an appropriate mounting surface.
Figure 60-13
61
The 4th Codec
Joe McCleskey
How MPEG-4 will Revolutionize What It Is

Digital Media
All of the members of the MPEG family
If you are at all familiar with digital video of standards are codecs or COmpression-
and audio technology, you’ve probably DECompression schemes. The primary task
heard or read the term MPEG (emm-peg) of a codec is to reduce the size of a digital
by now. This acronym, which stands for media file and thus reduce the bandwidth,
Moving Picture Experts Group, refers or data rate, necessary to play the file. If
to a set of standards agreed upon by an you find this confusing, don’t worry; we’re
international group of top-notch audio/ going to break it down a bit more.
video technicians for creating and play- The first issue, file size, is especially
ing digital video and sound. The MPEG important for video storage. Uncom-
set of standards has worked its way into pressed video takes a huge amount of stor-
our everyday lives: DVD, digital satellite age space, regardless of whether you’re
television, digital cable and Internet music storing it on a hard drive, DVD or dig-
all make use of the MPEG standards. ital tape. To imagine how much space is
In this article, we’ll take a look at one required, consider that a typical uncom-
of the newest and most promising of these pressed still frame of video, at the quality
standards: MPEG-4. We’ll examine what most of us are used to viewing, requires just
makes MPEG-4 so interesting and how under one megabyte to store. Video in the
you can expect to make use of MPEG-4 in United States typically plays at 30 frames
your future video creations. By the time per second. This means that your typi-
you’re finished with the chapter, we hope cal uncompressed video might occupy 27
you’ll be as excited as we are about the megabytes per second to store. Do a little
possibilities that this technology presents more math, and you’ll soon discover that
to videographers, audio specialists and the new 80 gigabyte hard drive that came
digital content creators of all stripes. with your computer will only store about
312
The 4th Codec 313
50 minutes of raw, uncompressed video— MPEG-2 has gained widespread use in

and that’s before you add the audio into home DVDs and digital television broad-
the equation. Do one more calculation and casts. Much more advanced and efficient
you’ll see that a DVD disc (at 4.5 GB) can than MPEG-1, MPEG-2 video achieves a
hold less than three minutes. Clearly, we very stable and watchable picture at around
need some form of digital compression to a 40:1 compression ratio. “More advanced”
reduce that file size. also means “more computationally inten-
The second issue is so closely related to sive” and MPEG-2 video requires a faster
the first that it’s really the same problem computer than MPEG-1 video.
viewed from another angle. Imagine you MPEG-3 was originally developed for
have an uncompressed VHS-quality video use in HDTV broadcasts, but the advances
file sitting on a hard drive, ready to play. made under the MPEG-3 name were even-
In order to provide smooth playback, your tually incorporated into MPEG-2. For this
hard drive would have to dump data to reason, MPEG-3 is a dead codec, one that
your computer at a sustained 27 megabytes served its purpose and is now no longer a
per second (or, as an engineer would think: separate standard.
216 megabits per second [27 * 8 bits/byte]). This brings us to MPEG-4. MPEG-4 takes
Storage systems are available that can hit advantage of the experience gained by the
these speeds, but they’re very expensive. development of MPEG-1 and MPEG-2 and
Now consider that you want to deliver that goes one step further by adding in elements
same video to the masses, via the Internet. such as 3D objects, interactive sprites, text,
Whatever technology you use, the speed of digital photos and other media types. In
that technology (bandwidth) would have other words, you can watch a video pro-
to match that 27 megabytes per second, gram, press a button to bring up some text
without fail. navigation buttons, scroll through options,
make a selection to move to another scene
or even make a purchase. “But I can do this
already,” you say. Sure, you can, however,
MPEG 1, 2, 3 when you do this now, the interactivity
usually comes from the television or the
Enter the MPEG family of codecs, which DVD player or some other proprietary set-
compresses the file size down to a man- top box. With MPEG-4, the interactivity
ageable level, then decompresses the mov- is embedded within the video itself. This
ing images and sound as you watch them means content creators will have total con-
on the fly. MPEG-1, the first standard trol over how that interactivity appears
agreed upon by the group, is widely used and plays out for the viewer, regardless
for small Web video, CD-ROM video and of the device or medium used to play the
VCDs, which were popular in Asia. It’s MPEG-4 file.
also the most (in)famous format for com- This sounds interesting, doesn’t it? It’s
pressing songs on the Internet, swapped even a little intimidating for the home vid-
using file-sharing services. MP3 is not eographer. But even if you never intend
MPEG-3 and actually stands for MPEG-1, to bring this kind of interactivity to your
Layer 3. MPEG-1 video and audio are videos, MPEG-4 still represents one of the
fairly highly compressed, but the more most advanced codecs available for sim-
compression you use, the worse the image ple digital video and audio capture, stor-
appears. It’s possible to achieve a com- age and delivery.
pression ratio of 200:1 with MPEG-1, thus
reducing the file size to about one mega-
byte per six seconds of full-sized video, Why It Matters
but the resulting image is very difficult to
watch at that point. Most MPEG videos MPEG-4 really shines in the areas of effi-
use 50:1 or less. ciency, scalability and industry support.
• Efficiency—Because it represents a free Movie Maker 2 software) support it

refinement of earlier advances in MPEG via the Windows Media 9 Series technol-
compression and decompression tech- ogy. It’s worth noting, however, that the
nology, MPEG-4 promises to deliver ISO (International Standards Organization)
higher quality video and audio at smaller has chosen QuickTime as the standard for
data rates and file sizes. Yes, you heard MPEG-4 delivery.
that right: better video, smaller files
and thus lower bandwidth (data rate).
Of course this means you’ll also need a
faster computer.
See for Yourself
• Scalability—Scalability just means Don’t take our word for it: investigate
that MPEG-4 is designed to deliver the MPEG-4 phenomenon for yourself.
video and audio content at nearly any Apple’s MPEG-4 pages (www.apple.com/
data rate, over any network, whether mpeg4/) are loaded with information
it’s connected by high-speed fiber optics about how QuickTime has embraced the
or dial-up modems. This is an advance standard and numerous sample MPEG-4
over MPEG-2, which is limited pri- files are available for viewing. Tech-heads
marily to DVD-quality video. will find a wealth of information at the
MPEG-4 industry forum (www.mp4if
• Industry support—MPEG-4 is currently .com). Of course, this research is only
supported by just about every major necessary if you explicitly want to watch
player in the media world, includ- MPEG-4 video for the sake of watching
ing Apple, Microsoft, Sun, Dolby, AOL MPEG-4. The technology is so pervasive at
Time-Warner, Lucent and Sony (among this time that just by browsing around the
others). MPEG-4 content is already Web for video, perhaps to watch the latest
in use in a huge number of media and movie trailer, you’ll eventually run into a
communications devices, from televi- QT or a WMV file that uses MPEG-4.
sions and home video players to mobile At the time of this writing, MPEG-4 is
phones and, yes, camcorders. primarily used for small, easily transport-
able Web videos and, unfortunately, pirat-
So how can you make MPEG-4 work for ing Hollywood feature films. Keep your
you? Pretty simple, really. Because Apple’s eye on this standard, however: it’s mainly
QuickTime technology has already fully interesting not for how it’s being used
embraced the MPEG-4 standard, any prod- today, but for how it could potentially be
uct that currently supports the latest ver- used in the future. Within MPEG-4 lies
sion of QuickTime will allow you to export the ability to create a whole new genera-
your videos using MPEG-4 compression. tion of devices, delivery systems, educa-
These products include, but are not limited tional titles, corporate training objects,
to, Final Cut Pro, Adobe Premiere, Discreet games, higher-quality music files, better
Cleaner and many others. Microsoft, too, disc-based interactivity and higher-quality
has embraced MPEG-4 as a standard, and video. All it takes is for people to dream
all Microsoft products (including XP’s about the possibilities.
62
Peer to Peer File Sharing
Kyle Cassidy
Peer to Peer could be the answer to your stock is consistent, easily predictable and
video distribution questions. you can ask a friendly store employee for
Asked to describe radio, Albert Einstein help finding what you want. The downside
answered: “The wireless telegraph is not of this is the limited hours of operation,
difficult to understand. The ordinary tele- their fees, and their selection of videos. For
graph is like a very long cat. You pull the tail example, they might not want to carry the
in New York, and it meows in Los Angeles. video of your trip to the zoo.
The wireless is the same, only without the
cat.” To paraphrase Einstein, Peer to Peer
(P2P) video file sharing is just like sharing Sharing Servers
videotapes, only without the videotape.
A second model for video distribution
is to make copies and hand them out to
One Big Server your friends and family. They may recip-
rocate with videos of their own. Or one
So you have a collection of brilliant vid- friend may loan your video to another.
eos and you want to share them and your This is “Peer to Peer” sharing. Everybody
directorial genius with the world. You can in the distribution chain is equal with
go about distributing them in two ways. every other person, there’s no corpo-
One is to store them at central locations rate headquarters, no brick and mortar
frequented by people who look at videos, store and no limited hours of operation.
like your local video store. In the com- There are many advantages to this model
puter world, we call this the “client/server” beyond not needing a store or employ-
model. The video store is a “server” and ees, nobody decides what videos you can
the people who patronize it are “clients.” share and what ones you can’t.
There are advantages to this model: people Most people who use the Internet are
know where to go to look for a video, the already familiar with the client/server
315
Figure 62-1 A traditional client/server model serves the data from a file from only one computer,
while a Peer to Peer network can serve the same file from several different computers to several
other computers.
model of distributing video online. You go
napster
to cnn.com or some other site, click on a
link and video begins to play in a window.
This is fine for consumers of video, but not
always great for the producers of video.
Chances are, CNN isn’t going to put up the Figure 62-2 The first version of Napster was
video of your zoo trip or even the really one of the first Peer to Peer networks. It has
funny eight minute clip of your nephews since become a place to purchase music,
which is no longer distributed to end users on
Moe and Elvis.
a Peer to Peer basis.
The Rise of P2P the University’s bandwidth was insuf-

ficient to permit both the use of Napster
In 1999, Shawn Fanning realized that and the delivery of educational materials
the problem with sharing files over the and services.”
Internet was that the process required large, It wasn’t just a bandwidth concern, how-
centralized servers. Why not, he rea- ever. The Recording Industry Association
soned, have thousands, or even millions, of America (RIAA) had a fit. Artists like
of less powerful computers act as mini- Metallica complained bitterly about lost
servers? A few sleepless Jolt Cola nights royalties and legal action killed off the
later, he’d written the software which original Napster software three years later.
would become Napster. Sean was inter- The P2P sharing genie was out of the bot-
ested in swapping music files, and that tle, however, and there are a bunch of
became the backbone (and the bane) of other applications that fill the gap today,
his company. Each Napster user became including (but not limited to) Grokster,
a mini-server. Though primarily used to Kazaa, LimeWire and Bearshare.
trade music, Peer to Peer software could
be used to share any types of files, images,
sounds and even computer programs. Try It Out
For a while at least, millions of people
traded music files with abandon. Some So I decided to try P2P sharing one of
colleges and universities reported that my creations. I chose a short video and
students trading music files occupied made a compressed 320 200, 15 frame
90% of their bandwidth. In February of per second. AVI version of it suitable for
2001, Temple University Vice President transmission over the Internet. There are
Arthur C. Papacostas stated: “[T]he Office more Peer to Peer file sharing programs
of Computer and Information Services than you can shake a stick at, but here’s
commenced an investigation and found that my experience with one.
Peer to Peer File Sharing 317
Figure 62-3 LimeWire is a Peer to Peer service that allows sharing of any file on your
hard drive.
LimeWire (http://www.limewire.com) dragging and dropping files into this
is available for Windows, Mac and Linux directory. Now, as long as your computer
platforms. The layout is simple and user is online, it acts as a server, sharing every-
friendly and the installation is very thing in this directory, including your
straightforward. LimeWire also has a nice Magnum Opus. Using the search feature in
search feature that makes it easy to run LimeWire, anyone can find your movie, as
multiple searches at the same time. On top long as they know what to look for.
of all this, the Apple version has iTunes
support built-in, which allows you to buy
music a song at a time. Share It
As soon as the software is running (and
you’re on the Internet), you have a default Your first problem is that your audience
shared directory (which you can change). can only get to your file while you are
Putting your files online is as easy as online. When a viewer downloads your
video using LimeWire, it’s automatically but with more high-bandwidth always-on
shared on the viewer’s computer. Load connections, the technology is becom-
balancing means sharing the server duties ing more practical by the day. The more
between multiple servers and this speeds people who watch your video, the more
propagation. The more popular a file is, available it will become. If you were in
the faster it downloads, because it can marketing, you might say that this is a
be downloaded from everyone who has scalable distribution model that auto-
previously viewed and downloaded your matically grows with demand. But that’s
video. Of course, only people who are sort of a Catch-22 at first, if no one knows
online can share your video with others, about your movie.
Figure 62-4 MagnetMix is a Web site that indexes some of the best content available
on LimeWire.
Peer to Peer File Sharing 319
Publicizing Your File information for my file. Two days later,

I got an e-mail from MagnetMix telling me
So nobody knows the title of your swank that my file was being carried in their Video
indie short even though you’ve made it section. Now, folks who are interested in
readily available. A database with a sub- the state of indie film on the Internet can
ject or keyword search would be great, but find my movie with ease.
that just hasn’t been implemented in the
LimeWire interface yet. Traditional elec-
tronic Internet marketing, on a Web site, The Future of P2P and
message board or by e-mail, will certainly Video File Sharing
work, but that’s not the P2P way. The best
solution is using the Website Magnet- It’s easy to see how P2P can transform
Mix (http://www.magnetmix.com), which the accessibility of media on the Internet.
is designed to integrate with LimeWire. Granted, the bulk of most of the current
MagnetMix is a far-minded endeavor meant usage is still for commercial MP3 music
to showcase independent creative output files and commercial movies, but the
(music, video, still images and computer technology works just as well for legiti-
software) over P2P. MagnetMix is a great- mate content providers. P2P could start a
est hits content archive and LimeWire has flurry of people watching other people’s
a button that connects to MagnetMix. indie videos and begin a distribution
Once on MagnetMix, there are conve- revolution by sharing their videos. What
nient links for submitting content. I clicked are you waiting for? Let’s see what you’ve
on the “Submit Content” button and added been shooting lately.
Sidebar 1
Is P2P Legal?
Peer to Peer file sharing is legal. Stealing copyrighted material is not. It is illegal, for example, to
duplicate a VHS tape that you don’t own the copyright to and give it to a friend. The same is true
for P2P file sharing. For video that you do own the copyright to, and that would include any and
all original creations, you can share all you want. And P2P is a good way to do this.
Sidebar 2
Success!
Several days later, a vanity search for my name on LimeWire shows that several people are
sharing my video! Looking for like-minded individuals? Right clicking on the filename gives
you the option to “Browse host” and you can see all the files that user is sharing. If he’s
sharing your indie video, he may be film fans sharing other indie videos. Looking for feed-
back? A smiley face icon next to the file name means that user has enabled “chat” and you
can send him instant messages (right click on the filename, select “Chat with host”). Maybe
you’ve found a fan.
PART VII
Authoring DVDs
Burning video onto discs that will play in DVD players and computers.
63
Jacks of All Trades
Charles Fulton
Disc authoring suites are versatile and features found in a typical disc authoring
reasonably powerful one-stop solutions suite.
for a wide variety of media management
tasks.
Way back in 1999, CD-burning drives Video Editing
were just beginning to cross into practical
price ranges. A video-editing computer Frequently, the video editing features
was still an expensive and tricky beast to found in a suite tend to be rather basic,
configure and no one thought DVD burn- but functional. They’re great if you need
ers would be inexpensive and widely avail- to throw a simple, quick project together.
able anytime soon. The typical software They’re no replacement for your beloved
bundled with a typical circa 1999 CD-R copy of Avid, Premiere Pro or Vegas if
drive was barely enough to burn a data you’re embarking on a more involved
CD or audio CD. Even today, the software project, but if you’re just cutting up a
packages that come in the box with most single-track project and audio needs are
CD and DVD burners are not the same as simple, you’ll find what you need.
the full-featured premium suites a number
of companies offer. The core of this soft-
ware is still burning discs and the software Disc Authoring
is usually very good at this. As these pack-
ages have gone from simple data burning to Most disc authoring suites support a wide
also include audio CDs, MP3 ripping and array of disc formats. Most packages burn
video DVDs, most companies have built DVD-video projects and audio CDs to a
more comprehensive packages of applica- broad variety of discs, which can include
tions, or suites. These suites handle all of CD-R and DVD-R data discs and burning
your needs as far as basic disc authoring MP3 discs for use in mobile digital audio
is concerned. Let’s investigate some of the players.
323
When it comes to burning DVD-video conform to the CD Digital Audio stan-

projects, most of the packages include dard. This allows you to copy the tracks
templates for menus, which will help you to the format of your choice for your own
create your project quickly. Interestingly, personal use, such as cataloging music
Dolby Digital audio encoding has found on your hard drive for use with jukebox
its way into a large number of these pack- applications or using your music with
ages, which we applaud. Dolby Digital portable personal audio players.
audio is widely considered to be the ideal
format for audio on DVD, since it’s defined
as one of the mandatory formats in the Other Features
DVD standard, yet it doesn’t take exces-
sive amounts of data to encode. A number of suites offer data backup and
restore features. Like many functions per-
formed by suites, data backup capabilities
Audio Management tend to be on the light side when com-
pared to other dedicated backup utili-
Music management has become an increas- ties. You can create and print basic labels
ingly common feature in disc authoring and inserts using the included layout
suites. Most suites now handle a stagger- software, but, again, the features are lim-
ing array of formats. MP3 is by far the most ited compared with a dedicated labeling
common audio format, but a number of application.
other formats have become popular with A disc authoring suite is a software
Internet audio fans. These include the upgrade that is always worth considering.
open-source Ogg Vorbis format, Microsoft’s They’re inexpensive, very useful and often
WMA, as well as AAC, which was co- surprisingly powerful. If you’re ready to
developed with Dolby Laboratories and proceed deeper into the world of media
popularized by Apple. creation than that which your basic burn-
Almost all of the packages can also rip ing software can handle, it’s time to give a
(extract) CD audio tracks from discs that disc authoring suite a careful look.
64
To DVD or Not to DVD?
(There is no question.)
Bill Davis
Okay, we’re now officially smack dab in building a navigation “front end” so that
the middle of the era of the “homemade” the end-user can find and play the con-
DVD. tent on the disc.
DVD burners are included with most Most DVD authoring software typically
modern computers and the ubiquitous shiny comes with pre-packaged templates, so if
discs are rapidly pushing aside VHS tape as you just want to get the job done fast and
the “home recording” format of choice. So easy, look for these templates to give you a
if you haven’t made the switch to your own head start. More robust software provides
home DVD authoring environment, now’s customization options, including control
the time. over the “look and feel” of your interface.
I use the term “environment” rather The best software programs allow you to
than “program” because quite a few peo- start with a professionally built template
ple who want to create their own DVDs but essentially “deconstruct” them in order
are turning to stand-alone DVD burners, to customize them for your particular use.
rather than authoring their DVDs in a For example, if the original template
software application on a computer. Both designer specified 4 animated picons (pic-
approaches yield similar results—take ture icons) for scene selection, but you have
your pick. This article focuses on com- 5 scenes, you can often copy and paste
puter-based DVD burning, but if you’re another picon link and, with a few clicks
considering a stand-alone recorder, see and some simple drag-and-drop screen
the sidebar, The Appliance Path. re-arrangement, be ready to go.
Getting Started Going Outside to Play
All DVD authoring requires at least basic Power users will typically do their menu
menu creation. This is the process of design outside the DVD creation process,
325
Main Menu
Chapters Bonus Content
Behind the
Scenes Storyboards Outtakes
Featurette
Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter

1 2 3 4 5
Figure 64-1 A complete DVD workflow may include several different links
between menus.
using tools like Photoshop or similar high-

end design software to precisely specify
every background, button, nuance and
shading of the interface. After you have
your menu design developed, you need to
link it to the actual actions the buttons or
hot zones should invoke. (A hot zone is
basically a place on a DVD menu where
a change occurs in the look of the area
when the cursor reaches it—often used for
highlighting buttons or other interface ele-
ments.) DVD programs have various ways
Figure 64-2 A simple menu generally
of accomplishing this linking process. provides your audience the easiest way to
Some use a table-like interface, where access your content.
you link actions on one side to button
titles on the other. Other programs provide
can get complex. And there are lots of sto-
robust graphical linking environments,
ries of beginners forgetting, for example,
where you drag connecting lines between
to link the END of a block of content to a
the button itself and the action you want
“return to menu” function. So essentially
that button to invoke. Each software
someone will play a part of your DVD and
implementation might be different, but
get stuck in a blind alley, unable to do
there MUST be a way—either automated
anything but eject and re-install the disc.
or manual—to link buttons to actions, or
Bummer.
your DVD won’t do anything.
Clear navigation that makes sense to the
user and always provides clues to “what to
Simplicity—Its Own Reward do next” is an art. Studying the templates
in good software can give you clues such as
The challenge with linking is that, if you placing “home” buttons on all screens and
have a lot of menu actions, the navigation making sure your user choices are clear.
To DVD or Not to DVD? 327
DVD Is NOT Videotape! The flexibility of the DVD format makes

it a much more robust way to store and
Finally, all of us trained to make videos play back video, but that same flexibility
are conditioned to thinking in a beginning- makes it more complicated to burn even
middle-end linear process. The magic of a simple DVD than it was, for example, to
the DVD is that it’s non-linear in nature. record to VHS tape.
As a DVD designer, you need to think dif- As with any complex endeavor, the key
ferently. Are there parts of your project is to dive in, experiment and learn. Before
that your audience would enjoy being able too long you should be burning DVDs like
to skip directly to? What about “special a pro. And taking comfort in the fact that
content” like outtakes and bloopers? The your creations should look better and be
very non-linear nature of DVD makes it a much more durable than the tape-based
perfect vehicle for providing your viewers copies of yesterday.
with extras like these. Happy Authoring!
Sidebar
Standing Alone
For a lot of occasional users, complex computer-based DVD authoring is just too much trouble.
So consider the “stand-alone” DVD burner’s “all in one” approach.
Gone is the computer. In its place is a dedicated box that contains the burner, the MPEG-2
encoder needed to make DVD player-compliant files and in many cases a hard drive that stores
the video footage during the encoding and burning process. These units make DVD creation
about as easy as it can be. But not as easy as the “one button” VHS recording you’re likely
accustomed to.
That’s because at least some basic titling, chapter marking and navigation are required for
any DVD. In the stand-alone recorder, the typical process is a guided series of menus where
you enter your text for titles and mark your chapter breaks by pushing control buttons on
a handheld remote control. It’s a little like text messaging on a cell phone. Still, the result-
ing DVDs work just like those authored on computer-based systems. And while the menus
might not be as fancy, at least your computer is free for other work while your stand-alone
DVD recorder is burning your latest video project to disc.
Figure 64-3 Lite-On’s LVW-5045 DVD

recorder includes a hard drive for recording
programming, a progressive-scan output
and a FireWire port for capturing footage
from DV camcorders.
65
From Video to Disc:
A DVD Software Buyer’s Guide
Pat Bailey
Understanding the Basics of DVD “Great, so what’s all this talk about author-
Authoring Software and Hardware ing DVDs?” Glad you asked. Authoring sim-
ply refers to the process of organizing and
Nowadays, it seems like all videogra- presenting all of your media production
phers want to make DVDs. But this means assets (video, audio, titles, etc.) in an inter-
more than just burning video straight onto active format. The result of this process
a blank DVD. You want your video’s pack- is what viewers experience when they
aging to match the first-rate look and fea- play a DVD—menus, graphics, and setup
tures of the pros. options, which create a visually enhanced
Well, you’re in luck. Fortunately, man- presentation.
ufacturers are aware of this demand and
have created a broad range of hardware
and software products to meet the needs Knowledge Is Power
of nearly every budget.
Before you bald your tires in a frenzied
race to be first in line at the local software
Getting Authorized stores, it’s best to know what you’d like to
get out of your DVD authoring software.
Authoring great looking DVDs is now a With a broad price range and dozens of
rather simple process, thanks to the con- titles available, a little bit of forethought
tinued improvements and wealth of fea- pays off before heading to the checkout
tures offered by manufacturers’ products. counter.
Even if you’ve never authored a DVD, Some of the aspects to consider before
there are great start-up tools offered in purchasing DVD authoring software are
many software packages to help you price, features, ease-of-use, and compatibil-
quickly and easily make DVDs like ity. We’ll take a quick look at these aspects
the pros. by breaking down the discussion into
328
From Video to Disc 329
three main user categories—consumer/ your work before burning DVDs can’t be
hobbyist, prosumer and professional. overemphasized. You don’t want to wind
up wasting countless hours and dozens of
discs before getting the desired result.
Software: More Bang for the Buck Prosumer software titles include Sonic
Solutions’ DVDit! and DVDit Pro, Apple’s
Regarding price, we’ll define the consumer/ DVD Studio Pro, Adobe’s Encore DVD,
hobbyist products as those between $50 Sony’s VegasDVD, and Ulead’s DVD
and $250. Prosumer’s wallets is a bit larger, Workshop. The prosumer software throws
so they get to spend between $250 and in more customization and some more
$1,000. Professionals have access to com- advanced features. Additional features
pany credit cards and corporate mega- included at this price range are support for
budgets. As such, we’ll define their animated menu backgrounds, 16:9 wide-
financial prowess as purchasing anything screen video, high-definition support and
over $1,000. surround sound audio systems. Real-time
The biggest factor determining software proofing and compatibility options are also
price tends to be features. Generally, the common in prosumer products.
rule of thumb is more features equal a big- While the learning curve for some fea-
ger price tag. The consumer-level software tures is comparable to consumer-level
includes titles such as Apple’s iDVD, Sonic software, the more advanced features
Solutions’ MyDVD Studio, Studio Delux take some getting used to (customization
and Studio Delux Suite, Pinnacle Systems’ always comes with a price). When you’re
Studio Plus, Mediachance’s DVD-lab making decisions about custom layouts,
Standard, DVD-lab Studio and DVD-lab Pro compression, audio formats and player
and Nero Ultra. compatibility, things are trickier than the
Consumer software offers basic function- user-friendly drag-and-drop interfaces of
ality and features. At this level, the trade- consumer titles.
off is between features and ease-of-use. If you’re completely new to DVD author-
Inexperienced DVD authoring users get ing, have little interest in advanced design
the advantage of automated features and options, or don’t want to be bothered with
template designs. These tools help create the technical aspects such as compression
your DVD menus and chapters, and allow and formatting, then selecting software
you to include static background images with more automated features is your best
or, in some cases at this price range, ani- choice. At the professional level, DVD
mated backgrounds. Customization is very authoring software gives most users the
limited compared to prosumer and profes- most customizable control. These soft-
sional software. ware titles enable you to configure region
The limitations imposed at the con- coding, copyright protection, surround
sumer level are generally safeguards to sound, advanced sub-titling and closed-
make DVD authoring as error-free as pos- captioning options, multiple camera-angle
sible. The brute-force approach limits support and formatting engine controls for
user creativity, but helps ensure everyone the widest possible compatibility range.
goes from start to finish as painlessly as Although beyond what most of our read-
possible. ers may use, Scenarist (from $4,999 to
Even with the limitations, there’s good $35,000) is one example of software in this
news. Fortunately, competition for market product range.
share causes software developers to keep
adding more and more features. What you
get from a basic software title now is much Hardware: Duplicators and Burners
more than just a year ago. One of the more
helpful tools, available in even some of OK, having tackled the basics and given an
the basic titles, is DVD proofing. Proofing overview of the DVD authoring software
world, now let’s look at authoring-related duplicators for about $300, and a multi-
hardware. To begin, understand that the disc tower device costs between $500 and
hardware is divided into two main catego- $6,000. DVD duplicator manufacturers
ries: duplicators and burners. include R-Quest, NEC, Pioneer, Kanguru,
Let’s start with DVD burners, since they Disc Makers, Primera, Rimage, Vinpower
tend to be the more popular of the two cat- and Plextor.
egories. Why so popular? These devices
are the quickest, least expensive method
for creating a DVD. Referred to as DVD Other Considerations:
recorders or burners, these drives appear Layers and Formats
and operate identically to their CD counter-
parts, and are available as both internal and Some final things to consider when think-
external devices. If you know how to burn ing about DVD authoring hardware are
CDs, then you already know how to use single-layer and dual-layer recorders, as
one of these types of DVD burners—it’s the well as authoring format (SD, HD-DVD and
same concept. Additionally, some of these Blu-Ray). Single-sided, single-layer DVD
devices are bundled with user-friendly records enable you to record upto 4.7GB
burning software packages. of information per disc (DVD-5) on single-
Internal burners are relatively cheap sided, single-layer DVDs, where single-
nowadays, although professional burners sided, double-layer holds up to 8.5GB.
are still rather expensive, comparatively Dual-layer recorders are slightly more
speaking. You can find consumer-level expensive, but well worth the money if
internal burners as low as $40, but most are you’re recording longer format videos.
between $50 and $150. For the more pro- Although HD-DVD (15GB single, 30GB
fessional models, expect to pay anywhere dual-layer capacity) and Blu-Ray (roughly
from $350 to $700. For external burners, 25GB single, 50GB dual-layer capacity)
expect to pay $100 to $300 over a compa- formats offer considerable video image
rable internal drive—typically between quality, it may not be too wise to invest in
$120 and $700. Some of the standard man- either of these formats just yet. Why? Two
ufacturers of internal and external DVD reasons: 1) neither format is the victor of
burners include TEAC, Sony, HP, Pioneer, the next format-standard war; 2) the origi-
Phillips, and Toshiba (the developers of nal SD-DVD format remains the most com-
DVD technology). monly used format.
DVD burners are fine for producing small As far as economics is concerned,
quantities of discs, but if you frequently SD-DVD is cheaper and covers the largest
need to produce dozens or hundreds market share. Hi-Def digital video, in gen-
of discs, you want a better, more effi- eral, remains to be too expensive for most
cient solution. Enter DVD duplicators. people. The move to Hi-Def digital video
Duplicators are similar to DVD burners, is analogous to the transition from dial-up
although they’re designed to record multi- to broadband Internet service and, as such,
ple discs simultaneously—many even do it’s wiser to aim your video projects at the
so unattended. You can find single-disc widest target audience.
Sidebar 1
Stand alone or PC?
Stand-alone or turnkey DVD recorders provide the convenience of one-stop DVD production,
but don’t offer the creative flexibility found in PC-based authoring software and hardware.
Also, if something breaks on a stand-alone recorder, you’ll have to return the entire unit for
repair, unlike repairing individual PC parts.
From Video to Disc 331
Sidebar 2
Sticky Situation
It gets a bit tricky when it comes to labeling DVDs as a paper sticker such as the type used on
CDs will often throw these faster spinning optical discs off balance while being read. This
can damage the disc or even the reader. Handwriting with permanent markers are a favorite
method but not very professional looking. Some HP burners use LightScribe technology
that uses a laser to etch a good looking monotone image onto specially coated blank media.
Another option is a special ink jet printer with an optical tray for printing multi-color designs
onto DVDs. Professional dup and replication houses silk screen images onto optical media and
we even know of a guy who hand silk screens onto his DVDs with glow in the dark ink.
66
Burner Basics:
An Introduction to
DVD Burners
Charles Fulton
When the first CD burners hit the Will It Play in Peoria?

market, the equipment was very expen-
sive, but prices fell rapidly and, today, Naturally, both the proponents of the
most entry-level computers come with a DVDR/RW and those of the DVDR/
CD burner. One could safely expect that RW formats claim that their discs are
this will soon be the situation with DVD the most compatible with the installed
burners. base of living room DVD players.
Times were simpler back when the first
CD burners came out, though. There was
really only one standard with two types of Who’s Right?
discs: the write once discs (CD-R) and the
rewritable discs (CD-RW). DVD is a little Many factors contribute to whether a
more complex. The first recordable DVD given disc will play in a given player.
formats developed by the DVD Forum For the home DVD author, the hardware
were DVD-R, DVD-RW and DVD-RAM. burner, the authoring software and type
The DVDRW Alliance, led by Philips and of blank media are all part of the equa-
Sony, created a different format: DVDRW tion. In the end, however, we’ve found
and DVDR. Both the DVD Forum (R) that the bulk of compatibility problems
and DVDRW Alliance (R) claim better are with the player. In our tests, living
compatibility. For the consumer, this can room DVD players that play DVD-R discs
seem confusing. Rest assured, this format also tend to play DVDR discs, and vice
war shouldn’t cause the end user to lose versa. This is a broad generalization and
too much sleep. is not 100% true across the board.
332
Burner Basics 333
That said, it is our responsibility as con- 1 for DVD (1,321 KB/s) is not the same
tent creators to do everything we can to as 1 for CD (150 KB/s). In other words,
make the most compatible discs possible 1 DVD 9 CD. DVD burners, whether
and the material on the disc itself is some- R/RW or R/RW will burn CDs also,
times the problem. Many complex projects although they can’t burn CDs as fast as
must be tweaked and re-built before some of the newer CD burners on the
the project can be widely distributed. market.
We’ve experienced this firsthand when
building our own Basics of Videography
DVD. It can take a lot of patience (as well A Bigger Buffer Is Better
as a tall rack of DVD players and an intern
to do some quality assurance tests) to find A feature to watch for when buying a DVD
all of the problems that might crop up in burner is the size of the internal buffer.
a disc. The buffer is a bit of RAM on the drive
that temporarily stores data before it is
burned onto the disc. The disc-mastering
Who Makes ’Em? program that you use will try to keep
the buffer as full as possible. There is an
The big players to watch are the manu- important reason for this: DVD burners
facturers of the drive mechanisms, pri- (and CD burners, for that matter) need
marily Pioneer for DVD-R/RW mechanisms a steady flow of data. The buffer on the
and Ricoh for DVDR/RW mechanisms burner compensates for a certain amount
(and Panasonic for DVD-RAM mecha- of variability in the data stream, with
nisms). There is a wide cross-section of larger buffers able to handle more dif-
computer peripheral manufacturers that ficulties. Most DVDR/RW drives have
are offering branded-DVD burners, includ- a 2MB buffer, while newer DVD-R/RW
ing Verbatim, TDK, Memorex, Pioneer, drives generally have a more generous
Panasonic, Toshiba, HP, Sony and LG. (See 8MB buffer (we’d expect this to change
the DVD Burner Manufacturer Listing side- very rapidly). Buffer underruns were
bar for the entire gamut.) There are also a common cause of CD-coasters a few
companies who repackage drives in their short years ago, but modern technologies
own enclosures, and bundle them with can easily deal with interruptions in the
software and cables to create a convenient data flow, using such tactics as throttling
and consumer-friendly single-box DVD down the drive to a lower speed when
authoring solution (such as Pacific Digital, the buffer level falls below a specific
QPS, EZQuest, Fantom Drives and LaCie). point.
Shop around and you’re sure to find some-
thing that meets all of your needs, whether
it’s a complete kit or a bare drive. Interfaces
Among internally mounted drives, IDE

Speed Demons (ATAPI) drives are by far the most com-
mon. Only a handful of SCSI drives exist
Need that disc yesterday? Drives get anymore, although they once were com-
faster every day, with the fastest Pioneer mon. Externally, FireWire is the interface
drive currently burning at 4. (This drive of choice, but a number of drives using
initially had a firmware problem that the fast USB 2.0 standard also look very
has since been corrected. If you have an promising. Several companies that market
older drive with a Pioneer mechanism, be off-the-shelf drives in custom enclosures
sure to visit Pioneer’s Web site at www offer external drives with both FireWire
.pioneerelectronics.com/hs/.) Confusingly, and USB 2.0 connections.
Laptop DVD burners are not common at a dollar or so a disc, the cost of burning
this point. If the trailblazing CD-R drives incompatible discs is not high.
have taught us anything, it’s that DVD
drives will become faster, smaller, less
expensive and more available. Currently, The Future
Toshiba and Apple offer recordable DVD
drives on laptops, but we fully expect that Recordable DVD is still a young technology,
other manufacturers will have this feature although second and third generation
in the near future. devices are making it to market as we write.
We expect the combination of future
drives and future software to yield discs
The War Is Over that are even more compatible than discs
authored with today’s drives and software.
At the beginning of this article, we told Prices will also continue to fall some-
you not to worry about the DVD Forum what, although not as rapidly as they did
vs. DVDRW Alliance format war too over the last year. Of course, better living
much. In a very real sense, the war is over room players are also coming out, and
for consumers, although a winner has not that should help home authors as well.
been declared. TDK and Sony now offer Witnessing the rapid rollout (and rapid
writers that burn both DVD-R/RW and price drop) of recordable DVD technology
DVDR/RW discs. We’d expect more makes us wonder what will happen when
manufacturers to offer more format agnos- the recordable version of the next high-
tic burners over the coming year. These capacity optical format comes around.
drives are a little more expensive, but if We’re brimming with excitement to see
you are concerned about compatibility, what the future will bring, but we are also
this is the way to go. You’ll still have very happy with the state of today’s tech-
to decide on the media you use, but at nology (see Figures 66-1 through 66-4).
Figure 66-1 Memorex: DVDRW/R Internal Rewritable Drive, $380.

Burner Basics 335
Figure 66-2 Sony: DRU-500A, $349.
Figure 66-3 TDK: Indi DVD AID420 N, $349.
Figure 66-4 Pioneer DVR-A05, $299.
Sidebar 1
No Computer? No Problem!
One of the latest consumer electronic products to hit the shelves is the stand-alone living room
DVD burner. Externally, these devices look exactly like the DVD player already connected
to your TV. Functionally, they work more like your VCR: just press Record. All have inputs
for analog video, but we are especially excited about the recorders that have FireWire input.
While prices may be a bit high this year, with so many products from so many manufacturers,
we expect stand-alone DVD recorders to be the next must-have product for the living room,
and a neat extra for videographers who want simple DVD-recording functionality. Would-be
DVD authors should note that while these stand alones will record video to disc, they do not
offer a means of creating custom menus or fancy navigational structures.
Sidebar 2
General vs. Authoring Media
If you’ve ever shopped for blank DVD-R discs, you’ve undoubtedly seen references to author-
ing discs (as opposed to general purpose discs). These discs are written with a different laser
wavelength (635 nm, as compared to 650 nm for general discs). Authoring discs can’t be burned
in drives meant for general media, and vice versa.
So why in the world are there authoring DVDs, anyway? Authoring DVDs were originally
designed for professional use, and can hold information that general discs can’t. For example,
an authoring DVD with standardized Cutting Master Format (CMF) data can be submitted to a
duplication house instead of a DLT (digital linear tape). Authoring burners are, of course, sig-
nificantly more expensive than the general burners discussed in this chapter.
Sidebar 3
Don’t Call It “Minus”!
When the burnable DVD world consisted solely of DVD-R drives, everyone just called them
“Dee Vee Dee Arr.” When the first DVDRW drives came out, a distinction had to be made.
Many people instinctively said “Dee Vee Dee Plus Arr Double-You.” And, logically, the oppo-
site of “plus” is “minus” and many people began talking about DVD-R as “Dee Vee Dee Minus
Arr.” The DVD Forum folks in charge of marketing DVD-R are not terribly fond of the negative
connotation of “minus” and would respectfully request that you call it “Dee Vee Dee Dash
Arr” instead. We suppose you could refer to it as “Dee Vee Dee Hyphen Arr,” but, officially, it’s
a dash.
67
DVD Flavors:
What’s the Deal with DVD
Compatibility?
Roger B. Wyatt
Good-bye, stretched tapes and dropouts— DVD player you have in your living room.
hello, pristine digital images, generation Before you commit to a DVD format, you’d
after generation. With the right hardware better know the difference. To help you
and software you can simply burn an understand these emerging formats, we’ve
edited project to DVD with the click of a developed this handy guide to bring you
mouse. Sound like a dream? It’s not. The up to speed on all of the issues.
first affordable DVD recording devices are
already in stores, in mail-order catalogs
and on the Net. While first generation DVD-Video
units were in the $5,000 range, today’s
recorders list for under $1,000, with street The standard that started it all was DVD-
prices below $800. Video (and DVD-Audio, too), those discs
Unfortunately, there is more to DVD than you pop in your DVD Player to watch
meets the eye. When DVD manufacturers feature films and interactive productions.
told us that the initials “DVD” stood for The standard supports a capacity exten-
“digital versatile disc,” they weren’t kid- sion up to 8.5GB per side, but this is not
ding. The recordable standards vying for available at this time. DVD-Video is a
your dollars are DVD-RAM, DVD-R, DVD- playback-only format.
RW, DVD+R and DVDRW. The good news DVD standards (including DVD-Video)
is these are all very exciting technologies, have been developed over the years by
some excelling at high capacity data storage the DVD Forum (dvdforum.org), which is
and some offering convenient distribution. composed of over 220 companies includ-
The bad news is they aren’t all compatible ing Hitachi, JVC, Matsushita, Mitsubishi,
with each other, and most won’t play in the Philips, Pioneer, Sony, Thomson, Time
337
Warner, IBM, Intel, NEC, Samsung, Sharp from Sony. With this feature, you can
and Toshiba, among others. It’s a veritable shoot and edit without the tedious step of
who’s who of consumer electronics. When capturing; assuming you had a DVD-RAM
it came to DVD-Video, this broad consor- drive or hybrid DVD drive on your com-
tium spoke with one voice, and an indus- puter. (However, see the MPEG-2 Cams—Not
try standard was born. the Ultimate sidebar for an important
Somehow, that group unity on the play- caveat.)
back-only standard fractured when record-
able DVD standards were developed.
DVD-R and DVD-RW
DVD-RAM DVD-R is a write-once format, fully sup-

ported by the DVD Forum (see Figure 67-2).
DVD-RAM is a recordable and rewritable It is single-sided, has a top capacity of
standard that the DVD Forum supports 4.7GB and is rapidly extending into the
(see Figure 67-1). The current second- emerging DVD-RW format. Like DVD-
generation discs store 4.7GB per side R, DVD-RW (the format formerly known
(for a total of 9.4GB) and cost as low as as DVD-R/W) is optimized for video,
$20, although other sizes and capacities but can be written to numerous times.
are available. DVD-RAM discs come in Clearly, this format is very significant to
a plastic cartridge or housing that makes videographers. These formats strive to be
them physically incompatible with non- analogous to the now standard CD-R and
DVD-RAM drives and therefore can only CD-RW formats. DVD-R discs are rapidly
be played back in DVD-RAM drives. falling in price, approaching the $6 per
An interesting variation on DVD-RAM disc range, while DVD-RW disc prices are
is the small 80 mm (8-centimeter) disc. also falling, but remain more expensive at
Those little discs hold 1.46GB per side about $16 per disc. The first DVD-R/DVD-
and are used in the new MPEG-2 dig- RW drive, the Pioneer DVR-A03, is very
ital camcorders, such as the ones from reasonably priced. Expect to see a number
Hitachi, and in some digital still cameras of competitors and a corresponding drop
Figure 67-2 DVD-R and DVD-RW; a) best for

sequential writes, b) good for large files, such
Figure 67-1 DVD-RAM; a) best for multiple as movies, c) claimed compatible with DVD
rewrites, b) good for data and files, c) often video players, d) DVD-R: $4, e) DVD-RW: $13.
needs a cartridge, d) DVD-RAM: $12. DVD- The DVD-R/RW format is touted as the logical
RAM discs act similar to a hard disk, allowing extension of CD-R/RW technology we are all
you to write and rewrite with random access. used to.
DVD Flavors 339
in price soon. DVD-R and DVD-RW discs They are right, but the compatibility argu-
are designed to work with DVD-ROM ment was largely rendered moot by the
drives as well as stand-alone DVD players, DVD-RW format, which also uses no car-
provided the disc is correctly formatted. tridge. At press time, we couldn’t find any
There are, however, occasional compat- DVDRW discs for sale, but we expect
ibility problems mostly associated with the price to be competitive with DVD-RW.
older devices. These issues will disappear DVDRW is designed for greater compat-
as the format matures. The DVD-R and ibility with existing stand-alone DVD-
DVD-RW format is good for creating stan- Video players, but this claim is impossible
dard DVD-Video formatted discs as well to test at this time.
as long format data such as video files. The DVDRW camp has also announ-
ced, a bit backwards chronologically per-
haps, that it will support a DVDR format
DVDRW and DVDR that will allow write-once capabilities.
The DVDR and DVDRW formats are
DVDRW is the rewritable standard that theoretically good for creating standard
Sony, Philips and Hewlett-Packard origi- DVD-Video formatted discs (although, at
nally developed to compete with DVD- press time, there were no DVDRW units
RAM (confusingly, not with DVD-RW, on the market to be tested) as well as long
although it is now a competitor of that for- format data such as video files.
mat as well) (see Figure 67-3). Note the use
of the plus sign () instead of the hyphen
(-). Philips and Sony (both members of RAM vs. RW
the DVD Forum) argue that their non-
DVD Forum-sanctioned DVDRW for- The RAM in DVD-RAM stands for random
mat is more compatible than DVD-RAM, access memory. DVD-RAM discs read and
largely because DVDRW discs do not write much the same way as your hard
use a physically incompatible cartridge. disks. This is an important aspect of this
format and differs from the other read/
write DVD formats (-RW and RW), which
are optimized for sequential recording. In
other words, DVD-RAM is a data storage
format that is perfectly happy scattering
thousands of tiny files (and parts of files)
here and there across the entire disc. This
allows for faster access times and yields
a more robust rewriting and erasing for-
mat. DVD-RW and DVDRW, in contrast,
do not offer random access in the same
way, are not as robust as rewriters and are
not designed to act like a hard disk. They
are, however, optimized for long, sequen-
tial reads/writes and occasional rewrites
of large chunks of data, which is exactly
what videographers need.
Figure 67-3 DVDRW and DVDR; a) best

for sequential writes, b) good for large files, Standards Shmandards
such as movies, c) qclaimed compatible with
DVD video players, d) DVD1RW: $14, d) Do multiple standards guarantee trouble?
DVD1R: unavailable. The DVD1RW format
is the newest format and claims to be more Not really. The DVD Forum came up with
compatible than others. DVD1R has not yet a plan to prevent conflicts among DVD
been rolled out. formats and assure compatibility between
DVD products. They call it DVD Multi, can read and write the three DVD Forum
a set of hardware specifications that formats. One model from Panasonic (LF-
enables disc and manufacturer compat- D311) sells for just under $500. This drive
ibility for virtually all DVD Forum con- allows you to avoid much of the format
sumer electronics and personal computer war controversy, writing and rewriting to
formats. Look for a logo identifying DVD DVD-RAM for your personal use and writ-
Multi products. The specification cov- ing DVD-R discs to play on your televi-
ers many formats including DVD-Video, sion. We are extremely excited about this
DVD-ROM, DVD-Audio, DVD-RAM, DVD- technology and hope that it does not suf-
R and DVD-RW. fer from the compatibility problems that
You can measure these discs’ capacities plagued the first CD-R drives.
in two ways. First, for finished produc- The DVDRW camp, on the other hand,
tions, MPEG-2 DVD-Video can have a dura- is aggressively marketing recordable and
tion as long as two hours. MPEG-2 video rewritable DVDRW drives. Other com-
is compressed, often resulting in compres- puter manufacturers, like Apple and
sion artifacts, which can range from unno- Compaq, are shipping boxes with DVD-R
ticeable to debilitating, depending on drives built-in.
the quality of the encoding. Compressed
video is not suitable for editing, mastering
or storage purposes. Second, capacity can Early Adopters Only?
be measured in terms of data storage and
expressed in gigabytes. At S-VHS quality, Is it time to move to DVD optical record-
each minute of video data might occupy ing? For data purposes, permanently sav-
120 MB of storage (although it could be ing your video projects, media and all,
much more). So, 4.7 GB works out to almost has become a distinct possibility for the
40 minutes of recording capacity, per side. first time. And burning your produc-
DV data occupies roughly 216 MB of space tions to DVD for playback on stand-alone
for a minute of video, or approximately DVD players gives you a very high qual-
22 minutes per side, per DVD disc. ity way to conveniently distribute your
New hardware devices are hitting the work. At $500 for a recorder and $6 per
market almost every day. The first DVD-R, disc, DVD recording is at a very tempting
DVD-RW drives, such as the Pioneer DVR- price point for the home video enthusi-
A03 or the Panasonic LF-D311, are widely ast, although we certainly expect prices
available at less than $500. Also, watch to fall over the next year. With the right
for hybrid DVD-R, DVD-RW, DVD-RAM purchase, you can enjoy recordable DVD
combo drives (called DVD Multi) that products that will play on all your gear.
Sidebar 1
MPEG-2 Cams—Not the Ultimate
Are they the best things since sliced bread? Probably not. While the quality of DVD-Video is
very high, it is nonetheless MPEG-2 compressed video. As such, it is very problematic to edit
and you should not consider it for mastering, archiving or editing purposes. A good digital
strategy is to shoot and capture at the highest quality (e.g., DV or MJPEG), edit at highest qual-
ity, master at highest quality and finally, distribute MPEG-2 on DVD.
DVD Flavors 341
Sidebar 2
Yes, Master
One undeniably exciting aspect of the latest multi-format hybrid DVD recorders is the possi-
bility of burning DVD-Video discs to send high-quality versions of your movies to your friends
and then burning a DVD-RAM disc (two-sided 9.4GB) of the project as a master. How many
times have you watched a movie you created two years ago and cringed, wishing you could fix
it up? Although burn speeds and transfer rates mean taking some time to back up and restore a
project, it is undoubtedly faster than recapturing and recreating a project from scratch.
Sidebar 3
The Media
Format DV DVD VCD SVCD Mini DVD
Resolution 720 480 720 480 352 240 480 480 720 480
Recording 60 mins 2 hrs 74 mins 35 mins 15 mins
Time tape
Video DV MPEG-2 MPEG-1 MPEG-2 MPEG-2
Compression
Audio PCM MPEG-2, AC3 MPEG-1 MPEG-1 MPEG-2, AC3
Compression
Size/min 216 MB/min 30–70 MB/min 10 MB/min 10–20 MB/min 30–70 MB/min
DVD Player None Excellent Great (2/3) Good (1/3) Poor

Compatibility
Quality Excellent Great Fair Good Great
*Table by Scott Anderson.
68
Step by Step Guide to
Making DVDs
D. Eric Franks
More and more of this magazine is being video. This process can be one-click
devoted to DVD each month. DVD gear, easy or hardcore technical and tedious.
DVD media, DVD software, but we’re
• Author—Authoring is what we call the
afraid we are missing the forest for the
process of actually designing and creat-
trees. If you’ve been reading the magazine
ing the DVD menus. This is the fun part.
and have a good grip on what you need,
here is a path through the trees: our Step • Burn—Yawn. This process should defi-
by Step Guide to Making DVDs. nitely be one-click easy.
Overview
Capture
First, a little encouragement: DVD crea-
tion on a computer is considerably easier So you have a video tape that you’d love
than editing video. The entire process can to distribute on DVD. What is the easiest
be summed up in four steps (but see the way? We have two answers for you, one
sidebar for a One-Step Solution). for digital video and one for analog tapes.
First, for those of you with digital video
• Capture—You need to get video onto
(DV) source material, you should use your
your computer. How you edit it is
FireWire port on your computer to dump
entirely up to you and is not what
your digital data to your computer. You
this article is about, so we are going to
don’t need a fancy computer or expensive
assume that you have a tape with video
editing software, but you will need a ton
on it that you want on DVD.
of hard disk space, about 20GB for an hour
• Encode—Once your video is on your of video for a complete DVD project. On a
computer, it needs to be transformed and Windows XP or Mac, the capture tools you
encoded into DVD-friendly MPEG-2 need are included with your computer.
342
Step by Step Guide to Making DVDs 343
DV is so easy because the video is already Compressionists. For this chapter, it is only
in a format your computer can handle. If important that you know that all of your
you have analog video tapes (such as VHS), media (video, audio and stills) needs to
you need to convert that video into digital be in DVD-compatible MPEG-2 format
data for your computer. To do this, you’ll before it can be put on a disc. Hopefully,
need some kind of capture card, otherwise your authoring software will take care of it
known as a digitizer. Some computers for you.
come with analog capture cards (e.g., an
Ati All-In-Wonder card), but most do not.
If you are not interested in hacking about Author
inside of your computer to install a new
card (and who is?), there are a few devices Authoring is the fun part of creating a
that digitize your video and then send the DVD. The process requires some organi-
data to your Windows computer via a USB zational skills, a little design talent and a
2.0 connection. ADS Tech’s Instant DVD dollop of artistry, but you can usually get
2.0, Adaptec’s VideOh! DVD and Pinnacle’s by even if you aren’t particularly gifted in
Dazzle Digital Video Creator 150 are three these areas.
competitive products (all less than $200) The first step is to start a new project and
worth researching. The most convenient collect your media together. This will of
aspect of these boxes is that they digitize course include your video, but also might
straight to MPEG-2 video. involve stills for a slide show and music
for menu backgrounds. Again, everything,
even stills and audio, will end up in a DVD-
Encode compatible format, but for now you only
have to organize the pieces and parts.
If the video on your computer is not DVD The next step involves designing the
ready, you will need to encode it to the navigation of your disc. Like the Web, DVD
MPEG-2 format. This is what you will discs have buttons that you can highlight
need to do with FireWire-transferred DV and click, although you use your DVD
video and DV video projects from your player’s remote control to make the click.
editing software. The encoding process DVDs are much simpler than Web pages,
(also called compression or transcoding) however, and you basically need only a
can happen immediately when you fin- Play button to allow folks to watch your
ish editing, although most DVD authoring movie and maybe a Scenes button to allow
programs now automatically encode any them to jump to the various parts of your
video of any format that you use on your movie that they want to skip to. You can
DVD. In your editing software, you’ll usu- have more complex navigation schemes
ally be able to find an Export or Render As and special features, but work conserva-
option that will open an encoding dialog. tively and cautiously so that you don’t
In this dialog, select a DVD MPEG-2 encod- overwhelm and confuse your viewers. The
ing template and render away. Encoding dozens of Hollywood discs you’ve rented
is very computationally intensive, so get can serve as examples, both good and bad,
ready to wait a long time for the process to for you to emulate or at least learn from.
finish, typically twice as long as your vid- The final part of authoring is the best
eo’s duration. We usually start encoding part: designing attractive menus. From
before we go to bed at night. backgrounds to buttons, the DVD menu
Of course encoding can be much more is going to be the first impression your
complicated. There are entire applications viewers will get of your project. Most DVD
dedicated to the task (e.g., cleaner, ProCoder, authoring programs come with a bunch
Squeeze), books explaining the technology of templates that can be used as-is or that
(like the ones from Ben Waggoner) and can be used as jumping off points for your
experts in Hollywood who are Career own unique discs. In our reviews of DVD
authoring programs, pay careful attention in other articles in this magazine (such as
to what the writer says about the templates the Winter 2003 issue).
and how much they can be customized. If As far as media goes, there are two
you only need a quick disc and aren’t very approaches. You can play it safe and
interested in authoring, templates may go with a branded media, like Verbatim
be all you need. If you are a production or TDK (or even Ritek) or you can get a
house with a talented design professional spindle of generic discs. The advantage of
onboard, make sure your software lets her going with a branded disc is that you get
do her thing. a guarantee from the company and can be
assured that there was some quality con-
trol during the manufacturing process.
Burn Generic discs are cheaper, of course, and
can be of very high quality, but the prob-
We call the actual process of writing a lem is that you just don’t know until you
DVD “burning” and it is just about as bor- have some experience. Some blank media
ing as can be. Usually, it involves insert- companies offer sampler packs of various
ing a blank disc into your DVD drive and kinds that you can test. As of this writing,
clicking a button or, at most, selecting a we look for 4 certified media, which is
menu item. It either works or it is bro- required for newer burners. Ultimately,
ken. Fortunately, it almost always works you shouldn’t sweat the media too much:
nowadays. if it is going to fail, it’ll fail during the burn
Compatibility with stand-alone, living process.
room DVD players is a serious issue. In
almost every case, compatibility problems
are not caused by the burning process. In Best Thing Since Sliced Bread
fact, almost all compatibility problems
are caused by the DVD player and not by Capture, encode, author and burn. That’s
the DVD authoring process outlined here. all there is to it. Sure, each step warrants
It doesn’t much matter whether you are its own article and that’s part of Video-
using an HP 300i or a Pioneer DVR-105, or maker’s goal each month, but we hope this
whether you are using DVD-R or DVDR chapter has encouraged you to give DVD
(don’t use rewritable discs for distribu- a shot. It’s not nearly as hard as other com-
tion). The discs are designed to play back puter video tasks. Durable blank discs cost
in the same players. Once you find a DVD less than a dollar, postage costs less than a
player that plays one kind of disc, you’ll dollar and nearly everyone you know has
find that it plays back most kinds. Of a DVD player in their living room. Home
course we are skimming over many issues DVD authoring is the best thing to happen
here that are covered in much more depth to us since the advent of digital video.
Sidebar
One-Step DVD Solutions
OK, we hear you: four steps are too many, especially the part about capturing video. If you can
operate a VCR, we have a one-step solution for you. If you haven’t already seen them, go down
to your local electronics store and check out the stand-alone living room DVD burners on sale.
Prices have dropped significantly below $600 on many models and they work just like a VCR.
Pop in a blank disc, hook up your camcorder and press Record. The menus usually aren’t
very attractive, but they get your video onto a disc and you don’t even have to think about
capture/encode/author/burn.
69
What Makes DVDs Go
’Round and ’Round
Marshal M. Rosenthal
When it comes to making your own DVD, is complete, the title appears on a static
the only thing more important than the screen, accompanied by music and ran-
movie is how the viewer gets to see it: dom animation of Timon popping up
will you start with an animated splash from the tall grass.
screen? Or will it go directly to the main Animation can add a lot to a menu. In
menu? Will you have all sorts of buttons this case, the opening is so entertaining
to select from? Or will you use just a few and goes by so fast that it only enthralls the
straightforward panels with text? These viewer. And, since the main audience for
are the decisions to consider before you this disc is children, a little bit of craziness
make your DVD. Let’s look at some com- is probably appropriate. For most adults,
mercial DVDs and how they handle the the animation is cute once, but could
menus. quickly become quite annoying to watch
over and over again. When you select a fea-
ture from the main menu, there’s another
Using Animation: Lion King 1 1/2 brief animation featuring Timon that takes
you to a new screen. The new screen fea-
Most discs start with some type of start up tures its own animation and music and
animations, previews or warning screens, quickly shows you the choices you can
and Disney’s Lion King 1 1/2 is no excep- now select.
tion. After the Disney logo and a spate These animations require you to watch
of video previews (which you can skip), until they finish, but they move very fast.
the screen goes black and then changes Since DVD menus are just MPEG-2 mov-
into a frenzy of activity. The main menu ies, anything you can encode for a DVD
is quite active and busy. Our old friend you can use as a menu. Basically, this
Timon the merekat looks on as various means you have unlimited creative pos-
animals move all of the scenery into posi- sibilities. An important consideration
tion on a movie stage. Once all the action is whether the viewer must wait for the
345
movie. It’s important to maintain a con-

sistent feel throughout your DVD’s various
menus, whether using artwork, video clips
or photography. Theme music from the
movie plays during the opening menu, but
disappears once you go to the other menus.
The menus are also a part of the content of
the disc, as a series of menus superimposed
over photos serve as a history about detec-
tives. The photo here is very stylized and
simple, which keeps the text from being
lost and so remains easy to read. When you
Figure 69-1 The Lion King 1 1/2 DVD. place text over a photo, strive to make sure
the photo isn’t competing with the text.
animation to finish before pressing a but-
ton to continue.
Theme music from the movie is con- Motion Video: Indiana Jones and
stantly playing in the background of the the Raiders of the Lost Ark
menus, but it changes depending upon
which menu you are on. It’s fairly long, The Raiders of the Lost Ark DVD jumps
so it doesn’t become too repetitive. Music right in (after the obligatory Paramount
clips can be short or long, but the only rea- logo) and hits the ground running. The
son for having a lengthy audio track is if action-packed splash screen goes on
you have a lot to look at on a particular for quite a while, but what’s really cool
menu screen. If you do not have an ani- about it is that the text seen at the bottom
mated or video background, music can is active: you can navigate to any part of
increase the amount of space the menu the disc during the splashy introduction.
takes up on the disc. Once the main menu appears, you’ll still
have access to the same choices, of course.
This disc really has two menus that serve
Using Photos: The Maltese Falcon the same purpose as far as navigation is
concerned. This is not a bad idea at all
Children’s discs are colorful, loud and and allows the producers to present some
fun, but a classic movie, such as The exciting footage without interfering with
Maltese Falcon, would take a very differ- disc navigation.
ent approach. Humphrey Bogart stars in When the main menu finally comes up,
this classic tough guy detective film and it continues the theme of motion video by
the opening splash screen is as subtle as having a moving map rotate in the back-
our detective ain’t: it’s just a simple, static ground. And after about 30 seconds, if you
photo of Bogey at a desk with the Maltese don’t touch anything, the splash video
Falcon perched before him. The black and starts up again. If you select a feature, ani-
white image has been colorized and the mations appear as a transition between
menu buttons highlight when pressed. menu screens (a plane flying you from one
This is a good example of a straightfor- screen to another, for example). The new
ward main menu page. Taking this as an screen also features different music to suit
example, you have all of the choices pre- the mood.
sented right there in front of you without Suddenly going back to the splash
any distractions. screen can be annoying and the transi-
Pressing one of the buttons takes you tion gets old quickly as well. If you have
immediately to other screens which also a cycling screen, it’s a good idea to make
use photos. There’s a consistency that sure that there’s enough time for the
keeps you in the era and mood of the viewer to digest everything before it starts
What Makes DVDs Go ’Round and ’Round 347
Figure 69-2 Indiana Jones and the Raiders of Figure 69-3 National Lampoon’s Animal
the Lost Ark DVD. House DVD.
up again and the viewer can get out of it of the screen. The right side is static and
quickly. Still, Raiders is a fun action film, changes only when making a selection. Then
so there’s really no reason the DVD can’t be the text flies off the screen as everything
fun as well. If your movie falls into a genre blurs and becomes a new screen with new
where this sort of excitement is appropri- selections to make. Having motion video
ate, menus like this can be quite fun. on one side and text and the selection but-
tons on the other can be very effective. It
lets you show something while at the same
Video: National Lampoon’s time the viewer can decide to move on to
Animal House something else. Sometimes, however, all a
menu screen needs to work is plain text,
Comedy flicks are another genre that accompanied by a plain background or a
often has unusual menus that are more simple photograph.
than just navigational aids and National
Lampoon’s Animal House (Double-secret
Probation Edition) is a good example. Animation and Photos: 24—Season 2
Following the Universal logo and a series
of previews that you can’t skip, the Animal The television show 24 Season 2 DVD
House splash screen begins. It’s a riotous also has a sharp menu. Similar to the
blending of video and text and music that fast paced action of the show, a high-tech
really sets the mood for what this comedy surveillance map of the world unveils
is all about. itself at breakneck speed as a set of mov-
You might not need to run previews ing cross-hairs track back and forth
on your DVD for marketing purposes, before dissolving into the main menu.
but if you have any splash screens that Background music begins and ends with
come up before your main menu, you this splash video.
should seriously consider whether you A quick moving splash opening can
want to prevent viewers from skipping intrigue the viewer, especially if there’s
them. Advanced DVD authoring software a sense of urgency involved. The main
allows you to disable remote control but- menu itself is static and features a photo
ton presses like stop, fast forward, next of the main character, Jack Bauer, tinted
and menu. Be very cautious about doing in blue. When you select an episode, the
this, however. If you do want to force your menu immediately switches to a sub-menu
viewers to watch something (e.g., an FBI which features a new photo interwoven
warning screen), keep it short and make with chapters of the episode.
sure it really is vital. At this point, it’s up to the viewer to
Once on the Animal House main menu, decide what to watch. Sometimes it’s good
the music cycles through selections from to let people feel they’re the ones in con-
the film, as do the video clips on one side trol. The viewer can watch deleted scenes
you can get the play button on the screen

the better, in our opinion.
Before You Burn
Unlike VHS, DVD isn’t linear and you

can create links between how a video
plays, and that changes the viewing
experience. Creating the way your DVD
Figure 69-4 24 Season 2 DVD. starts and how it’s going to let the viewer
move through the selections does require
in content within each episode. While the thought, but don’t forget that a menu sys-
disc gives you access to a lot of content, tem isn’t just pragmatic. Don’t be afraid
moving from a menu to a sub-menu and to mix it up. The movie may be your pri-
then playing the episode might be too mary concern, but the menu is the first
much clicking for some people. The faster impression folks will get.
Jargon:
A Glossary of Videography
Terms
.asf Active Streaming Format 8 mm Compact videocassette format, pop-

.avi Short for Audio Video Interleave, ularized by camcorders, employing
the file format for Microsoft’s Video 8-millimeter-wide videotape. [See Hi8]
for Windows standard. 720 p An ATSC high definition video
.gif Graphics Interchange Format—a bit- standard size of 1,280 720 pixels,
mapped graphics file format used by progressive scan at various frame rates.
the World Wide Web, CompuServe and 1080i An ATSC high definition video
many BBSs. GIF supports color and standard size of 1,920 1,080 pixels,
various resolutions. It also includes interlace scan at various frame rates.
data compression, making it especially A/B roll editing Two video sources
effective for scanned photos. played simultaneously, to be mixed or
.jpeg Joint Photographic Experts Group cut between.
image format. A popular Internet com- A/V (Audio/Video) A common short-
pression format for color images. hand for multimedia audio and video.
.mov File extension used with Quick- action axis An imaginary line drawn
Time movies. between two subjects or along a line
.mov File extension used with Quick- of motion to maintain continuity of
Time, a popular file format for video on a screen direction. Crossing it from one
computer developed by Apple. shot to the next creates an error in
.rm Most common file extension used continuity. It is also referred to as the
with RealMedia files. “180-degree rule.”
.wav A sound format for storing sound ad-lib Unrehearsed, spontaneous act
in files developed jointly by Microsoft of speaking, performing or otherwise
and IBM. Support for WAV files was improvising on-camera activity with-
built into Windows 95 making it the de out preparation.
facto standard for sound on PCs. WAV aDSL Asymmetric (or Asynchronous)
sound files end with a .wav extension. Digital Subscriber Line. A “fat pipe.”
349
New technology to carry high-speed it has lower color temperature than

data over typical twisted-pair copper natural light, and thus more reddish
telephone lines. ADSL promises be up qualities. [See color temperature, nat-
to 70 times as fast as a 28.8 modem. ural light]
AFM (audio frequency modulation) The aspect ratio Proportional width and
analog soundtrack of the 8 mm and height of on-screen picture. Current
Hi8 video format. [See PCM] standard for a conventional monitor is
AGC (automatic gain control) A circuit 4:3 (four-by-three); 16:9 for HDTV.
on most camcorders that automatically assemble edit Recording video and/or
adjusts a microphone’s gain (volume) audio clips in sequence immediately
to match environmental sound levels. following previous material; does not
ambient sound (ambience) Natural back- break control track. Consecutive edits
ground audio representative of a given form complete program. [See edit,
recording environment. On-camera insert edit]
dialog might be primary sound; traffic ATSC Advanced Television Systems
noise and refrigerator hum would be Committee. A new TV broadcast stan-
ambient. dard (replacing NTSC) for high defin-
amplify To magnify an audio signal for ition televison. It is composed of
mixing, distribution and transducing several frame rates and sizes, includ-
purposes. ing standard definition formats, as
analog An electrical signal is referred to well as 720 p and 1080 i video.
as either analog or digital. Analog sig- ATV (amateur television) Specialized
nals are those signals directly generated domain of ham radio, transmits stan-
from a stimulus such as a light striking dard TV signals on UHF radio bands.
a camera picture tube. You can convert audio dub Result of recording over pre-
an analog signal to a digital signal by recorded videotape soundtrack, or a
using an analog to digital converter. portion thereof, without affecting pre-
animation Visual special effect whereby recorded images.
progressive still images displayed in audio frequency modulation (AFM)
rapid succession create the illusion of Method of recording hi-fi audio on
movement. videotape along with video signals.
aperture/exposure A setting that manip- Used in VHS Hi-Fi Audio, and also
ulates the amount of light falling onto the analog soundtrack of the 8 mm and
the camera’s CCD(s). This control Hi8 video formats.
adjusts the size of the camcorder’s iris. audio mixer The piece of equipment
apps (application) Software that per- used to gather, mix and amplify sounds
forms a specific function. from multiple microphones and send
artifacting The occurrence of unwanted the signal on to its destination.
visual distortions that appear in a automatic exposure Circuitry that moni-
video image, such as cross-color arti- tors light levels and adjusts camcorder
facts, cross-luminance artifacts, jitter, iris accordingly, compensating for
blocking, ghosts, etc. Artifacting is a changing light conditions.
common side effect of compression, automatic gain control (AGC) Circuitry
especially at lower bit rates. found on most camcorders that adjusts
artifacts Unwanted visual distortions incoming audio levels automatically
that appear in a video image, such as to match environmental sound levels.
cross-color artifacts, cross-luminance available light Amount of illumination
artifacts, jitter, blocking, ghosts, etc. present in a particular environment:
artificial light Human-made illumina- natural light, artificial light or a com-
tion not limited to the “indoor” variety: bination of the two.
fluorescent bulbs, jack-o’-lanterns and AVCHD Advanced Video Codec High
a car’s headlights all qualify. Typically, Definition: An MPEG-4-based codec
Glossary 351
used to record High Definition video Blu-Ray A high definition optical disc
to camcorders using hard drives, DVD format, using a blue laser. It has a
discs, or flash memory cards. capacity of 50 GB for dual-layer discs.
AVI (Audio Video Interleave) One of the Hoping to be the successor to the pop-
oldest file formats for digital video on ular DVD format.
PCs. BNC (Bayonet Fitting Connector aka
backlight Lamp providing illumination British Naval Connector) A dura-
from behind. Creates sense of depth ble “professional” cable connector,
by separating foreground subject from attaches to VCRs for transfer of high-
background area. Applied erroneously, frequency composite video in/out sig-
causes severe silhouetting. [See fill nals. Connects with a push and a twist.
light, key light, three-point lighting] boom Any device for suspending a
balanced line Audio cables that have microphone above and in front of a
three wires: one for positive, one for performer.
negative and one for ground. booming Camera move above or below
bandwidth A measure of the capacity of a subject with aid of a balanced “boom
user’s data line. Video looks its best on a arm,” creating sense of floating into or
high-bandwidth connection, like DSL, out of a scene. Can combine effects of
cable modems or satellite modems. panning, tilting and pedding in one
Conversely, trying to download or fluid movement.
stream video on a low-bandwidth con- C See chrominance.
nection like a dial-up modem can be a cable/community access Channel(s) of
frustrating experience. a local cable television system dedi-
bandwidth compression Reducing the cated to community-based program-
bandwidth that is required for trans- ming. Access centers provide free or
mission of a given digital data rate. low-cost training and use of video pro-
barndoors Accessories for video lights; duction equipment and facilities.
adjustable folding flaps that control cameo lighting Foreground subjects illu-
light distribution. minated by highly directional light,
batch capture The ability of certain appearing before a completely black
computer-based editing systems to background.
automatically capture whole lists or Cannon See XLR.
“batches” of clips from source capacitor The part of the condenser mike
videotapes. that stores electrical energy and per-
Betamax More commonly known as mits the flow of alternating current.
“Beta,” half-inch videotape format capture card A piece of computer hard-
developed by Sony, eclipsed by VHS ware that captures digital video and
in home video market popularity. [See audio to a hard drive, typically through
ED Beta] a FireWire (IEEE 1394) port.
bidirectional Microphone pickup pat- cardioid A microphone that picks up
tern whereby sound is absorbed sound in a heart-shaped pattern.
equally from two sides only. [See CCD (charge coupled device) Light-
omnidirectional, unidirectional] sensitive integrated circuit in video
black box Generic term for wide variety cameras that converts images into
of video image manipulation devices electrical signals. Sometimes referred
with perceived mysterious or “magical” to as a “chip.”
capabilities, including proc amps, character generator A device that elec-
enhancers, SEGs and TBCs. tronically builds text which can be
bleeding Video image imperfection char- combined with a video signal. The text
acterized by blurring of color borders; is created with a keyboard and pro-
colors spill over defined boundaries, gram that has a selection of font and
“run” into neighboring areas. backgrounds.
chroma Characteristics of color a vid- comet tailing Smear of light resulting

eotape absorbs with recorded signal, from inability of camera’s pickup to
divided into two categories: AM (ampli- process bright objects—especially in
tude modulation) indicates color inten- darker settings. Object or camera in
sity; PM (phase modulation) indicates motion creates appearance of flying
color purity. fireball. [See lag]
chromakey Method of electronically component video Signal transmission
inserting an image from one video system, resembling S-video concept,
source into the image of another through employed with professional videotape
areas designated as its “key color.” It is formats. Separates one luminance
frequently used on news programs to and two chrominance channels to
display weather graphics behind talent. avoid quality loss from NTSC or PAL
chrominance Portion of video signal encoding.
that carries color information (hue and composite video Single video signal comb-
saturation, but not brightness); fre- ining luminance and chrominance
quently abbreviated as “C,” as in “Y/ signals through an encoding process,
C” for luminance/chrominance. [See including RGB (red, green, blue) ele-
luminance] ments and sync information.
clapstick Identification slate with compositing Superimposing multiple
hinged, striped top that smacks layers of video or images. Each layer
together for on-camera scene initiation. may move independently. Titles are
Originally used to synchronize movie a simple and common example of
sound with picture. [See lip-sync] compositing.
closeup (CU) A tightly framed camera composition Visual make-up of a video
shot in which the principal subject is picture, including such variables as
viewed at close range, appearing large balance, framing, field of view and
and dominant on screen. Pulled back texture—all aesthetic considerations.
slightly is a “medium closeup” while Combined qualities form an image
zoomed in very close is an “extreme that’s pleasing to view.
closeup (ECU or XCU).” compression An encoding process that
CODEC (compressor/decompressor) A reduces the digital data in a video frame,
piece of software that converts a raw typically from nearly one megabyte to
stream of uncompressed video to a 300 kilobytes or less. This is accom-
compressed form. The same piece of plished by throwing away information
software can also play the compressed the eye can’t see and/or redundant
video on-screen. information in areas of the video frame
color bars Standard test signal contain- that do not change. JPEG, Motion-JPEG,
ing samples of primary and secondary MPEG, DV, Indeo, Fractal and Wavelet
colors, used as reference in aligning are all compression schemes.
color video equipment. Generated elec- condenser mike A high-quality mike
tronically by a “color bar generator,” whose transducer consists of a dia-
often viewed on broadcast television phragm, backplate and capacitor.
in off-air hours. [See test pattern] continuity [1: visual] Logical succession
color corrector Electronic device that dis- of recorded or edited events, necessi-
sects the colors of a video signal, allow- tating consistent placement of props,
ing them to be adjusted individually. positioning of characters, and progres-
color temperature Relative amount sion of time.
of “white” light’s reddish or blu- contrast Difference between a picture’s
ish qualities, measured in degrees brightest and darkest areas. When
Kelvin. Desirable readings for video high, image contains sharp blacks and
are 3,200 K indoors, 5,600 K outdoors. whites; when low, image limited to
[See artificial, natural light] variations in gray tones.
Glossary 353
control track A portion of the videotape D1, D2, D3, D5, Digital-S, DVCPRO,
containing information to synchronize DVCAM, Digital Betacam Entirely dig-
playback and linear videotape editing ital “professional” videotape recording
operations. formats.
Control-L A two-way communication decibel (dB) A unit of measurement
system used to coordinate tape trans- of sound that compares the relative
port commands for linear editing. Pri- intensity of different sound sources.
marily found in Mini DV, Digital8, Hi8 decompression The decoding of a com-
and 8 mm camcorders and VCRs. [See pressed video data stream to allow
Control-S, synchro edit] playback.
Control-S A one-way communication deinterlace To convert interlaced video
system that treats a VCR or camcorder into progressively scanned video, for
as a slave unit, with edit commands use with computers.
emanating from an external edit con- depth of field Range in front of a cam-
troller or compatible deck. Primarily era’s lens in which objects appear in
found on 8 mm VCRs and camcorders. focus. Varies with subject-to-camera
[See Control-L, synchro edit] distance, focal length of a camera lens
cookie (cucalorus) Lighting accessory and a camera’s aperture setting.
consisting of random cutout shapes desktop video (DTV) Fusion of personal
that cast patterned shadows when computers and home video compo-
light passes through. Used to imitate nents for elaborate videomaking capa-
shadows of natural lighting. bilities rivaling those of broadcast
crawl Text or graphics, usually special facilities.
announcements that move across the diaphragm The vibrating element in a
screen horizontally, typically from right microphone that responds to the com-
to left across the bottom of the screen. pressed air molecules of sound waves.
cross-fade Simultaneous fade-in of one diffused light Indistinctly illuminates
audio or video source as another fades a relatively large area. Produces soft
out so that they overlap temporarily. light quality with soft shadows.
Also called a dissolve. diffuser Gauzy or translucent material
cucalorus (cookie) Lighting accessory that alters the quality of light passing
consisting of random pattern of cut- through it to produce less intense, flat-
outs that forms shadows when light ter lighting with softer, less noticeable
passes through it. Used to imitate shadows.
shadows of natural lighting. diffusion filter Mounted at front of
cue [1] Signal to begin, end, or otherwise camcorder lens, gives videotaped
influence on-camera activity while images a foggy, fuzzy, dreamy look. [See
recording. [2] Presetting specific start- filter]
ing points of audio or video material digital audio Sounds that have been
so it’s available for immediate and converted to digital information.
precise playback when required. digital video effects (DVE) Electronic
cut Instantaneous change from one shot analog-to-digital picture modification
to another. yielding specialty image patterns and
cutaway Shot of something other than maneuvers: tumbling, strobing, page
principal action (but peripherally turning, mosaic, posterization, solari-
related), frequently used as transi- zation, etc.
tional footage or to avoid a jump cut. digitization The process of converting a
cuts-only editing Editing limited to continuous analog video or audio sig-
immediate shifts from one scene to nal to digital data for computer storage
another, without smoother image tran- and manipulation.
sition capabilities such as dissolving digitizer Device that imports and con-
or wiping. [See cut, edit] verts analog video images into digital
information for hard drive-based technique whereby new audio or

editing. video replaces a portion(s) of existing
directional light Light that illuminates recording.
in a relatively small area with distinct DV (Digital Video) With a capital “D” and
light beam; usually created with spot- a capital “V,” DV is a specific video for-
light, yields harsh, defined shadows. mat; both a tape format (like Hi8) and a
dissolve Image transition effect of one data format specification.
picture gradually disappearing as DVE (Digital Video Effect) Electronic
another appears. Analogous to audio special effects and picture modification
and lighting cross-fade. [See cross-fade] yielding specialty image patterns and
distribution amp (distribution amplifier) maneuvers, such as tumbling, strobing,
Divides single video or audio signals, page turning, mosaic, posterization,
while boosting their strength, for deliv- solarization, etc. [See F/X]
ery to multiple audio/video acceptors. dynamic mike A rugged microphone
Allows simultaneous recording on whose transducer consists of a dia-
multiple VCR’s from the same source, phragm connected to a moveable coil.
especially useful for tape duplication. ED Beta (extended definition Beta)
DivX ;-) A recent codec for MPEG-4 Improved version of the original half-
video, developed on the Internet. inch Betamax video format, yielding
dolly Camera movement toward or away sharper pictures with 500-line resolu-
from a subject. The effect may seem to tion. [See Betamax]
be the same as zooming, but dollying edit Process or result of selectively record-
in or out results in a more dramatic ing video and/or audio on finished vid-
change in perspective than using the eotape. Typically involves reviewing
zoom. raw footage and transferring desired
dollying Camera movement toward or segments from a master tape(s) onto a
away from a subject. Effect may appear new tape in a predetermined sequence.
same as zooming, which reduces and [See assemble edit, in-camera editing]
magnifies the image, but dollying in edit control protocols Types of signals
or out maintains perspective while designed to communicate between
changing picture size. editing components, including comput-
dongle A device that prevents the unau- ers, tape decks and camcorders. Allows
thorized use of hardware or software. components to transmit instructions for
A dongle usually consists of a small various operations such as play, stop,
cord attached to a device or key that fast forward, rewind, record, pause, etc.
secures the hardware. The term is also edit controller Electronic programmer
used to signify a generic adapter for used in conjunction with VCRs/cam-
peripherals. corders to facilitate automated linear
download and play A way of view- videotape editing with speed, preci-
ing Web video that requires a user to sion and convenience.
download a video before playing it. edit decision list (EDL) Handwritten or
Download and play files are usually computer-generated compilation of
higher quality than streamed video. all edits (marked by their time code in
dropout Videotape signal voids, viewed points and out points) to be executed
as fleeting white specks or streaks. in a video production.
Usually result of minute “bare spots” edited master Original recorded vid-
on a tape’s magnetic particle coating, eotape footage; “edited master” implies
or tape debris covering particles and original copy of tape in its edited form.
blocking signals. Duplications constitute generational
DTV Desktop video. differences.
dub [1] Process or result of duplicating editing appliance A self-contained
a videotape in its entirety. [2] Editing machine, essentially a small computer,
Glossary 355
which only edits video. Editing appli- equalize To emphasize, lessen or elimi-
ances usually contain most features nate certain audio frequencies.
found in standard computer-based edit- essential area Boundaries within which
ing systems. contents of a television picture are sure
EDL (edit decision list) Handwritten or to be seen, regardless of masking differ-
computer-generated compilation of ences in receiver displays. Also called
all edits (marked by their time code the “critical area” or “safe action area,”
in points and out points) planned for it encompasses the inner 80 percent of
execution in a video production. the screen.
EFP (electronic field production) Film- establishing shot Opening image of a
style production approach using a program or scene. Usually, it’s a wide
single camera to record on location. and/or distant perspective that ori-
Typically shot for post-production ents viewers to the overall setting and
application, non-live feed. surroundings.
EIS (electronic image stabilization) A extra Accessory talent not essential to a
process of limiting shaky camera shots production, assuming some peripheral
with digital processing within a cam- on-camera role. In movie work, per-
corder. [See OIS] formers with fewer than five lines are
electret condenser Microphone type in- called “under fives.”
corporating a pre-charged element, elim- f-stop Numbers corresponding to variable
inating need for bulky power sources. size of a camera’s iris opening, and thus
[See condenser] the amount of light passing through
electronic image stabilization (EIS) A the lens. The higher the number, the
process that limits shaky camera shots smaller the iris diameter, which means
with digital processing found within a less light enters the camcorder.
camcorder. [See OIS] F/X Special effects. Visual tricks and
encoder Device that translates a video illusions—electronic or on camera—
signal into a different format—RGB to employed in film and video to define,
composite, DV to MPEG, etc. distort or defy reality.
encoding The actual process of com- fade Gradual diminishing or heightening
pressing video for streaming or for of visual and/or audio intensity. “Fade
downloading. out” or “fade to black,” “fade in” or “up
ENG (electronic news gathering) Use from black” are common terms.
of portable video cameras, lighting feed Act or result of transmitting a video
and sound equipment to record news signal from one point to another.
events in the field quickly, conveniently feedback [1: video] Infinite loop of vis-
and efficiently. ual patterns from signal output being
enhancer (image enhancer) Video signal fed back as input; achieved by aiming
processor that compensates for picture live camera at receiving monitor. [2:
detail losses and distortion occurring audio] Echo effect at low levels, howl
in recording and playback. Exaggerates or piercing squeal at extremes, from
transitions between light and dark areas audio signal being fed back to itself.
by enhancing high frequency region of field Half a scanning cycle. Two fields
video spectrum. comprise a complete video frame.
EP (extended play) Slowest tape speed Composed of either all odd lines or all
of a VHS VCR, accommodating six- even lines.
hour recordings. [See LP, SP] field of view Extent of a shot that is vis-
equalization Emphasizing specific audio ible through a particular lens; its vista.
or video frequencies and eliminating fill light Supplementary illumination,
others as signal control measure, usu- usually from a soft light positioned
ally to produce particular sonic quali- to the side of the subject, which light-
ties. Achieved with equalizer. ens shadows created by the key light.
[See backlight, key light, three-point DV-family equipment has flying erase
lighting] heads.
film-style Out-of-sequence shooting focal length Distance from a camcorder’s
approach, to be edited in appropri- lens to a focused image with the lens
ate order at post-production stage. focused on infinity. Short focal lengths
Advantageous for concentrating on and offer a broad field of view (wide angle);
completing recording at one location long focal lengths offer a narrow field
at a time, continuity and convenience of view (telephoto). Zoom lenses have
assured. a variable focal length.
filter Transparent or semi-transparent follow focus Controlling lens focus so
material, typically glass, mounted at the that an image maintains sharpness and
front of a camcorder’s lens to change clarity despite camcorder and/or sub-
light passing through. Manipulates ject movement.
colors and image patterns, often for foot-candle A unit of illumination equal
special effect purposes. to the light emitted by a candle at the
filter effect Digital effect added to colorize distance of one foot. One foot-candle
or otherwise alter a clip in post- equals 10.764 lux. [See lux]
production. format Videotape and video equipment
FireWire (IEEE 1394 or i.LINK) A high- design differences—physical and tech-
speed bus that was developed by nical—dictating compatibility and qual-
Apple Computer. It is used, among ity. In the most basic sense, refers to
other things, to connect digital cam- standardized tape widths, videocassette
corders to computers. sizes. [See Betamax, D1/D2, 8 mm,
fishpole A small, lightweight arm to three-quarter-inch, VHS]
which a microphone is attached, FPS (frames per second) Measures the
hand-held by an audio assistant out- rate or speed of video or film. Film
side of the picture frame. is typically shot and played back at
flare Bright flashes evident in video. 24 FPS. Video is recorded and played
Caused by excessive light beaming back at 30 FPS.
into a camera’s lens and reflecting off frame [1] One complete image. In NTSC
its internal glass elements. video a frame is composed of two fields.
flat lighting Illumination characterized One 30th of a second. [2] The viewable
by even, diffused light without shad- area or composition of an image.
ows, highlights or contrast. May framing Act of composing a shot in a
impede viewer’s sense of depth, camcorder’s viewfinder for desired
dimension. content, angle and field of view.
floodlight Radiates a diffused, scattered freeze frame Single frame paused and
blanket of light with soft, indistinct displayed for an extended period dur-
shadows. Best used to spread illumi- ing video playback; suspended motion
nation on broad areas, whereas spot- perceived as still snapshot.
lights focus on individual subjects. frequency Number of vibrations pro-
fluid head Tripod mount type containing duced by a signal or sound, usually
viscous fluid which lubricates moving expressed as cycles per second, or
parts, dampens friction. Design facili- hertz (Hz).
tates smooth camera moves, alleviates frequency response Measure of the range
jerkiness. [See friction head] of frequencies a medium can respond
flying erase head Accessory video head to and reproduce. Good video response
mounted on spinning head drum, maintains picture detail; good audio
incorporated in many camcorders and response accommodates the broadest
VCRs to eliminate glitches and rain- range, most exacting sound.
bow noise between scenes recorded or friction head Tripod mount type with
edited. By design, all 8 mm-family and strong spring that counterbalances
Glossary 357
camera weight, relying on friction to grain Blanketed signal noise viewed as

hold its position. More appropriate fuzziness, unsmooth images—attribut-
for still photography than movement- able to lumination inadequacies.
oriented videomaking. [See fluid grip Production crew stagehand respon-
head] sible for handling equipment, props
full-motion video A standard for video and scenery before, during and after
playback on a computer; refers to production.
smooth-flowing, full-color video at 30 group master fader A volume control
frames per second, regardless of the on an audio board that handles a sub-
screen resolution. group of input channels before they
gaffer Production crew technician are sent to the master fader.
responsible for placement and rigging handheld mike A microphone that a
of all lighting instruments. person holds to speak or sing into.
gain Video amplification, signal strength. hard disk Common digital storage com-
“Riding gain” means varying controls ponent in a computer.
to achieve desired contrast levels. HDMI High Definition Multimedia Inter-
GB (Gigabyte) Giga- is a prefix that face. A connection type that combines
means one billion, so a Gigabyte is high-definition video and multi-chan-
1,000,000,000 bytes. Most commonly nel audio into a single cable.
used to measure hard disk space. HDTV (high-definition television) a
gel Colored material placed in front of television system standard affording
a light source to alter its hue. Useful greater resolution for sharper pictures
for special effects and correcting mis- and wide-screen viewing via specially
matches in lighting, as in scenes lit by designed TV equipment.
both daylight and artificial light. HDV High Definition Video. A video-
generation Relationship between a mas- tape format that records1080i or 720 p
ter video recording and a given copy using MPEG-2 compression video on
of that master. A copy of a copy of the DV tape.
original master constitutes a second- head Electromagnetic component within
generation duplication. camcorders and VCRs that records,
generation loss Degradation in picture receives and erases video and audio
and sound quality resulting from an signals on magnetic tape.
analog duplication of original master headroom Space between the top of a
video recording. Copying a copy and subject’s head and a monitor’s upper-
all successive duplication compounds screen edge. Too much headroom
generation loss. Digital transfers are makes the subject appear to fall out of
free of generation loss. the frame.
genlock (generator locking device) Syn- hi-fi (high fidelity) Generalized term
chronizes two video sources, allowing defining audio quality approaching
part or all of their signals to be dis- the limits of human hearing, pertinent
played together. Necessary for overlay- to high-quality sound reproduction
ing computer graphics with video, for systems.
example. Hi8 (high-band 8 mm) Improved version
ghosting Undesirable faint double of 8 mm videotape format character-
screen image caused by signal reflec- ized by higher luminance resolution
tion or improperly balanced video cir- for a sharper picture. Compact “con-
cuitry. “Ringing” appears as repeated ceptual equivalent” of Super-VHS.
image edges. [See 8 mm]
giraffe A small boom that consists of a high impedance A characteristic of micro-
counterweighted arm supported by a phones that have a great deal of opposi-
tripod, usually on casters. tion to the flow of alternating current
glitch Momentary picture disturbance. through them and therefore must have
short cables; they are less likely to be index search system) or as scenes are
used in professional situations than low played back (VASS: VHS address
impedance microphones. search system).
hiss Primary background signal interfer- input channel On an audio board, the
ence in audio recording, result of cir- control into which a microphone, tape
cuit noise from a playback recorder’s recorder or other source is plugged.
amplifiers or from a tape’s residual insert edit Recording video and/or audio
magnetism. on tape over a portion of existing foot-
horizontal resolution Specification denot- age without disturbing what precedes
ing amount of discernable detail across and follows. Must replace recording of
a screen’s width. Measured in pixels, same length.
the higher the number, the better the interlace To split a TV picture into two
picture quality. fields of odd and even lines. Under the
IEEE 1394 (Institute of Electrical and interlaced method, every other line is
Electronics Engineers) Pronounced scanned during the first pass, then the
“eye-triple-E thirteen-ninety-four” the remaining lines are scanned in the sec-
institute establishes standards and pro- ond pass. All analog TV formats (NTSC,
tocols for a wide range of computer PAL and SECAM) use interlaced video.
and communications technologies, interlaced video Process of scanning
including IEEE 1394, which is a speci- frames in two passes, each painting
fication FireWire data transmission every other line on the screen, with
widely used in DV. Sony refers to the scan lines alternately displayed in
ports on its products with the propri- even and odd fields. NTSC video is
etary term “i.LINK.” interlaced; most computers produce a
image enhancer Video signal proces- noninterlaced video signal. [See non-
sor that compensates for picture detail interlaced video]
losses and distortion occurring in iris Camcorder’s lens opening or aper-
recording and playback. Exaggerates ture, regulates amount of light enter-
transitions between light and dark ing camera. Diameter is measured in
areas by enhancing high frequency f-stops. [See f-stop]
region of video spectrum. jack Any female socket or receptacle,
image sensor A video camera’s image usually on the backside of video and
sensing element, either CCD (charge audio equipment; accepts plug for cir-
coupled device) or MOS (metal oxide cuit connection.
semiconductor); converts light to elec- jitter Video image aberration seen as
trical energy. [See CCD] slight, fast, vertical or horizontal shift-
impedance Opposition to the flow of an ing of a picture or portion of one.
audio signal in a microphone and its jog/shuttle Manual control on some
cable. VCRs, facilitates viewing and editing
in-camera editing Assembling finished precision and convenience. Jog ring
program “on the fly” as you videotape moves tape short distances to show a
simply by activating and pausing cam- frame at a time; shuttle dial transports
corder’s record function. tape forward or reverse more rapidly
incident light That which emanates for faster scanning.
directly from a light source. Measured jump cut Unnatural, abrupt switch
from the object it strikes to the source. between shots identical in subject but
[See reflected light] slightly different in screen location,
indexing Ability of some VCRs to elec- so the subject appears to jump from
tronically mark specific points on one screen location to another. Can be
videotape for future access, either dur- remedied with a cutaway or shot from
ing the recording process (VISS: VHS a different angle.
Glossary 359
Kelvin Temperature scale used to define LP (long play) Middle tape speed of a
the color of a light source; abbreviated VHS VCR, accommodating four-hour
as “K.” [See color temperature] recordings. [See EP, SP]
key light Principal illumination source LTC (longitudinal time code) Frame
on a subject or scene. Normally identification numbers encoded as
positioned slightly off-center and audio signals and recorded lengthwise
angled to provide shadow detail. on the edge of a tape, typically on a lin-
(See backlight, fill light, three-point ear audio track of VHS or S-VHS tape.
lighting) [See time code, VITC]
keyframe A complete image, used as a luminance Black-and-white portion of
reference for subsequent images. To video signal, carries brightness infor-
keep the data rate low, other frames mation representing picture contrast,
only have data for the parts of the pic- light and dark qualities; frequently
ture that change. abbreviated as “Y.”
keystoning Perspective distortion from lux A metric unit of illumination equal
a flat object being shot by a camera to the light of a candle falling on a
at other than a perpendicular angle. surface of one square meter. One lux
Nearer portion of object appears larger equals 0.0929 foot-candle.
than farther apart. macro Lens capable of extreme closeup
Killer app An application of such tech- focusing, useful for intimate views of
nological importance and wide accep- small subjects.
tance that it surpasses (i.e., kills) its master Original recorded videotape
competitors. footage; “edited master” implies origi-
lag Camera pickup’s retention of an nal tape in its edited form.
image after the camera has been master fader The audio volume control
moved, most common under low that is located after all the input chan-
light levels. Comet tailing is a form of nel controls and after the submaster
lag. controls.
lapel mike A small mike often clipped matched dissolve Dissolve from one
inside clothing or on a tie or lapel. image to another that’s similar in
lavalier A small mike that can be worn appearance or shot size.
around the neck on a cord. media player A program that plays back
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) Commonly audio or video. Examples include
used in digital watches, camcorder Microsoft Windows Media Player,
viewscreens and laptop computer Apple’s QuickTime Player and
screens, LCD panels are light-weight RealPlayer.
and low-power display devices. medium shot (MS) Defines any camera
LiIon (Lithium Ion) The most common perspective between long shot and
battery type among new camcord- closeup, viewing the subjects from a
ers. More expensive, but has a higher medium distance.
capacity and fewer memory rechanging memory effect Power-loss phenomenon
problems. alleged of NiCad—camcorder batter-
linear editing Tape-based VCR-to-VCR ies, attributed to precisely repetitive
editing. Called linear because scenes partial discharge followed by complete
are recorded in chronological order on recharge, or long-term overcharge.
the tape. Considered a misnomer for “voltage
lip sync Proper synchronization of video depression” and “cell imbalance.”
with audio—lip movement with audi- MIDI (musical instrument digital inter-
ble speech. face) System of communication between
long shot (LS) Camera view of a subject digital electronic instruments allow-
or scene from a distance, showing a ing synchronization and distribution of
broad perspective. musical information.
mike (also “mic”) short for microphone. more bluish qualities. [See artificial
mix [1: audio] Combining sound light, color temperature]
sources to achieve a desired program neutral-density filter (ND) Mounted at
balance. Finished output may be front of camcorder lens, reduces light
mono, stereo or surround. [2: video] intensity without affecting its color
Combining video signals from two or qualities. [See filter]
more sources. NiCad (nickel cadmium) Abbreviation
model release Agreement to be signed coined and popularized by SAFT
by anyone appearing in a video work, America for lightweight camcorder bat-
protecting videomaker from right of tery type designed to maintain power
privacy lawsuit. Specifies event, date, longer than traditional lead-acid bat-
compensation provisions, and rights teries. Rare among new camcorders,
being waived. supplanted by Li-Ion and NiMH.
monitor [1: video] Television set without NiMH (nickel metal hydride) Battery
receiving circuitry, wired to camcorder technology similar to NiCad, but more
or VCR for display of live or recorded environmentally friendly, with higher
video signals. Most standard TVs have capacity and fewer memory recharg-
dual-function capability as monitor ing problems.
and receiver. [See receiver] [2: audio] NLE (nonlinear editor/editing) Hard drive-
Synonymous with speaker. based editing system defined by its
monopod One-legged camera support. ability to randomly access and insert
[See tripod] video in any order at any time. This is
montage A sequence of shots assembled in contrast to linear, tape-to-tape edit-
in juxtaposition to each other to coming which requires rewinding and fast
municate a particular idea or mood. forwarding to access material.
Often bridged with cross-fades and set noise Unwanted sound or static in an
to music. audio signal or unwanted electronic
mosaic Electronic special effect whereby disturbance of snow in the video signal.
individual pixels comprising an image noninterlaced video Process of scanning
are blown up into larger blocks—a complete frames in one pass, paint-
kind of checkerboard effect. ing every line on the screen, yielding
MPEG (MPEG-1) A video compression higher picture quality than that of inter-
standard set by the Moving Picture laced video. Most computers produce
Experts Group. It involves changing a noninterlaced video signal; NTSC is
only those elements of a video image interlaced. AKA progressive scan.
that actually change from frame to nonlinear editing Digital random access
frame and leaving everything else in editing that uses a hard drive instead
the image the same. of tape to store video. Random access
MPEG-2 The highest quality digital allows easy arrangement of scenes in
video compression currently available. any order. It also eliminates the need
MPEG-2 is less blocky than MPEG-1 for rewinding and allows for multiple
and is used in DVDs and DBS satellite dubs without generation loss.
TV systems. nonsynchronous sound Audio without
MPEG-4 A recent data compression for- precisely matching visuals. Usually
mat that can get better quality out of a recorded separately, includes wild
given amount of bandwidth. MPEG-4 sound, sound effects, or music incor-
can compress a feature film onto a CD- porated in post-production. [See syn-
ROM disc with VHS quality. chronous sound]
natural light Planetary illumination— nose room The distance between the
from the sun, the moon, stars—whether subject and the edge of the frame in
indoors or out. Has higher color tem- the direction the subject is looking.
perature than artificial light, and thus Also called “look room.”
Glossary 361
NTSC (National Television Standards phono plug (RCA) Shrouded male con-
Committee) U.S. television broad- nector used for audio and video con-
casting specifications. NTSC refers to nections. Frequently referred to as
all video systems conforming to this RCA plugs, they only come in one
525-line 59.94-field-per-second signal size. Not to be confused with phone
standard. [See PAL, SECAM] plugs.
off-line Until recently, the low quality of pickup [1] A video camera’s image sens-
computer video images limits the DTV ing element, either CCD (charge cou-
computer to “off-line” work. That is, pled device) or MOS (metal oxide
making the edit-point decisions (EDL) semiconductor); converts light to elec-
for use in a later “on-line” session, trical energy. [See CCD] [2] A micro-
using the original tapes to assemble phone’s sound reception.
the edit master. Today’s editing sys- pickup pattern Defines a microphone’s
tems are capable of on-line quality out- response to sounds arriving from vari-
put by themsleves, relegating this term ous directions or angles. [See omnidi-
to history. rectional, unidirectional]
OIS (optical image stabilization) A pro- PiP (picture in picture, p-in-p, pix in
cess of limiting shaky camera shots pix) Image from a second video source
with mechanical movement of the inset on a screen’s main picture, the
optical system within a camcorder. big and small pictures usually being
[See EIS] interchangeable.
omnidirectional A microphone that picks playback Videotaped material viewed
up sound from all directions. and heard as recorded, facilitated by
outtake Footage not to be included in camcorder or VCR.
final production. playback VCR Playback source of raw
over-the-shoulder shot View of the pri- video footage (master or workprint)
mary subject with the back of another in basic player/recorder editing setup.
person’s shoulder and head in the [See recording VCR]
foreground. Often used in interview point-of-view shot (POV) Shot perspec-
situations. tive whereby the video camera assumes
PAL (phase alternate line) 625-line a subject’s view and thus viewers see
50-field-per-second television signal what the subject sees.
standard used in Europe and South polarizing filter Mounted at the front of
America. Incompatible with NTSC. the camcorder lens, thwarts undesir-
[See NTSC, SECAM] able glare and reflections. [See filter]
pan Horizontal camera pivot, right to post-production (post) Any video pro-
left or left to right, from a stationary duction activity following initial
position. recording. Typically involves editing,
PCM (pulse code modulation) A popu- addition of background music, voice-
lar method of encoding digital audio. over, sound effects, titles and/or vari-
[See AFM] ous electronic visual effects. Results
pedestal A camera move vertically in completed production.
lowering or raising the camcorder, posterization Electronic special effect
approaching either the floor or ceiling, transforming a normal video image
while keeping the camera level. into a collage of flattened single-
phone plug Sturdy male connector com- colored areas, without gradations of
patible with audio accessories, partic- color and brightness.
ularly for insertion of microphone and POV (point of view) The apparent posi-
headphone cables. Frequently referred tion of the observer in a shoot that
to by its sizes, usually 1/4-inch and defines the camera’s position.
1/8-inch. Not to be confused with pre-roll [1] Slight backing-up func-
phono plug. tion of camcorders and VCRs when
preparing for linear tape-to-tape edit- RAM (Random Access Memory) The
ing; ensures smooth, uninterrupted short-term memory of a computer
transitions between scenes. which temporarily holds information
preamp An electronic device that mag- while your computer is on. Distinct
nifies the low signal output of micro- from storage, which is more perma-
phones and other transducers before nent and is held on hard disks or some
the signal is sent to a mixing board or other media, such as CD-ROM.
to other amplifiers. raw footage Pre-edited footage, usually
proc amp (processing amplifier) Video direct from the camcorder.
image processor that boosts video sig- RCA plug (Recording Corporation of
nal’s luminance, chroma, and sync America) A popular cable connector
components to correct such problems for home audio as well as video com-
as low light, weak color or wrong tint. ponents. The standard connection
progressive scan A method of displaying for direct audio/video inputs and
the horizontal video lines in computer outputs.
displays and digital TV broadcasts. RCTC (rewritable consumer time code)
Each horizontal line is displayed in The time-code format used with 8 mm
sequence (1, 2, 3, etc.), until the screen and Hi8 formats.
is filled; as opposed to interlaced (e.g., reaction shot A cutaway to someone
first fields of odd-numbered lines, then showing his or her facial response to
fields of even-numbered lines). the primary action or subject.
props Short for “properties,” objects real time Occurring immediately, with-
used either in decorating a set (set out delay for rendering. If a transition
props) or by talent (hand props). occurs in real time, there is no wait-
PZM (pressure zone microphone) Small, ing; the computer creates the effect or
sensitive condenser mike, usually transition on the fly, showing it imme-
attached to a metal backing plate. diately. Real-time previewing is differ-
Senses air pressure changes in the tiny ent from real-time rendering.
gap between mike element and plate. real-time counter Tallying device that
Trademark of Crown International. accounts for videotape playing/record-
Generically, “boundary microphone” ing by measure of hours, minutes and
is preferred. seconds.
QuickTime Computer system software RealNetworks Developed the leading
that defines a format for video and streaming technology for transmitting
audio data, so different applications live video over the Internet using a
can open and play synchronized sound variety of data compression techniques
and movie files. and works with IP and IP Multicast
rack focus Shifting focus between sub- connections.
jects in the background and foreground RealPlayer A program developed by
so a viewer’s attention moves from RealNetworks to play live and on-
subject to subject as the focus shifts. demand RealAudio and RealVideo
RAID Acronym for Redundant Array files.
of Independent Disks. Hard drives RealVideo A streaming technology
installed in multiples that are accessed developed by RealNetworks for trans-
as a single volume. RAID 0 systems mitting live video over the Internet.
(stripe sets) are common in higher-end RealVideo uses a variety of data com-
video editing systems, as they allow pression algorithms.
for faster access to video. Other RAID recording VCR Recipient of raw video
configurations are used in some serv- feed (master or workprint) and
ers to keep important data accessible recorder of edited videotape in basic
and protected, allowing access to data player/recorder editing setup. [See
even after one of the hard drives crash. playback VCR]
Glossary 363
reflected light That which bounces off the RM (Real Media) A popular file for-
illuminated subject. Light redirected by mat used for streaming video over the
a reflector. [See incident light] Internet.
reflector Lighting accessory help- roll Text or graphics, usually credits,
ful for bouncing light onto a subject. that move up or down the screen, typi-
Often made of lightweight reflective cally from bottom to top.
material. rough cut Preliminary edit of footage in
remote Video shoot performed on loca- the approximate sequence, length and
tion, outside of a controlled studio content of a finished program.
environment. rule of thirds Composition theory based
render The processing a computer under- on dividing the screen into thirds ver-
takes when creating an applied effect, tically and horizontally and the place-
transition or composite. ment of the main subject along those
render time The time it takes an editing lines.
computer to composite source elements S-video Also known as Y/C video, signal
and commands into a single video file so type employed with Hi8 and S-VHS
the sequence, including titles and tran- video formats. Transmits luminance
sition effects, can play in full motion. (Y) and chrominance (C) portions
resolution Amount of picture detail separately via multiple wires (pins),
reproduced by a video system, influ- thereby avoiding the NTSC encoding
enced by a camera’s pickup, lens, process and its inevitable picture-qual-
internal optics, recording medium and ity degradation.
playback monitor. The more detail, the S/N Ratio Relationship between sig-
sharper and better defined the picture. nal strength and a medium’s inherent
[See horizontal resolution] noise. Video S/N indicates how grainy
Rewritable Consumer (RC) Time code or snowy a picture will be, plus color
sent through Control-L interface per- accuracy; audio S/N specifies amount
mitting extremely accurate edits. Each of background tape hiss present with
frame is assigned a unique address low- or no-volume recordings.
expressed in hours:minutes:seconds: safe title area The recommended area
frames. that will produce legible titles on most
RF (radio frequency) Combination of TV screens; 80 percent of the visible
audio and video signals coded as a area, measured from the center.
channel number, necessary for televi- scan converter Device that changes scan
sion broadcasts as well as some closed- rate of a video signal, possibly convert-
circuit distribution. ing it from noninterlaced to interlaced
RF converter Device that converts audio mode. Allows computer graphics to be
and video signals into a combined displayed on a standard video screen.
RF signal suitable for reception by a scan line Result of television’s swift
standard TV. scanning process which sweeps out a
RGB (red, green, blue) Video signal series of horizontal lines from left to
transmission system that differentiates right, then down a bit and left to right
and processes all color information in again. Complete NTSC picture consists
separate red, green and blue compo- of 525 scan lines per frame.
nents—the primary color of light—for scan rate Number of times a screen is
optimum image quality. Also defines “redrawn” per second. Computer dis-
type of color monitor. plays operate at different scan rates
ringing Undesirable faint double screen than standard video.
image caused by signal reflection or scene In the language of moving images,
improperly balanced video circuitry. a sequence of related shots usually
“Ringing” appears as repeated image constituting action in one particular
edges. location. [See shot]
scrim Lighting accessory made of wire clear glass absorbs ultraviolet light.
mesh. Lessens intensity of light source Also excellent as constant lens protec-
without softening it. Half scrims and tor. [See filter]
graduated scrims reduce illumination SMPTE Time-code standard which
in more specific areas. addresses every frame on a video-
script Text specifying content of a pro- tape with a unique number (in hours,
duction or performance, used as a minutes, seconds, frames) to aid log-
guide. May include character and ging and editing. Format used for
setting profiles, production direc- film, video and audio. Named for
tives (audio, lighting, scenery, cam- the Society of Motion Picture and
era moves), as well as dialogue to be Television Engineers, which sanctions
recited by talent. [See storyboard] standards for recording systems in
SECAM (sequential color and memory) North America.
625-line 25-frame-per-second televi- snake A connector box that contains
sion signal standard used in France a large number of microphone input
and the Soviet Republic. Incompatible receptacles.
with NTSC; PAL and SECAM are par- snoot Open-ended cylindrical funnel
tially compatible. [See NTSC, PAL] mounted on a light source to project
SEG (special effects generator) Permits a narrow, concentrated circle of
video signal mixing from two or more illumination.
sources—cameras, time-base correctors snow Electronic picture interference;
and character generators—for dissolves, resembles scattered snow on the tele-
wipes and other transition effects. vision screen. Synonymous with
selective focus Adjusting focus to empha- chroma and luma noise.
size desired subject(s) in a shot. solarization Electronic special effect dis-
Selected area maintains clarity, image torting a video image’s original colors,
sharpness while remainder of image emphasizing some and de-emphasiz-
blurs. Useful for directing viewers’ ing others for a “paint brush” effect.
attention. [See DVE]
sepia Brassy antique color effect charac- sound bite Any short recorded audio
teristic of old photographs. segment for use in an edited program—
shooting ratio Amount of raw footage usually a highlight taken from an
recorded relative to the amount used interview.
in edited, finished program. sound effects Contrived audio, usu-
shot Intentional, isolated camera views, ally prerecorded, incorporated with
which collectively comprise a scene. a video soundtrack to resemble a real
[See scene] occurrence. Blowing on a microphone,
shotgun A highly directional microphone for example, might simulate wind to
used for picking up sounds from a accompany hurricane images.
distance. soundtrack The audio portion of a video
signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) Relationship recording, often multifaceted with nat-
between signal strength and a medi- ural sound, voiceovers, background
um’s inherent noise. Video S/N indi- music, sound effects, etc.
cates how grainy or snowy a picture SP (standard play) Fastest tape speed of
will be, plus its color accuracy; audio a VHS VCR, accommodating two-hour
S/N specifies amount of background recordings. [See EP, LP]
tape hiss present with low- or no- special effects F/X. Tricks and illusions —
volume recordings. Higher figures electronic or on camera—employed
represent a cleaner signal. Usually cited in film and video to define, distort, or
in decibels (dB). defy reality.
Skylight (1A) or haze (UV) filter Mounted special effects generator (SEG) Video
at front of camcorder lens, virtually signal processor with vast, but varying,
Glossary 365
image manipulation capabilities sweetening Post-production process of

involving patterns and placement as adding music and sound effects or oth-
well as color and texture: mixing, mul- erwise enhancing the existing audio
tiplying, shrinking, strobing, wiping, with filters and effects.
dissolving, flipping, colorizing, etc. swish pan Extremely rapid camera
spotlight Radiates a well-defined direc- movement from left to right or right
tional beam of light, casting hard, to left, appearing as image blur. Two
distinct shadows. Best used to focus such pans in the same direction—one
illumination on individual subjects, moving from, the other moving to, a
whereas floodlights blanket broader stationary shot—edited together can
areas. effectively convey passage of time or
stabilizer Video signal processor used change of location.
primarily for tape dubbing to elimi- switcher Simplified SEG, permits video
nate picture jump and jitter, maintain signal mixing from two or more
stability. sources—cameras, time base correc-
star Filter mounted at front of camcorder tors, character generators—for dis-
lens, gives videotaped light sources a solves, wipes and other clean transition
starburst effect. Generally available in effects.
four-, six-, and eight-point patterns. sync (synchronization) Horizontal and
[See filter] vertical timing signals or electronic
stereo Sound emanating from two iso- pulses—component of composite sig-
lated sources, intended to simulate nal, supplied separately in RGB sys-
pattern of natural human hearing. tems. Aligns video origination (live
stock shot Common footage—city traf- camera, videotape) and reproduction
fic, a rainbow—conveniently accessed (monitor or receiver) sources.
as needed. Similar to a “photo file” in synchronous sound Audio recorded
the photography profession. with images. When the mouth moves,
storyboard Series of cartoon-like sketches the words come out.
illustrating key visual stages (shots, talent Generic term for the people assum-
scenes) of planned production, accom- ing on-screen roles in a videotaping.
panied by corresponding audio infor- tally light Automatic indicators (usually
mation. [See script] red) on a camera’s front and within
Streaming Playing sound or video in its viewfinder that signal recording
real time as it is downloaded over in progress—seen by both camera
the Internet as opposed to storing it subject(s) and operator.
in a local file first. Avoids download telecine converter Imaging device used
delay. in conjunction with a movie projector
strobe Digital variation of fixed-speed and camcorder to transfer film images
slow motion, with image action bro- to videotape.
ken down into a series of still frames telephoto Camera lens with long focal
updated and replaced with new ones length and narrow horizontal field of
at rapid speed. view. Opposite of wide-angle, captures
Super VHS (S-VHS, S-VHS-C) Improved magnified, close-up images from a
version of VHS and VHS-C videotape considerable distance.
formats, characterized by separate car- teleprompter (prompter) Mechanical
riers of chrominance and luminance device that projects and advances text
information, yielding a sharper picon mirror directly in front of camera’s
ture. [See VHS, VHS-C] lens, allowing talent to read their lines
superimposition (super) Titles, video or while appearing to maintain eye con-
graphics appearing over an existing tact with viewers.
video picture, partially or completely test pattern Any of various combinations
hiding areas they cover. of converging lines, alignment marks,
and gray scales appearing on screen to the length of the clip represent video
to aid in video equipment adjustment and audio clips are represented on a
for picture alignment, registration, computer screen.
and contrast. Often viewed on broad- titling Process or result of incorporating
cast television in off-air hours. [See on-screen text as credits, captions or
color bars] any other alphanumeric communica-
three-point lighting Basic lighting tion to video viewers.
approach employing key, fill and back- tracking Lateral camcorder movement
lights to illuminate subject with sense that travels with a moving subject. The
of depth and texture. Strategic place- camcorder should maintain a regu-
ment imitates natural outdoor lighting lated distance from the subject.
environment, avoids flat lighting. [See transcode To convert analog video to a
backlight, fill light, key light] digital format, or vice versa.
three-quarter-inch (U-matic) An analog tripod Three-legged camera mount
video format utilizing 3/4" tape. Very offering stability and camera place-
popular in professional, industrial and ment/movement consistency. Most are
broadcast environments in the past, lightweight, used for remote recording.
though beginning to be supplanted by [See monopod]
digital formats. turnkey DVD authoring system Any
three-shot Camera view including three computer system designed to author
subjects, generally applicable to inter- (and usually burn) DVDs right out of
view situations. the box, needing only trivial changes
three-to-one rule A microphone place- in its configuration.
ment principle that states if two mikes turnkey nonlinear editing system Any
must be side by side, there should be computer system designed to edit
three times the distance between them video right out of the box, needing only
that there is between the mikes and trivial changes in its configuration.
the people using them. turnkey system Any computer system
tilt Vertical camcorder rotation (up which is considered ready-to-use right
and down) from a single axis, as on a out of the box, needing only trivial
tripod. changes in its configuration.
time base corrector (TBC) Electronic two-shot A camera view including two
device that corrects timing inconsisten- subjects, generally applicable to inter-
cies in a videotape recorder’s playback, view situations.
stabilizing the image for optimum qual- U-matic An analog video format utilizing
ity. Also synchronizes video sources, 3/4" tape. Very popular in professional,
allowing image mixing. [See sync] industrial and broadcast environments
time code Synchronization system, like in the past, though beginning to be
a clock recorded on your videotape, supplanted by digital formats.
assigning a corresponding hours, min- umbrella Lighting accessory available in
utes, seconds and frame-number desig- various sizes usually made of textured
nation to each frame. Expedites indexing gold or silver fabric. Facilitates soft,
convenience and editing precision. [See shadowless illumination by reflecting
SMPTE] light onto a scene.
time-lapse recording Periodically vid- unbalanced line Audio cables that have
eotaping a minimal number of frames two wires: one for positive and one for
over long durations of actual time. both negative and ground.
Upon playback, slow processes such unidirectional Highly selective micro-
as a flower blooming may be viewed phone pickup pattern, rejects sound
in rapid motion. coming from behind while absorbing
timeline editing A computer-based method that from in front. [See bidirectional,
of editing, in which bars proportional omnidirectional]
Glossary 367
variable bit rate (VBR) A way of coding peering through a telescope, due to
video to maximize image quality over improper matching of lens to camera—
a connection’s available bandwidth, pickup’s scope exceeds lens size.
usually provided by more recent VITC (vertical interval time code) Syn-
codecs. chronization signal recorded as an
VCR (videocassette recorder) Multi- invisible component of the video signal,
function machine intended primarily accessed for editing precision. [See LTC]
for recording and playback of vid- VOD Abbreviation for Video on Demand.
eotape stored in cassettes. Usually only heard in the context of
vectorscope Electronic testing device delivering full-frame, full-motion video
that measures a video signal’s chromi- to a television; since most video on the
nance performance, plotting qualities Internet is provided on-demand.
in a compass-like graphic display. voiceover (VO) Audio from an unseen
vertical interval time code (VITC) narrator accompanying video, heard
Synchronization signals recorded as above background sound or music.
an invisible component of the video Typically applied to edited visuals
signal, accessed for editing precision. during post-production.
[See time code] waveform monitor Specialized oscillo-
VHS (video home system) Predominant scope testing device providing a
half-inch videotape format developed graphic display of a video signal’s
by Matsushita and licensed by JVC. strength. Plus, like a sophisticated light
VHS-C (VHS compact) Scaled-down meter, aids in precise setting of pic-
version of VHS using miniature cas- ture’s maximum brightness level for
settes compatible with full-size VHS optimum contrast.
equipment through use of adapter. WebCam Abbreviation for Web Camera.
[See Super VHS] A small camera connected to a com-
video card The PC card that controls puter, usually through a USB port.
the computer’s monitor display. Don’t WebCams usually produce small, pro-
confuse the computer’s video (VGA, gressive-scanned images.
SVGA, Mac monitor and so on) which whip pan (swish pan) Extremely rapid
is non-interlaced, with NTSC video. PC camera movement from left to right
cards for DTV are also called capture, or right to left, appearing as an image
overlay or compression cards. Most do blur. Two such pans in the same direc-
not generate NTSC video output. tion, edited together—one moving
video prompter A mechanical device from, the other moving to, a stationary
that projects and advances text on a shot—can effectively convey the pas-
mirror directly in front of a camera sage of time or a change of location.
lens, allowing talent to read lines while white balance Electronic adjustment
appearing to maintain eye contact with of camcorder to retain truest colors
viewers. of recorded image. Activated in cam-
videocassette recorder (VCR) Multi- corder prior to recording, proper setting
function machine intended primarily established by aiming at white object.
for recording and playback of video- wide-angle Camcorder lens with short
tape stored in cassettes. focal length and broad horizontal field
vignette Visual special effect whereby of view. Opposite of telephoto, sup-
viewers see images through a per- ports viewer perspective and tends to
ceived keyhole, heart shape, diamond, reinforce perception of depth.
etc. In low-budget form, vignettes are wild sound Nonsynchronous audio
achieved by aiming a camera through recorded independent of picture i.e.,
a cutout of a desired vignette. rain on roof, five o’clock whistle—
vignetting Undesirable darkening at often captured with separate audio
the corners of a picture, as if viewer’s recorder. [See nonsynchronous sound]
windscreen Sponge-like microphone color video signal consists of R, G, B

shield, thwarts undesirable noise from and Y.
wind and rapid mike movement. Y/C Video signal type (also known as
wipe Transition from one shot to S-video) employed with Hi8 and S-VHS
another, where a moving line or pat- video formats and analog output-on
tern reveals the new shot. In it’s sim- digital camcorders. Transmits lumi-
plest form it simulates a window shade nance (Y) and chrominance (C) por-
being drawn. tions separately via multiple wires,
wireless mike A microphone with a thereby avoiding picture quality
self-contained, built-in miniature FM degradation.
transmitter that can send the audio YUV (y = luminance, u = B Y or blue
signal several hundred feet, eliminat- and v = R Y or red) Video signal
ing the need for mike cables. used to compose a component NTSC
workprint Copy of a master videotape or PAL signal. [See RGB]
used for edit planning and rough cut zoom Variance of focal length, bringing
without excessively wearing or other- subject into and out of close-up range.
wise jeopardizing safekeeping of origi- Lens capability permits change from
nal material. Also called “working wide-angle to telephoto, or vice versa,
master.” in one continuous move. “Zoom in”
wow and flutter Sound distortions con- and “zoom out” are common terms.
sisting of a slow rise and fall of pitch, zoom ratio Range of a lens’ focal length,
caused by speed variations in audio/ from most “zoomed in” field of view
video playback system. to most “zoomed out.” Expressed as
XLR (ground-left-right) Three-pin plug ratio: 6:1, for example, implies that the
for three-conductor “balanced” audio same lens from the same distance can
cable, employed with high-quality make the same image appear six-times
microphones, mixers and other audio closer. [See focal length, zoom]
equipment.
Y Symbol for luminance, or brightness,
portion of a video signal; the complete
Contributing Authors
Loren Alldrin is a freelance video and Edward B. Driscoll, Jr. is a freelance

music producer. journalist covering home theater and the
media.
Scott Anderson is the author of animation
software and a book about digital special Armand Ensanian is a professional video
effects. producer, photographer and former col-
umnist for Video Review.
Pat Bailey is a digital video technical
support analyst and freelance writer. Bill Fisher is a documentary video
producer.
Gene Bjerke is a professional script-
writer and author of the book Writing for Michael Fitzer is an Emmy award-
Video. winning commercial and documentary
writer/producer.
Mark Steven Bosko is a freelance writer
and an independent video and film D. Eric Franks is a technical writer and
producer. video podcast personality.
Kyle Cassidy is a visual artist who writes Charles Fulton is Videomaker’s Associate
extensively about technology. Editor.
Alessia Cowee is a freelance writer, edi- Michael Hammond is a 25-year commu-
tor and mother of three. nications veteran, teaching electronic
media and producing independent video.
Bill Davis writes, shoots, edits and does
voiceover work for a variety of corporate Bill Harrington is a former production
and industrial clients. manager at a television station.
Sofia Davis is a leased access and public Michael J. Kelley is a freelance media
access producer. production consultant.
369
370 Contributing Authors
Robert J. Kerr is a consultant, teacher and William Ronat is the owner of a video
writer in the video industry. production company.
Larry Lemm is a long-time technology Bill Rood is an engineer at a television
writer. station.
Michael Loehr is a foreign documentarian. Tad Rose is a writer and independent
producer.
Janis Lonnquist is a writer and producer.
Marshal M. Rosenthal is a technology/
Garret C. Maynard is a video and film-
entertainment writer whose experience in
maker and guest lecturer.
the industry spans 20 years.
Joe McCleskey is a multimedia producer
Jim Stinson is the author of Video: Digital
and freelance writer.
Communication and Production.
Carolyn Miller is a scriptwriter and jour-
Paul M. J. Suchecki writes for network TV
nalist specializing in new media projects.
and shoots and produces documentaries.
Robert G. Nulph, Ph.D. is an Assistant
John K. Waters is a freelance scriptwriter
Professor of Communication Studies and
and editor.
an independent video/film producer/
director. Dave Welton is a community college
instructor and freelance writer.
Jennifer O’Rourke is Videomaker’s
Managing Editor. Randal K. West is the Vice President/
Creative Director for a DRTV full service
Brian Peterson is a video production
advertising agency.
consultant, trainer and lecturer.
Bernard Wilkie designed special effects
Brian Pogue is a news photographer/
for the BBC for over 25 years.
editor at a television station.
James Williams is an independent film-
Stray Wynn Ponder is a writer and pro-
maker and video journalist.
ducer of television commercials and
industrial training videos. Roger B. Wyatt is a partner in a new
media company.
Hal Robertson is a digital media producer
and technology consultant.
Index
A frequency range, 249–250 reflectors, 153–154

A/B roll editing, 349 level, 251, 257–258 three-point lighting, 156, 169
Action axis, 349 location scouting, 123, 173 Balance, composition, 238
Actors, see Talent microphone guidelines Balanced line, 351
Ad-lib, 349 external microphones, 173 Bandwidth, 351
aDSL, 349–350 positioning, 175 Bandwidth compression, 351
AFM, 350 recording, 176 Barndoors, 351
AGC, see Automatic gain control selection factors, 174, 177 Bartering, airtime, 271–272,
Alpha Channel, 234 windscreen, 174–175, 284
Ambient sound, 187–188, 350 179–181 Batch capture, 351
Analog, 350 mixer, 250, 350 Battery
Animation, 350 mixing, 252–253 chargers, 48
Aperture, see also Iris monitoring, 175, 181 definition, 46
definition, 21–22, 350 outdoor recording, 178–181 fuel cell prospects, 47–48
Archiving, 50–51 reverb, 226, 251–252 smart battery, 47
Artifacting, 350 sample rate, 12 types, 46–47
Artificial light, 350 spare equipment, 176 Betamax, 351
ASCAP, 255 spectrum analysis, 258–259 Bidirectional pickup pattern,
Aspect ratio, 350 sweetening, 225–226, 365 54–55, 351
Assemble edit, 350 Auditions, 120 Black box, 351
ATSC, 350 Authoring, see DVD Bleeding, 351
ATV, 350 Automatic exposure, 350 Blu-ray
Audio, see also Microphone Automatic gain control (AGC), burners, 50
ambient sound, 187–188, 350 175, 350 definition, 351
automatic gain control, 175 Available light, 350 BNC, 351
background noise AVCHD, 350–351 Boom, 351
minimization, 180–181 AVI, 349, 351 Boundary microphone, 55, 174
connectors, 176 Brainstorming, 78–79
documentary, 197–198 B Budgeting
dub, 350, 354 Background, composition, above-the-line costs, 111–112
environment and gear 140–141, 187, 237, 241 below-the-line costs, 112–113
protection, 178–179 Backlight checklist, 112
equalization, 226, 250–251 definition, 351 documentaries, 203–204
371
372 Index
Budgeting (contd) definition, 352 Digitizer, 353–354

post-production, 113–114 digital video, 12 Direct to disk recorder, 3311
rationale, 110–111 Computer, see Editing Directing
Concept, development, 77–78 off-set preparations, 184–185
C Condenser microphone, 53–54, real performances, 121, 182
Cable access, see Public access 352 stage setting, 183–184
television Continuity techniques, 183–184
Camcorder definition, 352 Directional light, 354
battery, see Battery function, 134 Dirt, effects, 212
CCD, see CCD makeup and wardrobe, 193 Dissolve, 242, 354
controls, 3–6 Contrast, 352 Distribution
lens, see Lens Contrast range, 166 airtime bartering, 271–272, 284
microphone, see Microphone Control-L, 353 audience identification, 268
quality issues, 19 Control-S, 353 broadcast television, 282–285
tape deck, 17–18 Control track, 353 distributors, 270–271
Cameo lighting, 351 Cookie, 353 film festivals, 271
Capacitor, 351 Copyright, 227, 254–255, 319 funding, 202–203
Captions, making, 212 Cost cutting, promotions, 290 Internet, see Peer to Peer file
Capture, digital video, 45, 342– CPU, video editing computer, 45 sharing; Vidcasting
343, 351 Crawl, 353 leased access and satellite time,
Cardioid pickup pattern, 54, 351 Cross-fade, 353 272–273
Cardtoons, 213–214 Crossing the line, 242 promotion, see Promotion
CCD CRT, 62 self-distribution
color detection, 37–38 Cucalorus, 353 direct mail, 269–270
principles, 15–17 Cue, 353 fulfillment, 269
prospects, 38 Cut, 242, 353 libraries and rental stores,
quality issues, 19 Cutaway, 353 270
sensor overload, 34–35 Cuts-only editing, 353 sales, 268–269
size reduction, 36–37 Distribution amplifier, 354
solar panel analogy, 33–34 D Documentary
Character generator, 351 Day-for-night shooting, 171–172 advantages in making, 204
Chroma, 351 Decibel, 353 audio, 197–198
Chromakey, 351 Decks, advantages, 13 B-roll shots, 198–199
Chrominance, 351 Decompression, 353 budgeting, 203–204
CivX, 354 Deinterlace, 353 compelling stories, 194–195
Clapstick, 352 Demo discovery in the moment, 199
Closeup, 352 content, 293–294 dramatic structure, 196
Cobwebs, effects, 212 distribution, 295–296 education video, 202
CODEC, 352 editing, 294–295 emotional center, 196
Color follow-up, 296 funding
Alpha Channel, 234 importance, 292–293 cable distribution and
balance, 232 technical concerns, 295 syndication, 200–201
composition, 238 Depth of field, 23–24, 353 distribution, 202–203
filters, 232–233 Desktop video, 353 film festivals, 200
matte, 233–234 Dialogue proposal, 197
RGB space, 232 attributes public television, 200
saturation, 231 lean, 98 interviews, 198
television capabilities, 234 real, 99–100 planning, 196–197
titles and graphics, 223–224 example, 98 point of view, 197
Color bars, 352 purpose, 97 previsualization, 195
Color correction filter, 40 research, 100–102 purpose, 205
Color corrector, 352 subtext, 102 release, 204–205
Color temperature, 352 voice-over narration, 103 shooting, 198
Comet tailing, 352 writing practice, 103 style, 88–89
Componentvideo, 352 Diaphragm, 353 tone and treatment, 196
Composite video, 462 Diffused light, 353 vidcasting, 202
Compositing, 352 Diffuser, 353 Dolly, 74, 354
Composition, 139–141, 150, Diffusion filter, 353 Dongle, 354
235–238, Digital audio, 353 Dramatic video, script, 94–95
241–242, 352 Digital8, format features, 13 Dropout, 354
Compression Digital video effects, 353 Dub, 350, 354
audio, 225–226 Digitization, 353 DVCAM, format features, 13
Index 373
DVCPro, format features, 13 project defining, 217–218 camcorder control, 4, 6

DVD ripple edits and inserts, 228 principles, 22–23
archiving, 50–51, 341 software, 44 Follow focus, 356
authoring sweetening, 225–226 Foot-candle, 356
definition, 328 systems, 243–244 Foreground, composition, 238
menu design and examples, time management, 86 Format, 356
325–326, 343–344, 345–348 timeline, 220–221, 366 FPS, 356
software transfer, 218 Frame, 356
costs, 329 Editing appliance, 354–355 Freeze frame, 356
features, 323–324 Editor Frequency, 356
selection, 328–329 function, 134 Frequency analysis, 258–259
steps, 343–344 shooting like an editor, 150, Frequency response
tips, 327 239–240 definition, 356
burners EDL, see Edit decision list resolution, 69
buffer, 333 Eject, camcorder control, 3 test chart, 68
costs, 329–330 Electret condenser, 355 Friction head, 356–357
disc compatibility, 334, Electronic field production, 355 F stop, 21–22, 355
339–340, 344 Electronic news gathering, 355 Fuel cell, prospects, 47–48
interfaces, 333–334 Encoding, 343, 355 Full-motion video, 357
manufacturers, 333 Equalization, 226, 250–251, 355 Full script, style, 90–91
prospects, 335 Error correction, digital video,
speed, 333 12, 14 G
stand-alone burners, 327, Essential area, 355 Gaffer, 357
335, 344 Establishing shot, 355 Gain, 357
duplicators, 330 Expert presenter, 90 Gel, 357
encoding, 343 Extra, 355 Generation, 357
formats Generation loss, 357
comparison table, 341 F Genlock, 357
DVDR, 339 Fade, 242, 355 Ghosting, 357
DVD-R, 338–339 Feed, 355 GIF, 349
DVD-RAM, 338–339 Feedback, 355 Gigabyte, 357
DVD-Video, 337–338 Field, 355 Giraffe, 357
general versus authoring Field of view, 355 Glitch, 357
media, 336 Fill light Grain, 357
overview, 50, 330, 332, 336 definition, 355–356 Grip, 357
read/write, 338–339 reflectors, 152 Group master fader, 357
labeling, 331 three-point lighting, 156, 169 Gun shot, effects, 210–211
Dynamic microphone, 53, 354 Film festivals
documentaries, 200 H
E screening, 271 Hair and makeup, see Makeup
Echo, simulation, 210 Film-style, 356 Handheld shot, shooting
Edit controller, 354 Filters fundamentals, 142
Edit control protocols, 354 care, 42 Hard disk, 357
Edit decision list (EDL), 354–355 guidelines, 43 Hard drive
Edited master, 354 purchasing, 42–43 archiving, 50–51
Editing thread sizes, 39–40 storage, 49–50
audio, see Audio types, 40–41 video editing computer, 45
batch transfer, 220 Fire, effects, 211 Harmonics, 250
computer Firelight, effects, 163 HD DVD, burners, 50
hardware components, 45 FireWire, 14, 356 HDMI, 357
monitors, 62 Fishpole, 356 HDTV, 357
cutting scenes, 222 Flare, 356 HDV
demos, 294–295 Flash frame, 186 camcorders, 7–8
graphics and titling, 222–225 Flat lighting, 356 characteristics, 7
guidelines, 188 Floodlight, 356 editing, 9
HDV, 9 Fluid head, 356 glossary, 10
logging, 219–220 Flying camera MPEG-2 compression, 8–9, 357
mastering, 226–227 applications, 147–148 projectors, 64–65
multiple clip selection, 229 supports, 144 Headlights, lighting effects, 162
organization, 218 Flying erase head, 356 Headroom, shot framing, 140,
planning, 131–133 Focal length, 23–26, 356 236, 357
preparation, 218 Focus Hi8, 357
374 Index
Hi-fi, 357 L planning, 190–191

Hiss, 358 Lag, 359 special considerations, 191
Hook, idea development, 79 Lavalier microphone, 55, 174, 359 tips for the set, 192–193
Horizontal resolution, 358 LCD display, 62–63, 359 Master, 359
Hypercardioid pickup pattern, Lead room, shot framing, 140, 237 Master fader, 359
54 Leading lines, composition, 236 Mastering, 226–227
Lens Matched dissolve, 359
cleaning, 41–42 Matte, applications, 212–213
I
filters, see Filters Media player, 359
IEEE 1394, 358
focus, 22–23 Medium shot, 359
Image enhancer, 358
principles, 20–21 Memory effect, 359
Image sensor, 358
quality issues, 19 Menu, camcorder control, 6
Image stabilizer
wide angle lens, 26–27 Microphone
electronic image stabilization,
zoom, 27 accessories, 55–57
29–31, 144–145, 355
Lighting condenser microphone, 53–54
historical perspective, 28–29
available light utilization dynamic microphone, 53
optical image stabilization, 31,
candles, 208 guidelines
144, 361
daytime, 207–208 external microphones, 173
quality issues, 19
dimmers, 208 positioning, 175
testing, 31–32
indoors, 206 recording, 176
Impedance, microphone, 52–53,
nighttime, 207 selection factors, 174, 177
357–358
backlight, 152–153, 156 windscreen, 174–175,
In-camera editing, 358
contrast range, 166 179–181
Incident light, 358
effects impedance, 52–53, 357–358
Indexing, 358
firelight, 163 pickup patterns, 54–55
Informational video, script, 95
headlights, 162 purchasing, 57
Input channel, 358
lamp, 163–164 quality issues, 19
Insert edit, 358
moon, 162 rain and protection, 178–179
Interlace, 358
police cars, 162 styles, 55, 173–174
Interview
sun, 161–162 wireless microphone, 58–61
documentary, 198
television light, 163 MIDI, 359
promotions, 287–288
water ripples, 164 Mini DV tape
style, 89–90
fill light, 152, 156 features, 13
Iris, camcorder control, 4–5,
hard versus soft light, 157, 160 longevity, 14
358
key light, 151–152, 156 Mixer, 250
ITVS
location scouting, 122–123 Model release, 360
airing process, 280–281
outdoor lighting Monitor, video editing computer,
funding, 279–280
day-for-night shooting, 62–63, 360
organization, 277–278
171–172 Monopod, 360
programming possibilities,
position problems, 169–171 Montage, 360
278–279
simple solutions, 168–169 Moon, lighting effects, 162
resources, 281
tools and tricks, 166–168 Mosaic, 360
technical specifications, 280
reflectors, see Reflectors Motherboard, video editing
three-point lighting, 156, 160, computer, 45
J 366 MOV, 349
Jack, 358 LimeWire, 317 MPEG-1, 313, 360
Jitter, 358 Linear editing, 359 MPEG-2, 8–9, 313, 340, 343, 360
Jog/shuttle, 358 Lip sync, 359 MPEG-3, 313
JPEG, 349 Lithium ion battery, 47, 359 MPEG-4, 312–314, 360
Jump cut, 358 Location, see Scouting locations Music
Juxtaposition, composition, 236 Long shot, 359 copyright, 227, 254–255
Look room, shot framing, 140 libraries, 255–256
K LPTV, 283–284 selection for mood, 260–261,
Kelvin, 359 LTC, 359 263
Key light Luminance, 359 sound subscription, 256
definition, 359 Lux, 359 sources, 261–263
high key versus low key, 157
reflectors, 151–152 M N
three-point lighting, 156, 169 Macro, 359 Napster, 316
Keyframe, 359 MagnetMix, 318–319 Natural light, 360
Keystoning, 359 Makeup Neutral density filter, 40, 360
Killer application, 359 hair, 193 News footage, 271–272
Index 375
Nickel cadmium battery, 46–47, Press release, promotions, R

360 286–287 Rack focus, 362
Nickel metal hydride battery, 47, Processing amplifier, 362 RAID, 362
360 Production manager, function, RAM, video editing computer,
Noise, 360 134 45, 362
Noninterlaced video, 360 Production planning Raw footage, 362
Nonlinear editing, 360 adherence to plan, 129–130 RC, 363
Nonsynchronous sound, 360 brainstorming, 78–79 RCA plug, 362
Normalization, audio, 226 budgeting, 128–129 RCTC, 362
Nose room, composition, 237, concept development, 77–78 Reaction shot, 362
360 editing, 131–133 Real time, 362
NTSC, 66, 361 enemies, 130 Real-time counter, 362
hooks, 79–80 RealNetworks, 362
O importance, 82 RealPlayer, 362
Objects, shot framing, 141 postproduction considerations, RealVideo, 362
Off-line, 361 132–133 Record, camcorder control, 3–4
Omnidirectional pickup pattern, risk minimization, 130–131 Recording VCR, 362
54, 361 scheduling, 128 Reflected light, 363
Outtake, 361 script revisions, 127–128 Reflector
Over-the-shoulder shot, 361 shoot planning, 126–127 background light, 153–154
shooting the plan, 129 definition, 363
P special effects, 127 fill light, 152
PAL, 361 temptations, 134–135 gold reflectors, 154–155
Pan, 361 tools, 81–82 indoor use, 154
Parabolic microphone, 55 treatment, 80–81 key light, 151–152
PBS Progressive scan, 362 rim light, 152–153
airing process, 280–281 Projector types and selection, 151
documentary funding, 200 audio, 65 zoom, 155
funding, 279–280 HDV, 64–65 Release, 204–205
organization, 277 inputs, 64 Remote, 363
programming possibilities, trends, 65 Render, 363
278–279 Promotion Render time, 363
resources, 281 cost cutting, 290 Request for Proposal (RFP),
technical specifications, 280 demo, 292–296 117–118
PCM, 361 downside, 290–291 Resolution
Pedestal, 361 interviews, 287–288 definition, 363
Pedestal move, 146 press kit, 289 frequency response, 69
Peer to Peer file sharing press release, 286–287 lines, 66–67, 69
historical perspective, 316 publicity stunt, 289–290 specifications, 67–69
principles, 315–316 screener, 288 test chart, 68
promotion, 318–319 trailer, 288–289 Reverb, 226, 251–252
prospects, 319 Proposal Reviews, 290–291
services, 316–317 authorization, 116–117 RF, 363
Periscope, underwater filming, estimates, 115–116 RF converter, 363
209 government Request for RFP, see Request for Proposal
Perspective, 24–26 Proposal, 117–118 RGB
Phone plug, 361 parameter setting, 116 definition, 363
Phono plug, 361 Props, 362 space, 232
Pickup, 361 P2P, see Peer to Peer file sharing Ringing, 363
PiP, 361 Public access television RM, 363
Playback, 361 commercial avoidance, 276 Roll, 363
Podcast, see Vidcasting equipment and facilities, Rough cut, 363
Point-of-view shot, 361 275–276 Rule of thirds, 139–140, 236, 241,
Polarizing filter, 40, 361 orientation, 274 363
Police car, lighting effects, 162 time slots, 276 Rust, effects, 212
Posterization, 361 tips, 276
Post-production, 361 Publicity stunt, promotions, S
POV, 361 289–290 Safe title area, 224, 245–246, 363
Power, camcorder control, 3 PZM, 362 Sampling, digital video, 12
Pre-roll, 361–362 Scan converter, 363
Preamp, 362 Q Scan line, 363
Press kit, promotions, 289 QuickTime, 362 Scan rate, 363
376 Index
Scene, 363 Streaming, 365 Tripod

Scouting locations Strobe, 365 advantages, 72–73, 187
audio, 123, 173 Subtext, 102 dolly wheels, 74
gear, 125 Sun, lighting effects, 161–162 head, 73
lighting, 122–123 Superimposition, 365 height, 143
logistics, 124 S-video, 363 legs, 73–74
permission, 124–125 Sweetening, 225–226, 365 leveling, 73
power sources, 122 Swish pan, 365 Three S Theory, 73
time and day of week, 123–124 Switcher Truck move, 147
Screener, 288 controls, 70 Turnkey system, 366
Scrim, 364 definition, 365 24p, 8
Script effects, 71 Two-shot, 366
abbreviations, 94 features, 71
definition, 364 T-bar, 71 U
dramatic video, 94–95 Synchronization, 365 UHF stations, 283–284
formats, 93–94, 127 Synchronous sound, 365 Ultraviolet filter, 40
informational video, 95 U-matic, 366
Script T Umbrella, 366
detail, 134 Talent Unbalanced line, 366
revisions, 127–128 auditions, 120 Unidirectional patter, 366
SECAM, 364 directing, see Directing
SEG, see Special effects generator evaluation, 120–121
Selective focus, 364
V
needs identification, 119 VBR, 367
Semi-coated mirror, effects, 210 sources, 119–121 VCR, 367
Sepia, 364 Tally light, 365 VCR controls, camcorder, 5–6
720p, 349 T-bar, 71 Vectorscope, 367
Shooting ratio, 364 TBC, 366 VHF stations, 283
Shot, 364 Telecine converter, 365 VHS, 367
Shot list, 84–85, 107–109 Telephoto, 365 Vidcasting
Shotgun microphone, 55, 174, 364 Teleprompter, 365 assessment of needs, 300
Shutter speed Television light, effects, 163 costs, 302–303
camcorder control, 5 1080i, 349 documentaries, 202
overview, 35–36 Tension, composition, 238 editing, 306, 308
Signal-to-noise ratio, 363–364 Test pattern, 365–366 equipment, 304–306
Skylight, 364 Three-point lighting, 156, 160, 366 format, 300–301
Smart battery, 47 Three-shot, 366 frequency, 301–302
Smoke, effects, 211 Three-to-one rule, 366 length, 302
SMPTE, 364 Tilt, 366 opening, 306
Snake, 364 Time code, 366 promotion, 309–310
Snoot, 364 Time management quality issues, 301, 306
Snow, 364 editing, 86
set design, 303
Solarization, 364 shooting schedules, 85–86 talent and crew, 304
Sound, see Audio shot list, 84–85 technical issues, 308
Sound bite, 364 Time-lapse recording, 366 upload, 308–309
Sound effects, 226, 364 Timeline editing, 220–221, 366 Video capture card, video editing
Soundtrack, 364 Titles computer, 45, 367
Special effects generator (SEG), brand identification, 229 Video on demand, 367
364–365 color, 223–224, 247 Video prompter, 367
Spectrum analysis, 258–259 duration, 247–248 Vignette, 367
Spotlight, 365 font, 246 Vignetting, 367
Stabilizer, see Image stabilizer information presentation, 92 Visuals, information presentation,
Star, 365 location, 245 91
Steadicam™, 74, 143–144 resolution, 223 VITC, 367
Stereo, 365 safe area, 224, 245–246, 363 Voiceover, 103, 367
Stock shot, 365 style, 246–247
Storyboard terminology, 229, 248
advantages, 95–96, 104, 106 Tracking, 366 W
definition, 365 Trailer, 288–289 Walking shot, 149
digital storyboard, 106–108 Transcode, 366 Wardrobe
paper storyboard, 106 Treatment dos and don’ts, 191–192
shot lists, 107–109 tips and tricks, 81–82 planning, 190–191
vision, 106 writing, 80 special considerations, 191
Index 377
Water ripples, lighting effects, Wipe, 242, 368 Z

164, 210 Wireless microphone, 58–61, 368 Zoom
WAV, 349 Words, information presentation, camcorder control, 4
Waveform monitor, 367 91 definition, 368
Webcam, 367 Workprint, 368 guidelines, 188–189
Whip pan, 367 Wow and flutter, 368 Ken Burns effect, 188
White balance lens, 27
camcorder control, 5 X quality issues, 19
definition, 367 XLR, 368 reflector shots, 155
Wide-angle, 367 technique, 148–149
Wild sound, 367 Y Zoom ratio, 368
Windscreen, 56, 174–175, Y/C, 368
179–181, 368 YUV, 368

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The Videomaker Guide to Video Production

From the Editors of Videomaker Magazine

AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON • NEW YORK • OXFORD

Focal Press is an imprint of Elsevier

Copyright © 2008 Videomaker Magazine. Published by Elsevier Inc.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

For information on all Focal Press publications

Printed in the United States of America

Civil liberty functions today in a changing technological con-

Ithiel de Sola Pool

PART I VIDEO GEAR 1

PART II PRODUCTION PLANNING 75

PART III PRODUCTION TECHNIQUES 137

PART IV POST-PRODUCTION TECHNIQUES 215

PART V TELEVISION DISTRIBUTION 265

57 Paths to Broadcast Television 282

PART VI INTERNET DISTRIBUTION 297

PART VII AUTHORING DVDs 321

JARGON: A GLOSSARY OF VIDEOGRAPHY TERMS 349

A guide to essential equipment: what to buy, how it works.

when using the camera with a tripod. The

The buttons, knobs or dials that control

Figure 1-2 The iris controls the amount of

Manual aperture control can be handy

Figure 1-5 Record Review—You might also

• MPEG-2 refers to an interframe and intraframe compression scheme instituted by the

Doing the Math • Audio A separate sampling process takes

Figure 3-1 4:1:1 Sampling—DV Encoding

25 Mbps DV Tape Formats

Output and Beyond Parting Advice

red, green and blue,” Dooley said. “One

opposite direction to cancel the motion.

If you’ve ever seen a cutaway diagram of

Optical Axis Maximum

Lens Focal Plane

Figure 5-1 The geometry of a simple lens.

Distant object forms a

When the camcorder is

Increasing the lens

Figure 5-2 How (and why) a lens’s focus is changed.

(a) As you can see in Figure 5-5, the wider

(a) Wide-angle (b) Normal (c) Telephoto

created by a lens has to fill the camera’s 8 mm would be wide-angle, about 15 mm

Figure 6-1 Electronic Image Stabilization.

8 mm and VHS models, image loss is neg- Recording without compensation

Recording with compensation

tiny speck of dust, harmless enough to us,

Output amplifier Horizontal transfer register

Figure 7-2 In a standard CCD sensor, pixels feed charges to

tries to read this abnormally high value, Shutter Shenanigans

microlens, 1/3-inch CCDs are now a reality. Color Blind

Future CCDs the market toward ultra-high-resolution

Figure 8-1 Fog Effect Filter.

Figure 8-2 Star Effect Filter.

Ever wonder what exactly makes a video Software

Does this sound familiar? You’re running a cathode—connected via an electro-

When used under normal conditions (i.e.,