Hp-Ux Student Guide - Part 2 PDF

student
guide
HP-UX System and

Network Administration
II
H3065S D.00
training
 2003 Hewlett-Packard Development Company, L.P.
OSF, OSF1, OSF/Motif, Motif, and Open Software Foundation are trademarks of the Open Software
Foundation in the U.S. and other countries.
UNIX® is a registered trademark of The Open Group.
X/Open is a trademark of X/Open Company Limited in the UK and other countries.

All other product names mentioned herein may be trademarks of their respective companies.
Hewlett-Packard Company shall not be liable for technical or editorial errors or omissions contained
herein. The information is provided “as is” without warranty of any kind and is subject to change without
notice. The warranties for HP products are set forth in the express limited warranty statements
accompanying such products. Nothing herein should be construed as constituting an additional
warranty.
HP-UX System and Network Administration II

Student Guide
September 2003
Contents
Contents
Overview
Course Description............................................................................................................................ 1
Student Performance Objectives..................................................................................................... 1
Student Profile and Prerequisites.................................................................................................... 8
Curriculum Path ................................................................................................................................ 8
Module 1 — LAN Concepts

1–1. SLIDE: What Is a Network? ............................................................................................. 1-2
1–2. SLIDE: The OSI Model in a Nutshell .............................................................................. 1-4
1–3. TEXT PAGE: OSI Worksheet........................................................................................... 1-6
1–4. SLIDE: Media Access Control (MAC) Addresses.......................................................... 1-7
1–5. SLIDE: Internet Protocol (IP) Addresses....................................................................... 1-9
1–6. SLIDE: IP Network Classes ........................................................................................... 1-12
1–7. SLIDE: The IP Netmask ................................................................................................. 1-15
1–8. SLIDE: The IP Network Address .................................................................................. 1-17
1–9. SLIDE: The IP Broadcast Address ................................................................................ 1-19
1–10. SLIDE: The IP Loopback Address ................................................................................ 1-21
1–11. SLIDE: Obtaining an IP Address ................................................................................... 1-22
1–12. SLIDE: IP Address Examples ........................................................................................ 1-25
1–13. SLIDE: Host Names ........................................................................................................ 1-26
1–14. SLIDE: Converting IP Addresses to MAC Addresses ................................................. 1-28
1–15. SLIDE: Populating the ARP Cache ............................................................................... 1-30
1–16. SLIDE: Putting It All Together ...................................................................................... 1-32
1–17. SLIDE: Managing Packet Flow with TCP .................................................................... 1-33
1–18. SLIDE: Managing Packet Flow with UDP.................................................................... 1-35
1–19. SLIDE: Sending Data to Applications via Ports .......................................................... 1-37
1–20. SLIDE: Managing Ports with Sockets........................................................................... 1-39
1–21. SLIDE: More on Socket Connections ........................................................................... 1-41
1–22. SLIDE: Revisiting the OSI Model .................................................................................. 1-43
1–23. REVIEW QUESTIONS: LAN Concepts and Components .......................................... 1-44
Module 2 — LAN Hardware Overview

2–1. SLIDE: LAN Hardware Components .............................................................................. 2-2
2–2. TEXT PAGE: OSI Worksheet........................................................................................... 2-4
2–3. SLIDE: Transmission Media ............................................................................................ 2-5
2–4. SLIDE: LAN Topologies ................................................................................................... 2-9
2–5. SLIDE: LAN Access Methods ........................................................................................ 2-11
2–6. SLIDE: Ethernet 802.3 Interface Cards ........................................................................ 2-13
2–7. SLIDE: Token Ring 802.5 Interface Card ..................................................................... 2-18
2–8. SLIDE: FDDI Ring Interface Cards ............................................................................... 2-20
2–9. SLIDE: Repeaters............................................................................................................ 2-22
2–10. SLIDE: Hubs .................................................................................................................... 2-23
2–11. SLIDE: Bridges ................................................................................................................ 2-24
2–12. SLIDE: Switches.............................................................................................................. 2-26
2–13. SLIDE: Routers and Gateways ...................................................................................... 2-28
2–14. SLIDE: Firewalls ............................................................................................................. 2-30
2–15. SLIDE: Pulling It All Together....................................................................................... 2-31
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 2003 Hewlett-Packard Development Company, L.P.
Contents
Module 3 — Configuring IP Connectivity

3–1. SLIDE: TCP/IP Configuration Overview.........................................................................3-2
3–2. SLIDE: Installing LAN Software ......................................................................................3-4
3–3. SLIDE: Checking LANIC Autoconfiguration..................................................................3-6
3–4. SLIDE: HP-UX Network Startup Files ............................................................................3-8
3–5. SLIDE: Configuring Link Layer Connectivity.................................................................3-9
3–6. SLIDE: Configuring IP Connectivity .............................................................................3-12
3–7. SLIDE: Configuring IP Multiplexing..............................................................................3-15
3–8. SLIDE: Configuring /etc/hosts ................................................................................3-17
3–9. LAB: Configuring Network Connectivity......................................................................3-19
Module 4 — Configuring IP Routing

4–1. SLIDE: Routing Concepts.................................................................................................4-2
4–2. SLIDE: Routing Tables......................................................................................................4-3
4–3. SLIDE: Viewing Routing Tables.......................................................................................4-5
4–4. SLIDE: Configuring Static Routes ...................................................................................4-7
4–5. SLIDE: Configuring a Default Route ...............................................................................4-9
4–6. SLIDE: Configuring Routes in /etc/rc.config.d/netconf .............................4-11
4–7. LAB: Configuring Routing ..............................................................................................4-12
Module 5 — Configuring Subnetting

5–1. SLIDE: Limitations of Large Networks...........................................................................5-2
5–2. SLIDE: Subnetting Concept .............................................................................................5-4
5–3. SLIDE: IP Addresses in a Subnetted Network...............................................................5-6
5–4. SLIDE: Netmasks in a Subnetted Network ....................................................................5-7
5–5. SLIDE: Subnet Addresses.................................................................................................5-9
5–6. SLIDE: Host IP Addresses on a Subnet ........................................................................5-11
5–7. SLIDE: Limitations of Subnetting on an Octet Boundary...........................................5-13
5–8. SLIDE: Subnetting on a Non-Octet Boundary..............................................................5-14
5–9. TEXT PAGE: More Subnetting on a Non-Octet Boundary .........................................5-16
5–10. SLIDE: Routers in a Subnetted Network......................................................................5-17
5–11. SLIDE: Configuring Subnetting .....................................................................................5-18
5–12. TEXT PAGE: Class B and Class C Subnetting Reference Sheet................................5-20
5–13. LAB: Configuring Subnets ..............................................................................................5-21
Module 6 — Troubleshooting Network Connectivity

6–1. SLIDE: Network Troubleshooting Tools Overview ......................................................6-2
6–2. SLIDE: Potential Network Connectivity Problems .......................................................6-3
6–3. SLIDE: The lanscan Command.....................................................................................6-5
6–4. SLIDE: The linkloop Command ..................................................................................6-7
6–5. SLIDE: The lanadmin Command ..................................................................................6-9
6–6. SLIDE: Example lanadmin ..........................................................................................6-11
6–7. SLIDE: The arp Command ............................................................................................6-14
6–8. SLIDE: The ping Command..........................................................................................6-16
6–9. SLIDE: The netstat -i Command ...........................................................................6-18
6–10. SLIDE: The netstat -r Command ...........................................................................6-20
6–11. SLIDE: The nslookup Command ................................................................................6-22
6–12. LAB: Troubleshooting Network Connectivity .............................................................6-24
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Contents
Module 7 — Starting Network Services

7–1. SLIDE: Starting System and Network Services............................................................. 7-2
7–2. SLIDE: Run Levels ............................................................................................................ 7-4
7–3. SLIDE: /sbin/rc*.d Directories ............................................................................... 7-7
7–4. SLIDE: S/K Script Naming Convention .......................................................................... 7-9
7–5. SLIDE: /sbin/init.d/* Scripts ............................................................................. 7-11
7–6. SLIDE: What's in an init.d Script?............................................................................ 7-12
7–7. SLIDE: /etc/rc.config.d/* Files ....................................................................... 7-14
7–8. SLIDE: Pulling It All Together....................................................................................... 7-16
7–9. SLIDE: Viewing Console Messages When Changing Run Levels .............................. 7-18
7–10. SLIDE: Creating Custom Start Scripts ......................................................................... 7-20
7–11. LAB: Starting Network Services ................................................................................... 7-24
Module 8 — NFS Concepts

8–1. SLIDE: What Is NFS?........................................................................................................ 8-2
8–2. SLIDE: What Files Should I Share via NFS ? ................................................................. 8-4
8–3. SLIDE: NFS Servers and Clients ..................................................................................... 8-6
8–4. SLIDE: The NFS Remote Procedure Calls..................................................................... 8-8
8–5. SLIDE: The portmap and rpcbind Daemons .......................................................... 8-10
8–6. SLIDE: NFS Stateless Servers ....................................................................................... 8-12
8–7. SLIDE: NFS PV2 versus NFS PV3 ................................................................................. 8-14
8–8. SLIDE: NFS versus CIFS................................................................................................ 8-16
Module 9 — Configuring NFS

9–1. SLIDE: NFS Configuration Considerations ................................................................... 9-2
9–2. SLIDE: Configuring NFS Servers and Clients................................................................ 9-4
9–3. SLIDE: Keep UIDs and GIDs Consistent........................................................................ 9-5
9–4. SLIDE: Ensure that the NFS Subsystem Is in the Kernel............................................. 9-8
9–5. SLIDE: Edit NFS Server's Configuration File................................................................ 9-9
9–6. SLIDE: Start NFS Server Daemons............................................................................... 9-12
9–7. SLIDE: Create the/etc/exports File ....................................................................... 9-14
9–8. SLIDE: Export the Directories ...................................................................................... 9-18
9–9. SLIDE: Check the Server Configuration ...................................................................... 9-20
9–10. SLIDE: Ensure that the NFS Subsystem Is in the Kernel........................................... 9-22
9–11. SLIDE: Edit the Client's Configuration File................................................................. 9-23
9–12. SLIDE: Start NFS Client Daemons................................................................................ 9-25
9–13. SLIDE: Create a New Entry in /etc/fstab.............................................................. 9-27
9–14. SLIDE: Mount the NFS File System.............................................................................. 9-29
9–15. SLIDE: Check the Client Configuration ....................................................................... 9-33
9–16. SLIDE: Review: Configuring NFS Servers and Clients............................................... 9-35
9–17. SLIDE: Common NFS Problems ................................................................................... 9-36
9–18. SLIDE: Monitoring NFS Activity with nfsstat......................................................... 9-38
9–19. LAB: Configuring NFS .................................................................................................... 9-40
Module 10  Configuring AutoFS

10–1. SLIDE: AutoFS Concepts............................................................................................... 10-2
10–2. SLIDE: AutoFS Maps ...................................................................................................... 10-4
10–3. SLIDE: AutoFS Commands and Daemons................................................................... 10-6
10–4. SLIDE: Starting and Stopping AutoFS.......................................................................... 10-8
10–5. SLIDE: Configuring the AutoFS Master Map............................................................. 10-11
10–6. SLIDE: Configuring the AutoFS –hosts Map .......................................................... 10-13
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Contents
10–7. SLIDE: Configuring the AutoFS Direct Map ..............................................................10-16

10–8. SLIDE: Configuring the AutoFS Indirect Maps..........................................................10-19
10–9. SLIDE: Comparing Direct versus Indirect Maps .......................................................10-22
10–10. SLIDE: Mounting Home Directories with AutoFS.....................................................10-24
10–11. SLIDE: Mounting Home Directories with AutoFS Key Substitution.......................10-27
10–12. SLIDE: Configuring AutoFS to Access Replicated Servers......................................10-29
10–13. SLIDE: Troubleshooting AutoFS .................................................................................10-31
10–14. SLIDE: Comparing AutoFS with Automounter..........................................................10-34
10–15. LAB: Configuring AutoFS .............................................................................................10-36
Module 11 — Configuring NIS

11–1. SLIDE: Why Use NIS? .....................................................................................................11-2
11–2. SLIDE: NIS Maps .............................................................................................................11-4
11–3. SLIDE: NIS Domains .......................................................................................................11-6
11–4. SLIDE: NIS Roles.............................................................................................................11-7
11–5. SLIDE: NIS Startup Files ................................................................................................11-8
11–6. SLIDE: NIS Daemons ....................................................................................................11-10
11–7. SLIDE: Configuring NIS Servers and Clients .............................................................11-12
11–8. SLIDE: Testing NIS........................................................................................................11-14
11–9. SLIDE: Changing Passwords on an NIS Node ...........................................................11-16
11–10. SLIDE: Updating and Propagating Maps on the Master Server ...............................11-18
11–11. SLIDE: Fetching Maps from the Master Server .........................................................11-20
11–12. SLIDE: Restricting Access to NIS Clients and Slave Servers...................................11-23
11–13. SLIDE: Restricting Access to the Master Server .......................................................11-26
11–14. LAB: Configuring NIS....................................................................................................11-28
Module 12 — Configuring DNS

12–1. SLIDE: Resolving Host Names to IP Addresses ..........................................................12-2
12–2. SLIDE: DNS Overview ....................................................................................................12-4
12–3. SLIDE: The DNS Hierarchical Name Space .................................................................12-6
12–4. SLIDE: Public and Private Name Spaces......................................................................12-8
12–5. SLIDE: in-addr.arpa Name Space.........................................................................12-10
12–6. SLIDE: DNS Name Servers...........................................................................................12-12
12–7. SLIDE: DNS Name Server Zones .................................................................................12-13
12–8. SLIDE: Resolving Host Names in the Local Domain.................................................12-15
12–9. SLIDE: Resolving Host Names in Other Domains.....................................................12-17
12–10. SLIDE: Configuring a Master Server ...........................................................................12-19
12–11. SLIDE: Configuring a Slave Server..............................................................................12-21
12–12. SLIDE: Configuring a Cache-Only Name Server........................................................12-24
12–13. SLIDE: Testing Name Servers with nslookup.........................................................12-26
12–14. SLIDE: Configuring DNS Clients .................................................................................12-28
12–15. SLIDE: Configuring the Name Service Switch...........................................................12-31
12–16. SLIDE: Testing Resolvers with nsquery ..................................................................12-36
12–17. SLIDE: Introducing /etc/named.data...................................................................12-38
12–18. SLIDE: Introducing /etc/named.conf...................................................................12-40
12–19. SLIDE: Loading the DNS Data Files............................................................................12-42
12–20. SLIDE: Updating the Primary Server ..........................................................................12-43
12–21. SLIDE: Updating the Secondary Server......................................................................12-45
12–22. LAB: Configuring DNS ..................................................................................................12-47
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Contents
Module 13 — Configuring the ARPA/Berkeley Services

13–1. SLIDE: Internet Services Overview .............................................................................. 13-2
13–2. SLIDE: Internet Service Clients and Servers............................................................... 13-5
13–3. SLIDE: Starting Internet Services via /sbin/rc....................................................... 13-7
13–4. SLIDE: Starting Internet Services via inetd .............................................................. 13-8
13–5. SLIDE: Configuring /etc/inetd.conf.................................................................. 13-10
13–6. SLIDE: Configuring /etc/services....................................................................... 13-12
13–7. SLIDE: Configuring /var/adm/inetd.sec........................................................... 13-15
13–8. SLIDE: Configuring inetd Logging ........................................................................... 13-17
13–9. SLIDE: System and User Equivalency........................................................................ 13-19
13–10. SLIDE: Configuring /etc/hosts.equiv ............................................................... 13-20
13–11. SLIDE: Configuring ~/.rhosts ................................................................................ 13-22
13–12. SLIDE: FTP Configuration Issues ............................................................................... 13-24
13–13. SLIDE: ARPA/Berkeley Services Review................................................................... 13-27
13–14. LAB: Configuring and Securing ARPA/Berkeley Services ....................................... 13-29
13–15. REVIEW QUESTIONS: Configuring and Securing ARPA/Berkeley Services ........ 13-40
Module 14 — Configuring a BOOTP/TFTP Server

14–1. SLIDE: What Are bootp and tftp? ............................................................................ 14-2
14–2. SLIDE: Enabling bootp and tftp Services ............................................................... 14-3
14–3. SLIDE: Configuring /etc/bootptab .......................................................................... 14-5
14–4. SLIDE: Configuring /etc/bootptab via hppi (1 of 2) ........................................... 14-7
14–5. SLIDE: Configuring /etc/bootptab via hppi (2 of 2) ........................................... 14-9
14–6. LAB: Managing a bootp/tftp Server ....................................................................... 14-15
Module 15 — Configuring NTP

15–1. SLIDE: Introduction to the Network Time Protocol (NTP) ...................................... 15-2
15–2. SLIDE: NTP Time Sources............................................................................................. 15-4
15–3. SLIDE: NTP Stratum Levels........................................................................................... 15-5
15–4. SLIDE: NTP Roles........................................................................................................... 15-7
15–5. SLIDE: Defining NTP Servers via /etc/ntp.conf.................................................. 15-9
15–6. SLIDE: Defining NTP Clients via /etc/ntp.conf ................................................ 15-11
15–7. SLIDE: How NTP Adjusts the System Clock ............................................................. 15-13
15–8. SLIDE: Configuring an NTP Server ............................................................................ 15-15
15–9. SLIDE: Configuring an NTP Client ............................................................................. 15-17
15–10. SLIDE: Verifying NTP Functionality........................................................................... 15-19
15–11. LAB: Introduction to NTP............................................................................................ 15-21
Module 16 — Configuring an SD-UX Depot Server

16–1. SLIDE: What is an SD-UX Depot? ................................................................................. 16-2
16–2. SLIDE: What is an SD-UX Depot Server?..................................................................... 16-4
16–3. SLIDE: Why Create a Depot Server? ............................................................................ 16-5
16–4. SLIDE: Planning for Depots........................................................................................... 16-7
16–5. SLIDE: Adding Software to Depots .............................................................................. 16-9
16–6. SLIDE: Adding Patches to a Depot ............................................................................. 16-10
16–7. SLIDE: Removing Software from a Depot ................................................................. 16-13
16–8. SLIDE: Listing Software in a Depot ............................................................................ 16-15
16–9. SLIDE: Registering or Unregistering a Depot............................................................ 16-17
16–10. SLIDE: Pulling Software from a Depot ...................................................................... 16-18
16–11. SLIDE: Pushing Software from a Depot: Concept .................................................... 16-19
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Contents
16–12. SLIDE: Pushing Software from a Depot: Commands ...............................................16-20

16–13. LAB: Configuring an SD-UX Depot .............................................................................16-22
Appendix A — Decimal-Hexadecimal-Binary Conversion
Appendix B  HP-UX Administration Command Quick Reference
Solutions
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Overview
Overview
Course Description
This course is targeted at the HP-UX system administrator who must configure and
administer HP-UX 10.X or 11.00 systems in an IEEE 802.3 local area network and be
responsible for HP-UX network administration. This course was updated to include
HP-UX 11.0 material, but still applies to 10.x systems. Differences between the two operating
systems are specified in the student notes sections.
Student Performance Objectives
• Describe the purpose of a local area network (LAN).
• Describe the concept and purpose of the OSI model.
• Describe the role of host names, IPs, MACs, ports, and sockets in the OSI model.
• Describe the format and purpose of a MAC address.
• Describe the format and purpose of an IP address.
• Describe the format and purpose of an IP netmask.
• Describe the format and purpose of an IP network address.
• Describe the format and purpose of an IP broadcast address.
• Describe the format and purpose of the IP loopback address.
• Describe the format and purpose of a host name.
• Describe the differences between the UDP and TCP protocols.
• Describe the purpose of ports and sockets.
• Describe the host name to IP to MAC address lookup process.
• Describe the characteristics of three major LAN cable types.
• Discuss three different LAN topologies.
• Explain two different LAN access methods.
• List the characteristics of an Ethernet LAN.
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Overview
• List the characteristics of a Token Ring LAN.
• List the characteristics of an FDDI LAN.
• Explain the difference between physical and logical topologies.
• Describe the role of repeaters, hubs, bridges, switches, routers, gateways, and firewalls in
a local area network.
• Configure software and drivers to support a newly installed network interface card.
• Configure link layer connectivity with the lanadmin command.
• Configure and view the system host name with the hostname command.
• Configure and view the system IP address and netmask with the ifconfig command.
• Configure IP multiplexing.
• Configure and use the /etc/rc.config.d/netconf configuration file.
• Configure the /etc/hosts configuration file.
• Configure static routes.
• Configure a default route.
• View the routing tables.
• List the advantages and disadvantages of a subnetted network.
• Subnet a network on an octet boundary.
• Subnet a network on a non-octet boundary.
• Set an HP-UX subnet mask.
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Overview
• Use the following tools to troubleshoot network connectivity:
− lanscan
− lanadmin
− linkloop
− arp/ndd
− ping
− netstat –i
− netstat –a
− netstat –r
− hostname
− nslookup
• Describe how run levels are used during system boot time.
• Change and view the system's current run level.
• Define the default system run level.
• Enable/disable services via the /etc/rc.config.d config files.
• Create custom startup and shutdown scripts to start additional services during the boot
process.
• View the startup error log file.
• Describe the purpose and function of NFS.
• Define NFS server and NFS client.
• List probable candidates for file sharing via NFS.
• Describe the purpose of NFS RPCs.
• Describe the purpose of the portmap and rpcbind daemons.
• Compare and contrast the NFS PV2 and NFS PV3 protocols.
• Compare and contrast the NFS and CIFS protocols.

Overview
• Configure NFS server functionality.
• Export file systems, and determine access privileges for those file systems.
• Configure NFS client functionality.
• Mount and unmount NFS file systems.
• Automatically mount NFS file systems.
• Determine which file systems have been exported and mounted.
• Describe the NFS startup procedure.
• Describe the function of the following NFS configuration files:

/etc/rc.config.d/nfsconf
/etc/exports
• List the daemons that must be running on an NFS server and client.
• Use showmount, rpcinfo, and nfsstat to troubleshoot problems with NFS.
Module 10 — Configuring AutoFS
• Describe the reasons for using AutoFS.
• Start and stop the AutoFS daemons.
• Configure the AutoFS master map.
• Configure the AutoFS –hosts special map.
• Configure the AutoFS direct map.
• Configure the AutoFS indirect maps.
• Describe the differences between AutoFS direct and indirect maps.
• Configure AutoFS to mount and unmount user home directories.
• Troubleshoot problems with AutoFS.
• Identify the limitations of AutoFS’s predecessor, the NFS Automounter.

Overview
• Describe the purpose of Network Information Service (NIS).
• List the standard NIS maps.
• Configure an NIS master server.
• Configure an NIS slave server.
• Configure an NIS client.
• Change a password stored in the password map.
• Update other NIS maps on the master server.
• Propagate new maps to a slave server.
• Restrict user access to the master server.
• Describe the differences between NIS and NIS+.
• Compare and contrast the three approaches to host name resolution:
− /etc/hosts
− NIS
− DNS/BIND
• Configure a primary DNS server using the hosts_to_named command.
• Configure a secondary name server.
• Configure a cache-only name server.
• Configure a resolver-only host.
• Configure the /etc/nsswitch.conf file.
• Add or remove a host in the DNS database, using the hosts_to_named command.
• Troubleshoot DNS using nslookup and nsquery.
• Describe the purpose and format of the following configuration files:
− /etc/rc.config.d/namesvrs
− /etc/named.conf

Overview
− /etc/resolv.conf
Module 13 — Configuring the ARPA/Berkeley Services
• List the commonly used ARPA-Berkeley services.
• Describe the function of the Internet daemon, inetd.
• Describe the process used to request ftp/telnet service from inetd.
• Describe the Internet service configuration files.
• Enable or disable Internet services from the command line.
• Allow or prevent access to selected Internet services via the inetd.conf file.
• Allow or prevent access for selected clients via the inetd.sec file.
• Allow or prevent access for selected users via the passwd file.
• Log requests for ARPA/Berkeley services.
• Define host equivalency between hosts with the /etc/hosts.equiv file.
• Define user equivalency between hosts with the ~/.rhosts file.
• Describe the purpose of bootp and tftp.
• Configure bootp and tftp services.
• Describe the purpose and contents of the bootptab file.
• Describe the purpose of a network-based printer.
• Configure a bootptab entry for a network printer using hppi.

Overview
• List three reasons for implementing network time synchronization.
• Describe the NTP stratum level concept.
• Define the following terms:
− NTP server
− NTP peer
− NTP broadcast client
− NTP polling client
• Configure an NTP server.
• Configure an NTP broadcast client.
• Configure an NTP direct-poll client.
• Monitor NTP using the ntpq command
Module 16 — Configuring an SD-UX Server
• Explain the benefits of SD-UX depot servers.
• Create a depot.
• Copy software and patches to a depot.
• Remove software and patches from a depot.
• List available depots and their contents.
• Register and unregister depots.
• Push and pull software installs from a depot server.

Overview
Student Profile and Prerequisites

This course is designed for the student who is responsible for administering both systems
and networks in an HP-UX environment. HP 9000 Series 300/400, workstation, and server
tasks are covered. The student should be an experienced HP-UX system administrator. The
student should have completed the following course:
• HP-UX System and Network Administration I (H3064S)
Curriculum Path
HP-UX System and Network Administration I

(H3064S) (5-days)
HP-UX System and Network Administration II

(H3065S) (5-days)
HP-UX System and Network Administration III

H3045S (5-days)

Objectives
Upon completion of this module, you will be able to do the following:
• Describe the purpose of a local area network (LAN).
• Describe the concept and purpose of the OSI model.
• Describe the role of host names, IPs, MACs, ports, and sockets in the OSI model.
• Describe the format and purpose of a MAC address.
• Describe the format and purpose of an IP address.
• Describe the format and purpose of an IP netmask.
• Describe the format and purpose of an IP network address.
• Describe the format and purpose of an IP broadcast address.
• Describe the format and purpose of the IP loopback address.
• Describe the format and purpose of a host name.
• Describe the differences between the UDP and TCP protocols.
• Describe the purpose of ports and sockets.
• Describe the host name to IP to MAC address lookup process.
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Module 1
LAN Concepts
1–1. SLIDE: What Is a Network?
What Is a Network?
• A Network is a series of devices interconnected by communication pathways.

• Local Area Networks (LANs) span relatively small geographic areas.
• Wide Area Networks (WANs) span relatively large geographic areas.
WAN
Chicago Office LAN Tokyo Office LAN
Boston Office LAN
Student Notes
The System and Network Administration I course that preceded this class dealt primarily
with administration issues on a single system. This course will concentrate on the
technologies and services used to share resources among multiple UNIX hosts on a computer
network. Perhaps we should start with some definitions.
What Is a Computer Network?

A Computer Network is simply a collection of systems and devices interconnected by some
sort of data pathway for the purpose of sharing resources. Many different types of resources
may be shared across a computer network. For instance:
• Few systems these days have a dedicated, locally attached printer. Oftentimes, multiple
systems share one or more network printers.
• Disk resources may be shared via a network, too. Many users access files, directories,
and even executables via network file servers.
• If your desktop computer does not have a tape drive, you may choose to write system
backups to a tape drive physically attached to a tape backup server host elsewhere on
your network.
• Even CPU resources may be shared via a network. Users may run a simple executable on
a desktop system that queries a database server across the network.
H3065S D.00 1-2 http://education.hp.com

Module 1
LAN Concepts
Local Area Networks versus Wide Area Networks

Networks are often categorized as Local Area Networks (LANs) or Wide Area Networks
(WANs).
HP officially defines a local area network (LAN) as a network that transmits a large
amount of information at a relatively high speed over limited distances within a single facility
or site. For instance, devices within a branch office are oftentimes connected via a local area
network. In a larger organization, each department may have a separate, dedicated LAN.
A wide area network (WAN) is a network that covers a large geographic area, allowing
devices in different cities to communicate with one another, though often at a data
transmission rate that is much slower than a LAN. Oftentimes, multiple LANs are connected
together via a WAN. Types of well-known WANs include the ARPANET and the public X.25
network.

Module 1
LAN Concepts
1–2. SLIDE: The OSI Model in a Nutshell
The OSI Model in a Nutshell
7 Application How is data created and used?

6 Presentation How is the data represented to the application?
Is the data in EBCDIC or ASCII format?
5 Session How does an application initiate a connection?
How does an application actually transmit/receive data?
How does an application know data has been received?
4 Transport Should the receiver acknowledge receipt of a packet?
How should the acknowledgement be handled?
Which process should receive the data?
3 Network How is data routed between networks?
2 Data link How do I know when its my turn to transmit?
How do I know which data is for me?
How are collisions handled?
1 Physical What kinds of cabling are supported?
What kinds of connectors are supported?
What’s the longest supported cable segment?
Student Notes
Because no single vendor can meet the needs of the entire networking marketplace,
companies have to draw on multiple vendors for their communications hardware and
software. The unique network architectures and proprietary protocols developed by each
vendor are frequently incompatible, precluding communication among them. The Open
Systems Interconnection (OSI) model was developed by the International Standards
Organization to resolve these incompatibility issues and allow products from different
manufacturers to communicate with one another.
The layer concept, on which the OSI model is based, establishes a set of rules for data
transmission on a variety of levels. In the layered scheme, messages originate from the top
layer (layer 7) of a transmitting computer, move down to its lowest layer (layer 1), and travel
across the network media to the receiving computer. The message arrives at the lowest layer
of the receiving computer (layer 1), and moves up through its various layers to layer 7.
The following describes each layer in detail:

• Layer 7: The application layer provides the software for network services such as file
transfer, remote login, remote execution, and electronic mail. It provides the interface
between user programs and the network.
"What the user runs"

Module 1
LAN Concepts
• Layer 6: The presentation layer converts outbound data from a machine-specific

format to an international standard format. It converts inbound back to a machine-
specific format (for example: ASCII -> machine specific -> EBCDIC).
"Translator"
• Layer 5: The session layer allows the setup and termination of a communications path
and synchronizes the dialog between the two systems. It establishes connections between
systems in much the same way as an automatic dialer does between two telephone
systems.
"Terminal emulator"
• Layer 4: The transport layer provides reliable flow of datagrams between sender and
receiver, and ensures that the data arrives at the correct destination. Protocols at this
layer also ensure that a copy of the data is made in case it is lost in transmission.
"Software error correction"
• Layer 3: The network layer decides which path will be taken through the network. It
provides the packet addressing that will tell computers on the network where to route the
user's data.
"Addressing scheme"
• Layer 2: The data link layer provides reliable, error-free media access for data
transmission. It produces the frame around the data.
"Hardware error correction"
• Layer 1: the physical layer establishes the actual physical connection (cable
connection) between the network and the computer equipment. Physical Layer standards
determine what type of signaling is used (what represents a bit 0, what represents a 1),
what cable types and lengths are supported, and what types of connectors may be used.
"Cable"

Module 1
LAN Concepts
1–3. TEXT PAGE: OSI Worksheet
Table 1
OSI Layer Associated Protocols and Addresses
Instructions
The remainder of this chapter provides an overview of the protocols and network address
types that are required to pass data across a network from one process to another. As new
protocols and network address types are introduced, record them in the appropriate layer of
this OSI chart.

Module 1
LAN Concepts
1–4. SLIDE: Media Access Control (MAC) Addresses
Media Access Control (MAC) Addresses
• Every LAN card has a unique 48-bit MAC address.

• Every frame of data contains a source and destination MAC.
• Hosts accept frames destined for their MAC address.
• Hosts ignore frames destined for other MAC addresses.
Which frames
0x0060B07ef226 are for me?
Following These six hex These six hex

number is digits identify digits uniquely
in hex ... the card identify this
manufacturer card
Student Notes
In order to pass data successfully from host to host on a local area network, there must be
some mechanism for determining which frames of data are destined for which hosts. Media
Access Control addresses solve this problem!
Every LAN card attached to a local area network must have a unique MAC address assigned
to it. Every frame of data passed across the network, then, includes both a source and
destination MAC address. If the destination MAC address on a passing frame matches a host's
own MAC address, the host knows that it should receive that frame of data. Frames destined
for other MAC addresses are ignored. While you may be accustomed to referencing hosts on
the network by "host name" or "IP address," those addresses must be mapped to MAC
addresses before a frame of data can be sent across the network wire. Host names and IP
addresses will be discussed in detail later in this chapter.
The MAC address is a 48-bit number that is set by the LAN card manufacturer. Typically,
HP-UX displays the MAC address as a 12-digit hexadecimal number, preceded by a 0x to
indicate that the value is in hex. The first six hexadecimal digits indicate which manufacturer
produced the card, while the last six digits uniquely distinguish each card produced by that
manufacturer from all others. Currently, HP LAN card MAC addresses begin with 0x080009 or
0x0060b0. The MAC address may be changed via the lanadmin command, but this is not
recommended.

Module 1
LAN Concepts
Viewing a Host's MAC Addresses

If you have multiple LAN cards, each LAN card should have a different MAC address. Use the
lanscan command to view your system's MAC addresses. The following example shows
lanscan output for a host with two network interface cards:
# lanscan
Hardware Station Crd Hdw Net-Interface NM MAC HP-DLPI DLPI
Path Address In# State NamePPA ID Type Support Mjr#
2/0/2 0x0800094A7334 0 UP lan0 snap0 1 ETHER Yes 119
4/0/1 0x080009707AF2 1 UP lan1 snap1 2 ETHER Yes 119
NOTE: The MAC address is often referenced via a variety of different names. All of
these names refer to the same address:
• link-level address
• station address
• physical address
• hardware address
• Ethernet address

Module 1
LAN Concepts
1–5. SLIDE: Internet Protocol (IP) Addresses
Internet Protocol (IP) Addresses
• Every host on an IP network has a unique, 32-bit IP address.

• IP addresses make it possible to logically group nodes into IP networks.
• Network bits within the IP determine which network the host is on.
• Host bits within the IP distinguish each host from all other hosts on the network.
• Hosts with identical network bits are said to be on the same IP network.
128.1.1.1 128.1.1. 128.1.1.

1 2
Which network What is the

is the host on? host's address
on that 128.1 Network
network?
Student Notes
In addition to the MAC address assigned to each LAN card by the card manufacturer, each
LAN card on an HP-UX machine is also typically assigned an Internet Protocol (IP) Address.
Internet Protocol Addresses (or IP Addresses) make it possible to group nodes into
logical IP networks, and efficiently pass data between these networks. For instance, hosts
within your Chicago office may all be assigned IP addresses on one IP network, while hosts
in your San Francisco office may be assigned IP addresses on a different IP network. By
looking at a data packet's destination IP address, your network devices can intelligently
"route" data between networks.
IP Address Structure
IP addresses are usually represented by four 8-bit fields, separated by dots ("."). These fields
are called octets. Each 8-bit octet is represented by a decimal number in the range from 0 to
255.

Module 1
LAN Concepts
The table below demonstrates the conversion of several 8-bit binary numbers to their
corresponding decimal values:
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 Decimal Value

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 3
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 4
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 5
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 255
Using this conversion mechanism, IP addresses may be displayed in either binary or decimal.
Consider the following examples:
10000000.00000001.00000001.00000001 = 128.1.1.1
10001010.10000001.00000001.00000010 = 138.129.1.2
10011100.10011011.11000010.10101010 = 156.153.194.170
IP Address Network and Host Bits

Some bits within an IP address identify the network to which the host belongs. These
network bits are used by network devices to route data between networks. Two hosts with
identical network bits are said to be on the same IP network.
The remaining host bits in the IP address uniquely identify each host within the logical
network.
Viewing a Host's IP Address

You can view your system's IP addresses with two commands. First, use the lanscan
command that was introduced on the previous slide to determine the "Interface Name" that
has been assigned to each of your LAN cards:
# lanscan
Next, use the ifconfig command to view each LAN card's IP address:
# ifconfig lan0
lan0: flags=843<Up,BROADCAST,RUNNING,MULTICAST>
inet 128.1.1.1 netmask ffff0000 broadcast 128.1.255.255

Module 1
LAN Concepts
The netstat command can also be used to display your IP address:
# netstat –in
Name Mtu Network Address Ipkts Opkts
lan0 1500 128.1.0.0 128.1.1.1 55670 23469
lo0 4136 127.0.0.0 127.0.0.1 3068 3068
CAUTION: Do not assign the same IP address to different hosts. If two hosts on the same
network use the same IP address, errors will occur when communicating with
these hosts.

Module 1
LAN Concepts
1–6. SLIDE: IP Network Classes
IP Network Classes
• The IP address network/host bit boundary varies from network to network.

• Networks with more host bits may have more hosts.
• Networks with fewer host bits may have fewer hosts.
/8 Network 8 Network Bits 8 Host Bits 8 Host Bits 8 Host Bits
/16 Network 8 Network Bits 8 Network Bits 8 Host Bits 8 Host Bits
/24 Network 8 Network Bits 8 Network Bits 8 Network Bits 8 Host Bits
Student Notes
The previous slide noted that IP addresses have two components: a network component and
a host component. The original designers of the Internet realized that some networks would
be very large, while others would be much smaller. Large networks would require more host
bits to provide a unique host address for each node, while smaller networks would require
fewer host bits to provide a unique host address for each node.
Varying the IP address network/host boundary makes it possible to allocate just enough IP
addresses for any size network. Thus, although every IP address is 32 bits, the boundary
between the network and host portions of an IP address varies from network to network.
When your ISP or IT department assigns you an IP address, the IP will often have a /xx
appended to the end. The /xx identifies the number of network bits in the IP address.

Module 1
LAN Concepts
The following table demonstrates the effect of shifting the network boundary. The table only
shows /8, /16, and /24 networks; many others are possible, too.
Network Type Network bits Host bits Host Addresses/ Network

/8 8 24 224 = 16,777,216
/16 16 16 216 = 65,536
/24 24 8 28 = 256
** Note: Not all of the host addresses are actually usable. One of the addresses in each
network is used as the network address, another is used as the broadcast address. Thus,
there can only be 254 hosts on a /24 network. These special addresses will be discussed later.
Traditional Class A, B, and C IP Addressing

In the early days of the Internet, only three types of networks were recognized: /8 (also
known as "Class A") networks, /16 (also known as "Class B") networks, and /24 (also known
as "Class C") networks. Large organizations were assigned "Class A" network addresses,
medium sized organizations were assigned "Class B" network addresses, and smaller
organizations were assigned "Class C" network addresses.
Furthermore, the addresses were structured such that network devices could determine an
IP address's class (and network/host boundary!) by simply looking at the first few bits:
• Any IP address beginning with a binary "0" was assumed to be a Class A.

In decimal notation, these IP addresses have a number between 1 and 127 in octet 1.
• Any IP address beginning with a binary "10" was assumed to be a Class B.

• Any IP address beginning with a binary "110" was assumed to be a Class C.

The following chart summarizes the resulting network classes.
Class Net bits Host bits Number of Networks Hosts / Network Range
Class A 8 24 127 16,777,216 1–127
Class B 16 16 16,383 65,536 128–191
Class C 24 8 2,097,151 256 192–223
Unfortunately, the Class A/B/C IP allocation scheme led to inefficient use of the IP address
space, since many organizations were given much larger IP address blocks than they actually
needed. HP, for instance, was assigned Class A address 15.0.0.0/8. This address space
includes over 16 million IP addresses! This largesse was not considered a problem at the
time, since there seemed to be far more addresses than would ever be used. No one
anticipated the tremendous growth in the Internet that has occurred over the last decade.

Module 1
LAN Concepts
In the 1990s, the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) committee decided to move to the
more flexible scheme known as Classless Internet Domain Routing (CIDR) that is used today.
Now you may be assigned a /13, /14, /15, /16, /23 — or almost any other network type —
depending on the number of hosts on your network.
Furthermore, using the new "Classless" IP addressing scheme, you may find that your IP
address is 192.1.1.1/20. Using the older "Classfull" IP addressing scheme, any IP beginning
with 192 had to be a Class C with 24 network bits. The new scheme is more flexible, but also
somewhat more complicated.
IPv6 Addressing
CIDR addressing and other creative solutions have made it possible to more efficiently use
the existing 32-bit IP address space more efficiently. However, a 32-bit address can represent
at most 232 (about 4 billion) addresses, and as more and more devices attach to the Internet,
this address space is being rapidly depleted.
As far back as 1991, the Internet Engineering Task Force began considering a successor to
the current 32-bit, 4-octet "IPv4" addressing method. After nearly a decade of study and
debate, the IETF has settled on a new standard which has been dubbed "IPv6". The new IPv6
standard uses a 128-bit addressing scheme to exponentially increase the pool of IP addresses.
Unfortunately, IPv6 addresses are also much more cumbersome than our current IPv4
addresses; they are typically represented as a series of eight four digit hexadecimal numbers.
Here's a typical IPv6 address:
CDCD:910A:2222:5498:8475:1111:3900:2020
Fortunately, the transition to IPv6 needn't occur overnight. As long as all the hosts on your
local area network continue to use IPv4, there is no need to upgrade your servers and
workstations to IPv6. The overall transition from IPv4 to IPv6 is expected to proceed
gradually over the course of several years.
HP currently offers an IPv6 developers' toolkit, but full support for IPv6 on HP-UX won't be
available until a future release of the OS.
For more information on IPv6, take a look at Pete Loshin's IPv6 Clearly Explained (ISBN
0124558380), or Christian Huitema's more technical IPv6: the New Internet Protocol (ISBN
0138505055).

Module 1
LAN Concepts
1–7. SLIDE: The IP Netmask
The IP Netmask
IP Address:
100000000 00000001 00000001 00000001
128.1.1.1/16
Netmask:
111111111 11111111 00000000 00000000
255.255.0.0 or
0x ff ff 00 00
Netmask 1's identify network bits Netmask 0's identify host bits
Q: How many bits in my IP are network bits?

A: The netmask has the answer!
Student Notes
When you configure your system's IP address, your system must be told which bits in your IP
address are network bits, and which bits are host bits. These days, the network/host
boundary is usually communicated via the "/" notation introduced on the previous page.
However, UNIX uses a different mechanism to identify the network/host boundary: the IP
netmask.
The netmask, like an IP address, has 32 bits. However, the netmask is formulated somewhat
differently than a standard IP address. To determine your netmask, write a "1" in each
network bit, and a "0" in each of the remaining bits. The resulting value may be written in
binary, dotted-decimal (like an IP address), or even in hexadecimal. The chart below shows
some common netmasks in all three forms:
Net Type Netmask

Netmask (Binary) (Hex) (Decimal)
/8 11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000 0xff000000 255.0.0.0
/16 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000 0xffff0000 255.255.0.0
/24 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000 0xffffff00 255.255.255.0
For other conversions, either consult the binary/hex/decimal conversion chart at the end of
this book, or use the /usr/dt/bin/dtcalc calculator utility.

Module 1
LAN Concepts
Viewing Your System's IP Netmask

You can view your system's IP netmask with the ifconfig command. First, use the
lanscan command to determine the "Interface Name" that has been assigned to each of your
LAN cards:
# lanscan
Next, use the ifconfig command to view each LAN card's netmask:
# ifconfig lan0

Module 1
LAN Concepts
1–8. SLIDE: The IP Network Address
The IP Network Address
• Every host must know which network it is connected to.

• Formulate the network address by setting all IP host bits to "0".
128.1.1.1/16 Network Address: 128.1.0.0/16

128.1.1.2/16
100000000 00000001 00000000 00000000
128.1.1.3/16
192.1.1.1/24 Network Address: 192.1.1.0/24

192.1.1.2/24
192.1.1.3/24 110000000 00000001 00000001 00000000
Q: Which network am I on?
Student Notes
The last few slides have covered the basic concepts required to formulate and understand IP
addresses. The next few slides discuss several special IP addresses that you will likely
encounter. The first of these is the IP Network Address.
An IP Network Address is a special address used by routers and other network devices to
reference an entire network of hosts. The network address is formulated by setting all of the
host bits in an IP address to "0."
Consider the examples on the slide. In the 128.1.x.x/16 IP addresses, the last 16 bits (that is,
the bits in the last two octets) define the host portion of the addresses. Setting these 16 bits
to "0" yields the following network address:
10000000.00000001.00000000.00000000 = 128.1.0.0/16
In the 192.1.1.x/24 IP addresses, the last 8 bits (that is, the bits in the last octet) define the
host portion of the addresses. Setting these bits to "0" yields the following network address:
11000000.00000001.00000001.00000000 = 192.1.1.0/24

Module 1
LAN Concepts
Viewing the Network Address

HP-UX systems automatically compute their network addresses by doing a binary "AND"
operation on the IP address and IP netmask during system startup. You can view your
system's network addresses using the netstat command:
# netstat –in
lan0 1500 128.1.0.0 128.1.1.1 55670 23469
lo0 4136 127.0.0.0 127.0.0.1 3068 3068

Module 1
LAN Concepts
1–9. SLIDE: The IP Broadcast Address
The IP Broadcast Address
Packets sent
to the network
128.1.1.1 128.1.1.2 128.1.1.3 broadcast address
are received by ALL
hosts on the
network.
Formulate the
broadcast address
by setting all
host bits to "1".
# ping 128.1.255.255
Student Notes
The network broadcast address may be used to send a packet to all of the nodes on a host's
network. Some network services take advantage of this broadcast functionality to enable
clients to identify an available server. X-terminals, for instance, may use the broadcast
mechanism to identify all available login servers on the terminal's network. Network
Information Service clients use the broadcast address to identify an NIS domain server
during system startup. These are just a few of the many network services that use an IP
broadcast to send a packet to all hosts on a network.
To formulate the broadcast address, simply set all IP host bits to "1". Consider the example
on the slide. The 128.1.0.0/16 network has 16 host bits in the last two octets. Placing a "1" in
all 16 host bits yields the following broadcast:
10000000.00000001.11111111.11111111 = 128.1.255.255

Module 1
LAN Concepts
Viewing the Broadcast Address

HP-UX systems automatically compute their broadcast addresses during system startup. You
can view your system's network addresses using the ifconfig command. First, use the
lanscan command to determine the "Interface Name" that has been assigned to each of your
LAN cards:
# lanscan
Next, use the ifconfig command to view each LAN card's broadcast address:
# ifconfig lan0

Module 1
LAN Concepts
1–10. SLIDE: The IP Loopback Address
The IP Loopback Address
The loopback address, 127.0.0.1, is a special address

that always references your local host.
128.1.1.1 128.1.1.2 128.1.1.3
# ping 127.0.0.1
Student Notes
The IP loopback (or localhost) address is a special IP address that may be used to
reference your local host, without actually sending a packet out on the local network.
Applications sometimes use the loopback address to send network traffic to other
processes on the same machine. The loopback address may be used for troubleshooting
purposes as well. For instance, if a client claims to be having difficulty establishing a telnet
connection to your host, telnet your loopback address. If your telnet attempt to the
loopback address succeeds, there is probably a network connectivity problem between
your host and the client, rather than a problem with the telnet service.
Attempts to access the loopback address should succeed even if your LAN card is down,
disconnected, or misconfigured.
The loopback address is always set to 127.0.0.1.

Module 1
LAN Concepts
1–11. SLIDE: Obtaining an IP Address
Obtaining an IP Address
Private Public
Intranet Internet
Firewall
Obtaining an IP address on Obtaining an IP address on

a Private Intranet allows the Public Internet allows
limited access to the Internet direct connectivity to millions
via a network Firewall. of hosts worldwide.
Student Notes
Every host on an IP network must have an IP address. The procedure required to obtain an IP
address depends on the network you wish to connect to.
Connecting to the Public Internet

A direct connection to the public Internet allows direct connectivity to millions of hosts
connected to the Internet worldwide. This offers great flexibility, but also some danger.
Connecting directly to the public Internet also potentially allows hackers all over the world to
access your host!
If you, or your organization, wish to have a direct Internet connection, you must obtain a
unique IP address, used by no one else anywhere on the Internet. The International
Committee for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) is the organization that is currently
responsible for determining how IP addresses are allocated and used. ICANN's website is
accessible at http://www.icann.org. ICANN has delegated responsibility for allocating
IP addresses out to several regional authorities:
http://www.arin.net (North and South America)

http://apnic.net (Asia and Pacific Region)
http://ripe.net (Europe)

Module 1
LAN Concepts
These organizations, in turn, allocate blocks of public Internet IP addresses to corporations

and Internet Service Providers. Check with your local IT department or ISP to obtain an
address on the public Internet.
Connecting to a private Intranet with an Internet Address

Many organizations choose not to connect individual hosts directly to the public Internet for
security reasons. Why expose your hosts to thousands of hackers, if those hosts need only
limited access to the outside networks?
Instead, many organizations choose to configure a private Intranet that is insulated from
the dangers of the public Internet by some sort of network firewall. Firewalls can be used to
control the type of traffic that passes both in and out of your organization's private Intranet.
There are two ways to obtain and allocate IP addresses in this situation. One approach is to
request a public Internet IP address for each host, then shield those hosts behind your
firewall. If you choose to go this route, you will have to apply for a block of unique, public
Internet addresses from your ISP or the websites listed in the previous section.
Connecting to a private Intranet Using Network Address Translation

Since public Internet IP addresses are in short supply, many organizations choose instead to
provide Internet access to their internal hosts using some sort of proxy server software,
which does not require a unique Internet address for every host on the private Intranet. Using
this approach, hosts on your private Intranet are assigned addresses from the following
blocks of IPs:
10.*.*.*
172.16-31.*.*
192.168.*.*
These addresses are designated specifically for use on private Intranets. Hosts with
addresses within these ranges may not be connected directly to the public Internet, nor are
packets destined for these addresses allowed to pass on or through the public Internet. Since
these addresses are not allowed directly on the public Internet, any organization may use
these addresses without fear of conflicting with other organization's addresses.
Question: If packets destined for these addresses are not allowed on the public Internet, how
can these hosts send email or access web sites outside their private networks?
Intranet hosts that need web access to the outside world may access the Internet via a proxy
server. These hosts can be configured to relay all external web access requests through a
specially configured server with connections both to the private Intranet, and the public
Internet. The proxy server forwards internal clients' access requests to external sites via its
IP address on the public Internet, then relays the responses back to the requesting clients.
Email service may be provided using similar functionality. Hosts on the private Intranet send
and receive email via a specially configured Mail Gateway that straddles both the private
Intranet, and the public Internet.

Module 1
LAN Concepts
For even more flexibility, many firewall packages can be configured to provide Network
Address Translation service. Using this functionality, clients on the private Intranet can
relay requests for many different network services through the corporate firewall. HP's
Praesidium product is one of many products designed to provide this type of functionality.

Module 1
LAN Concepts
1–12. SLIDE: IP Address Examples
IP Address Examples
IP Address Netmask Network Broadcast
192.66.123.4/24
148.10.12.14/16
9.12.36.1/8
163.128.19.9/16
123.45.65.23/8
199.66.55.4/24
Student Notes
The slide above lists six IP addresses in dotted decimal, "/" notation. Using the information
given, compute the netmask, network, and broadcast address associated with each IP
address.

Module 1
LAN Concepts
1–13. SLIDE: Host Names
Host Names
/etc/hosts
128.1.1.1 sanfran
I can reference nodes 128.1.1.2 oakland
by host name and let 128.1.1.3 la
HP-UX automatically 128.1.1.4 sandiego
determine the IP
IP?
addresses for me! d's
ak lan .1 .1.2
a t iso
is 128
Wh s IP
land'
oak
Telnet request
To: 128.1.1.2
# telnet oakland
128.1.1.2 (oakland)
Student Notes
Although HP-UX systems and other network devices identify hosts by IP address, users and
applications find IP addresses to be a cumbersome method for identifying network hosts:
• IP addresses are not very memorable. Users that access dozens of network hosts on a
regular basis may have trouble remembering those hosts' IP addresses.
• Anytime you change your network topology, IP addresses are likely to change. Updating
all the scripts and application configuration files that reference the old IP addresses could
quickly become a support nightmare!
For both of these reasons, many users and applications prefer to reference network hosts by
host name rather than IP address. A host name is nothing more than a user-friendly, easily
remembered, "nickname" assigned to each host on a network.
Choosing Host Names

There are just four rules to remember when choosing system host names:
• The maximum length for a host name is eight characters.
• Host names must only contain letters, numbers, and underscores. Punctuation marks and
other special characters are not allowed.

Module 1
LAN Concepts
• Every host name must be unique.
• Choose meaningful host names. A system's host name may be based on the primary user
(the workstation on Tom's desk might have host name "tom"), function ("mailsvr" or
"filesvr"), geography ("chicago", "tokyo"), or any other scheme that your users find
memorable.
Resolving Host Names to IP Addresses

Although users may prefer to identify hosts by host name, every host must still have an IP
address, and every outgoing packet must have a destination IP address. Somehow, the host
names specified by your users must be resolved to IP addresses recognized by your network
devices. There are three mechanisms available for converting host names to their
corresponding IP addresses.
The /etc/hosts file Each system maintains its own file which lists the names and
IP addresses of other nodes on the network. This is used
primarily on small networks.
NIS One system (the NIS server) maintains a list of all the nodes
and IP addresses on the network. When resolving host names
to IP addresses, all systems reference the NIS server. This is
used on medium size networks.
DNS DNS uses a distributed database of host name/IP information.

Thousands of DNS servers scattered across the Internet share
responsibility for resolving host names to IP addresses, and
share IP/host name resolution information back and forth as
necessary. DNS is the host name resolution method of choice
for large networks, and for hosts connected to the public
Internet.
Viewing your Host Name

Use the hostname command to view your system host name.
# hostname
sanfran

Module 1
LAN Concepts
1–14. SLIDE: Converting IP Addresses to MAC Addresses
Converting IP Addresses to
MAC Addresses
Source MAC: 080009-000001

Destination MAC: 080009-000002
Outbound Frame
128.1.1.1 128.1.1.2
(sanfran) (oakland)
080009-000001 080009-000002
/etc/hosts ARP cache (memory resident)

128.1.1.1 sanfran 128.1.1.1 080009-000001
128.1.1.2 oakland 128.1.1.2 080009-000002
128.1.1.3 la 128.1.1.3 080009-000003
Example: System sanfran pings system oakland

1. Resolve hostname oakland to an IP address.
2. Lookup the MAC address in the ARP cache corresponding to oakland's IP address.
3. Send the packet to oakland's MAC address.
Student Notes
As you may recall from an earlier discussion of MAC addresses, every frame of data passed
across a network must include both source and destination MAC addresses.
To allow the system to quickly determine a remote node's MAC address, each local kernel
maintains a real-time, lookup table known as the ARP cache. The ARP cache maps IP
addresses of remote nodes to their corresponding MAC addresses.
The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) cache is a memory resident data structure whose
content is maintained and managed by the local system's kernel. By default, the ARP cache
contains the IP addresses and corresponding MAC addresses of nodes that the local system
has communicated with in the last five minutes.
Explanation of the Slide Example

The slide above illustrates the lookup process a system uses when communicating with
another node on the network. When system sanfran pings oakland, sanfran must first resolve
oakland's host name to an IP address using the /etc/hosts file.
Next, sanfran checks the ARP cache to find the MAC address that corresponds to oakland's
IP address.

Module 1
LAN Concepts
Finally, sanfran can send the outbound frame on the network using oakland's MAC address
as the destination.
Viewing the ARP Cache

You may view the contents of your ARP cache at any time by issuing the arp command.
# arp -a

Module 1
LAN Concepts
1–15. SLIDE: Populating the ARP Cache
Populating the ARP Cache
Broadcast
6 3 Packet
4
ARP cache
2 128.1.1.1
128.1.1.2
080009-000001
080009-000002
128.1.1.2 128.1.1.3 128.1.1.4
128.1.1.3 080009-000003 (oakland) (la) (sandiego)
128.1.1.4 incomplete!
128.1.1.4 080009-23EF45
128.1.1.1
5
(sanfran) 1 $ ping sandiego
Example: sanfran pings sandiego
1. sanfran pings sandiego. sanfran resolves sandiego's IP address via /etc/hosts.
2. Search for sandiego's IP in the arp cache — the IP address is not found in ARP cache.
3. Send ARP broadcast on the local network to find the MAC address for 128.1.1.4.
4. System with the specified IP address responds with a packet containing its MAC.
5. The MAC address and corresponding IP address are added to sanfran's ARP cache.
6. The frame specifically addressed to sandiego's MAC address is sent.
Student Notes
Resolving a destination node's IP address to its corresponding MAC address is fairly
straightforward as long as the destination node's MAC address is in the local node's ARP
cache. There are many situations however, when a destination node's MAC address may not
be in the local ARP cache. What happens then?
How Does HP-UX Populate the ARP Cache?

If a local host cannot find a destination host's MAC address in the ARP cache, the local host
does the following:
• The local host sends out a broadcast packet to all nodes on the network asking if their IP
address matches the IP address in question.
• One and only one node should respond to the ARP broadcast by sending a reply packet
indicating that it has the requested IP address. The reply packet sent by the remote node
will contain the remote node's MAC address.
• Upon receiving the reply packet, the local node records the remote node's IP/MAC
address information in the local ARP cache.

Module 1
LAN Concepts
1. A user on sanfran attempts to ping sandiego.
# ping sandiego
2. sanfran uses the /etc/hosts file to resolve "sandiego" to IP address 128.1.1.4.
3. Once sanfran determines sandiego's IP address, sanfran checks the ARP cache for
sandiego's IP address. In this example, sandiego's IP address is not present in sanfran's
ARP cache.
4. In order to determine sandiego's MAC address, sanfran sends an ARP broadcast onto the
network requesting a response from the host with IP address 128.1.1.4 (sandiego's IP).
5. sandiego responds to sanfran's broadcast.
6. After receiving sandiego's response, sanfran adds sandiego's MAC address to the local
ARP cache for future reference.
7. sanfran can now ping sandiego, addressing the packets specifically to sandiego's MAC
address.
#=> ping sandiego
PING sandiego: 64 byte packets
64 bytes from 128.1.1.4: icmp_seq=0. time=18. ms
----sandiego PING Statistics----

8 packets transmitted, 8 packets received, 0% packet loss
round-trip (ms) min/avg/max = 2/4/18

Module 1
LAN Concepts
1–16. SLIDE: Putting It All Together
Putting It All Together
Is the
hostname
destination a hostname
or an IP address?
Resolve hostname Is the

IP address to corresponding destination IP address
IP address. No found in ARP cache? Yes
Look for the destination

IP address in routing table. Send a broadcast requesting
the MAC for the destination IP.
Use the MAC address found
in ARP cache as the
Is the Destination machine responds destination MAC.
destination on the with its MAC address.
No local network? Yes, on local

network
Record the found MAC address
in the ARP cache for later reference.
Send packet to router Send the packet out on the wire

to be forwarded to with the source and destination
destination host. MAC and IP addresses.
Student Notes
The flow chart above summarizes the actions that have to occur every time hosts
communicate across a local area network.
The flowchart notes that packets sent to hosts outside of the local network must be
forwarded to a router, before being passed to their eventual destination. Routing will be
discussed in detail later in the course.

Module 1
LAN Concepts
1–17. SLIDE: Managing Packet Flow with TCP
Managing Packet Flow with TCP
Retransmit 4 3 Packet
Send
2 3 2 1 1 3 2
Data Packets Acknowledgements 1 5
1
2 2 1
Open Close
3 Segment
2 6 Reassemble
sanfran Data
128.1.1.1
3 oakland
128.1.1.2
Sending a packet with TCP:

1. Open connection to remote node.
2. Segment data into “datagram” packets.
3. Send datagrams to destination node.
4. If there is no acknowledgement, retransmit!
5. Close connection after all datagrams are received.
6. Receiver node reassembles datagrams into proper order.
Student Notes
Up to this point, we have discussed how:
• Host names are resolved to IP addresses.

• How IP addresses are resolved to MAC addresses.
Several issues have not been addressed, yet, though:
• What happens when a packet arrives at the destination host? How is the packet passed to
the destination application on that host?
• What happens if a packet is lost? Who is responsible for re-sending the lost packet or
otherwise handling this situation?
The remaining slides in the chapter discuss two protocols that govern how packets are sent
and acknowledged, and the port and socket addresses that ensure that data sent across a
network is passed to the appropriate process or application on the destination host.

Module 1
LAN Concepts
Transmission Control Protocol — TCP

The two main sets of rules governing how nodes communicate with each other are the TCP
protocol and the UDP protocol. The TCP protocol requires more overhead, but provides
more reliability than UDP.
Two important concepts characterize the TCP protocol.
TCP is a Connection Oriented protocol. A communication session is established between

the two nodes before any data is exchanged.
TCP is a Reliable protocol. For every datagram sent, an acknowledgment is returned by the
receiver. If an acknowledgment is not received, the transmitting node resends the packet.

The slide illustrates how data is transferred from one node to another using the TCP
protocol.
1. Before any data is transferred, a communication session is established between the two
nodes.
2. Before sending the data, the sending node segments the data into smaller datagram
packets.
3. The datagram packets are sent to the destination node.
4. Upon receiving the datagram packets, the destination node sends acknowledgment
packets back to the source node. The sending node automatically retransmits
unacknowledged datagrams.
5. Upon successfully transferring all datagrams to the destination node, the connection
between the two nodes is terminated and closed.
6. Once the destination node has received all datagrams, they are reassembled in their
proper sequence.
NOTE: In some cases, steps 5 and 6 may occur in reverse order.

Module 1
LAN Concepts
1–18. SLIDE: Managing Packet Flow with UDP
Managing Packet Flow with UDP
2 1
2
1 1 2 1 3
128.1.1.1 128.1.1.2
(sanfran) (oakland)
Sending a packet with UDP:

1. Packets cannot be segmented or streamed; a packet is always sent as a single message.
2. No connection is opened with the node; the packet is simply sent to the node.
3. No acknowledgement is sent back to the original sender.
• Since the original sender never knows if packet is received, sender never retransmits.
• The receiver doesn’t know if it received all of the intended packets.
• With UDP, the application is responsible for ensuring data transmission is complete.
Student Notes
The second common protocol used between two nodes on a network is the User Datagram
Protocol (UDP). UDP requires less network overhead than TCP, but it does not provide an
acknowledgement mechanism. It is therefore considered unreliable. Characteristics of the
UDP protocol are below.
UDP is a Connectionless protocol. No communication session is established before the

source node sends the first datagram.
UDP is an Unreliable protocol. The receiving node does not send acknowledgment packets
back to the source node. The source node never knows whether the data packet arrived at
the destination node. For this reason, the protocol is considered unreliable.

The slide shows an example of two datagrams being sent using the UDP protocol.
1. sanfran wants to send data to host oakland. The data is not segmented or fragmented;
rather, it is sent as a single datagram (max size 64 KB).
2. No connection is established with the destination node. The datagram is simply sent to
the destination address.

Module 1
LAN Concepts
3. UDP does not send an acknowledgement back to the sender. Acknowledgement, if

desired, must be handled by the application, not by the underlying UDP protocol.
Analogy: Sending data via UDP is similar to mailing a letter through the postal service. No
connection between the sender and receiver is established before the letter is sent, nor is any
acknowledgement returned after the letter is received.
Analogy: Sending data via TCP is similar to making a phone call. Before any communications
takes place, a connection is established between the sender and receiver. There is a verbal
acknowledgment that information is being received.

Module 1
LAN Concepts
1–19. SLIDE: Sending Data to Applications via Ports
Sending Data to Applications via Ports
To: port 23 To: port 21 To: port 513
Network Subsystem
128.1.1.2 128.1.1.3 128.1.1.4
(oakland) (la) (sandiego)
telnetd ftpd rlogind
port 23 port 21 port 513
$ telnet sanfran $ ftp sanfran $ rlogin sanfran
128.1.1.1 (sanfran)
Problem: Who gets the data?

Thousands of packets arrive every minute on the LAN interface card.
How does the network subsystem know to which application to deliver the network packets?
Solution: Assign each application a unique port number.

When each packet is sent, a port number will be included in the packet.
The port numbers identify which network application is to receive the packet.
Student Notes
MAC addresses, IP addresses, TCP and UDP are all used to get packets from node to node on
a network. Each node, though, may have dozens, if not hundreds, of network services and
applications running simultaneously. When a data packet arrives on a system's LAN interface,
how does HP-UX determine which application should receive that packet?
Port Numbers
Every network application is assigned a unique port number that distinguishes that
application from all others. Network hosts specify which application should receive a packet
by including a destination port number in outgoing packets.

The example on the slide shows three client systems. Each client system is accessing a
different network service on server sanfran. The clients identify the desired service by port
number.
oakland's telnet request is destined for sanfran's telnetd process on port number 23. la's
ftp request is destined for sanfran's ftpd process on port number 21. sandiego's rlogin
request is destined for sanfran's rlogind daemon on port number 513.

Module 1
LAN Concepts
As the flood of incoming packets arrives, sanfran ensures that each packet gets to the right
application or service by checking the destination port numbers.
The /etc/services File

In order for clients to be able to access the network services successfully, port numbers for
network service server processes must be consistent. The most common network services
use predefined port numbers that are consistent across all hosts. These well-known port
numbers for the standard network applications and services are defined in the
/etc/services file on all HP-UX (and most other UNIX) systems.

Module 1
LAN Concepts
1–20. SLIDE: Managing Ports with Sockets
Managing Ports with Sockets
To: port 23 To: port 23 To: port 23
Network Subsystem
128.1.1.2 128.1.1.3
telnetd ftpd
(oakland) (la)
telnetd
telnetd $ telnet sanfran $ telnet sanfran
$ telnet sanfran $ ftp sanfran
128.1.1.1 (sanfran)
Problem: Which network application gets the data when multiple instances are present?
Multiple clients can be executing the same network application.
Multiple instances of the network application can be running on the same client.
Solution: Create a unique socket for each process which runs a network application.
A socket is a port number combined with a node’s IP address.
A socket connection is the coupling of a client socket address with a server socket address.
Student Notes
A packet's destination application can be identified by the packet's destination port number.
What happens, though, if:
• Clients oakland and la both choose to access the telnet service on server sanfran
simultaneously? Both nodes address their packets using port number 23, yet each packet
must be handled by a separate instance of the telnetd daemon.
How does sanfran distinguish between telnet packets from one node versus telnet
packets from another node?
• User1 and user2 on oakland initiate simultaneous telnet sessions to sanfran. Both
telnetd processes on sanfran use the well-known telnet port number, 23.
How do sanfran and oakland determine which telnet packets belong to user1, and which
belong to user2?

Module 1
LAN Concepts
Sockets
Sockets provide the solution to both of the problems mentioned above. A socket is simply an
address that identifies a specific network application running on a specific host. A socket
address is formed by appending a destination port number to a destination IP address.
The sockets used by the applications on the slide are listed below:
128.1.1.1.23 The socket for the telnetd daemon on sanfran.
128.1.1.1.21 The socket for the ftpd daemon on sanfran.
128.1.1.2.50001 The socket for the first telnet program on oakland.
128.1.1.2.50002 The socket for the second telnet program on oakland.
128.1.1.3.50001 The socket for the telnet program on LA.
128.1.1.3.50002 The socket for the ftp program on LA.
Socket Connection
A socket connection is defined by the pairing of two sockets together. The first socket
identifies a network program on a client node (128.1.1.2.50001), and the second socket
identifies a network daemon (usually) on the server node (128.1.1.1.23). The socket
connection would then be 128.1.1.2.50001–128.1.1.1.23.

Module 1
LAN Concepts
1–21. SLIDE: More on Socket Connections
More on Socket Connections
To: port 23 To: port 23
Network Subsystem
telnet telnet
128.1.1.2.5000 128.1.1.2.5000
telnetd telnetd 1 2
128.1.1.1.23 128.1.1.1.23 128.1.1.2 (oakland)
128.1.1.1 (sanfran) 128.1.1.2 . 50001 $ telnet sanfran
128.1.1.1 . 23 128.1.1.2 . 50002 $ telnet sanfran

Socket
128.1.1.1 . 23
Socket Communications between two processes

over the network are uniquely defined by
their socket connection.
Student Notes
The slide shows how sockets and socket connections can be used to uniquely identify two
telnet service connections between client oakland and server sanfran.
When the first telnet instance is started on oakland, HP-UX assigns a port number for the
telnet client process. Since there is no pre-defined port number for the client side telnet
program, the first available port number is chosen (port number 50001 in the example on the
slide). Thus, the socket created for the first telnet instance on oakland is 128.1.1.2.50001.
Oakland initiates a connection request to sanfran's well-known telnetd port, 23. Sanfran
spawns a telnetd daemon to service the telnet request from oakland. This telnetd
daemon uses port number 23. Therefore, the socket created to represent the telnetd
daemon is 128.1.1.1.23.
The socket connection representing this communication session is 128.1.1.2.50001-

128.1.1.1.23.
The second telnet session shown on the slide is using socket addresses 128.1.1.2.50002-
128.1.1.1.23.

Module 1
LAN Concepts
Thus, each of these connections may be uniquely identified by the pairing of the server and
client processes' socket addresses.

Module 1
LAN Concepts
1–22. SLIDE: Revisiting the OSI Model
Revisiting the OSI Model
7 Application Creates/receives the data.
6 Presentation Determines the format in which to represent the data.

Possible choices are EBCDIC or ASCII format.
5 Session Establishes a unique communication path between client/server.

Sockets are used to communicate between two systems.
A socket is an IP address plus a port number.
4 Transport TCP requires that a socket connection be established; UDP does not.
TCP requires packets be acknowledged; UDP does not.
TCP is streams-based; UDP is message-based.
3 Network IP addresses define a system’s network and host number.
2 Data link MAC addresses uniquely identify a LAN card.

Ultimately, packets are sent from one MAC address to another.
ARP caches map IP addresses to MAC addresses.
1 Physical The type of media used to connect the machines together.

The type of cabling used for the network.
Student Notes
In this module, we have learned how
• Host names are resolved to IP addresses.
• IP addresses are converted to MAC addresses.
• TCP and UDP protocols are used to allow nodes to communicate on the network.
• Port numbers are used to identify network applications.
• Socket connections are used to uniquely identify a communication sessions between a

network application on two different hosts.
Compare the notes you made to your OSI worksheet to the OSI model on the slide above.

Module 1
LAN Concepts
1–23. REVIEW QUESTIONS: LAN Concepts and Components
Directions
Answer the following questions.
1. If a host has two LAN interface cards, will the MAC addresses of the two cards be the
same, or different?
2. Is it possible to determine which network a host is on just by looking at the host's MAC
address?
3. Complete the following table:
IP Address Netmask Network Address Broadcast Address

167.12.132.5/16
124.132.12.5/8
213.1.231.45/24
4. Which of the networks listed in question 3 would allow the fewest hosts?
What is the maximum number of hosts allowed on that network?

Module 1
LAN Concepts
5. How many different networks are represented by the list of IP addresses below?
132.1.1.3/16
132.2.1.1/16
132.1.1.2/16
132.1.1.1/16
132.1.2.1/16
132.1.2.2/16
6. What is the highest possible host IP address on the 158.153.0.0/16 network?

What is the lowest possible host IP address on this network?
7. What is the difference between a destination port number and a destination IP address?
8. Name one major difference between UDP and TCP.
9. HP-UX provides three different methods for mapping host names to IP addresses. Name
two.

Module 1
LAN Concepts

Objectives
• Describe the characteristics of three major LAN cable types.
• Discuss three different LAN topologies.
• Explain two different LAN access methods.
• List the characteristics of an Ethernet LAN.
• List the characteristics of a Token Ring LAN.
• List the characteristics of an FDDI LAN.
• Explain the difference between physical and logical topologies.
• Describe the role of repeaters, hubs, bridges, switches, routers, gateways, and firewalls in
a local area network.

Module 2
LAN Hardware Overview
2–1. SLIDE: LAN Hardware Components
LAN Hardware Components
A LAN is comprised of a variety of

hardware components: Internet
Transmission Media
Firewall
Interface Cards
Repeaters
Hubs Gateway Router Router
Bridges
Bridge Switch
Switches (chicago office) (london office)
Routers Mainframe
Hub Hub
(sales) (research)
Gateways
Firewalls
Student Notes
Most LANs today are comprised of a variety of hardware components. Weeklong courses
have been written about firewalls, routers, switches, and LAN topologies. Our goal in this
chapter is simply to present an overview of the purpose and function of the most common
hardware components you are likely to encounter as an HP-UX system administrator.
Every LAN usually has a combination of workstation and server nodes, each with one or
more network interface cards (NICs). These nodes may be connected together via a variety
of cable types in a variety of topologies. Different networking standards have different
mechanisms for determining when hosts on the LAN are given the opportunity to transmit
data. Most networks also include a variety of network devices. Some of the more common
network devices include:
• repeaters
• hubs
• bridges
• switches

Module 2
• routers
• firewalls
Each of these hardware components, devices, and topologies will be discussed in detail later
in the chapter.

Module 2
2–2. TEXT PAGE: OSI Worksheet
Table 1
OSI Layer Associated Protocols and LAN Hardware
Instructions
During the lecture, a number of additional protocols and LAN hardware components will be
discussed. Remove this sheet of paper from the workbook, and as your instructor introduces
each new protocol and LAN hardware component, record it in the appropriate layer of the
OSI chart.

Module 2
2–3. SLIDE: LAN Transmission Media
LAN Transmission Media
Central Copper Conduit Plastic Insulating Jacket
Twisted Pair
Plastic insulating jacket Nonconducting insulator
Coaxial Cable
Woven Metal Shield Central Copper Conduit
LED or Laser Transmitter Photodiode Receiver
Fiber Optic
Glass or Plastic Fiber Cable
Student Notes
Transmission media connects the devices in a local area network and provides the means by
which data signals travel from device to device. Many different types of transmission media
are used on today's networks. When choosing a transmission medium for your network, you
must consider several issues:
• How much data must your network be able to handle? 10 Megabits per second (Mbps)?
100 Mbps? 1000 Mbps?
• Is electrical interference an issue in your environment? Some cable types are susceptible
to data loss because of electrical interference from telephone lines, power cables, heavy
electrical machinery, and fluorescent lights. This tends to be a more critical issue in
manufacturing environments.
• What is the maximum distance between nodes on your network? Signals weaken as they
travel along a cable. As the signals weaken, the effect of external electrical interference
increases, and errors may occur. This signal loss is technically termed attenuation.
Some transmission media types are more susceptible to attenuation than others.
• How much can you afford to spend? Some transmission media types are relatively cheap
to purchase and install, while others are much more expensive.

Module 2
The notes below describe some of the more common transmission media types used in
today's networks.
Twisted-Pair Cable
Twisted-pair cable consists of two single wires, each encased in color-coded plastic
insulation, and then twisted together to form a pair. Each pair of wires is then bundled with
one to three other pairs, yielding a grand total of four or eight wires per cable. The cabling
used to connect telephones is twisted-pair.
There are several variations on twisted-pair cable. Shielded Twisted-pair (STP) includes a foil
or copper jacket to shield the wires inside the cable from electrical interference.
Unshielded Twisted-pair (UTP), which lacks shielding, is cheaper and much more common
than STP in most networks today. Unshielded twisted-pair cable was originally designed for
wiring telephones, but can be used for data as well. Since unshielded twisted-pair cable is
already required in many buildings to support telephones, using this cable for your data
needs as well can significantly reduce installation costs. UTP cable is available in several
different grades:
Category 1 UTP: Cat 1 UTP is used for doorbells, alarms, and other trivial applications;
it is not appropriate for network applications.
Category 2 UTP: Cat 2 UTP is primarily used for digital and analog phones; it is not
appropriate for network applications.
Category 3 UTP: Cat 3 UTP is used for 4 Mbps Token Ring, 10BaseT Ethernet, and
analog and digital phone systems.
Category 4 UTP: Cat 4 UTP is rare but sometimes used for 16 Mbps Token Ring
networks.
Category 5 UTP: Cat 5 UTP is used for 16 Mbps Token Ring, and 10BaseT, 100BaseT,
and 1000BaseT Ethernet networks.
Category 5e UTP: Enhanced Cat 5e UTP is a slightly higher-grade cable than standard Cat
5. Like Cat 5, Cat 5e can be used for Token Ring, 10BaseT, 100BaseT,
and 1000BaseT Ethernet networks. Future network standards may
require Cat 5e rather than Cat 5.
Standards are currently being developed for Cat 6 and Cat 7 cable grades that will support
even higher data transmission rates in the future.
Cat 5 cable has been the cable of choice for most recent network installations. Cat 5e is an
even better choice to ensure compatibility with future technologies. Twisted-pair cable is
inexpensive, easy to install, and currently supports Token Ring and 10 Mbps through
1000 Mbps Ethernet networks.
Many purchased cables have "Cat 3," "Cat 5," or "Cat 5e" labels printed on the cables
themselves so you can determine which type of cabling your shop uses. Cat 3, Cat 5 and Cat
5e twisted-pair cables all use standard 8-pin RJ-45 connectors that look very similar to
standard telephone cables.

Module 2
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable consists of a single, central conductive wire surrounded by a shield of either
fine copper mesh or extruded aluminum. Between the shield and the center conductor is a
dielectric (non-conducting) material. Cable TV boxes and cable modems both use variations
on coaxial cable.
Two types of coaxial cable have been commonly used for LANs in the past:
Thicknet: (or ThickLAN) — Used a thick, inflexible coaxial cable. Adding a new node on
a thicknet segment required the use of a "vampire tap." Tightening the vampire
tap connector pierced the cable shielding and tapped into the cable's core.
Because thicknet is so difficult to work with, it is very rarely used today.
Thinnet: (or ThinLAN) — Used a thinner, more flexible coaxial cable. Each thinnet
cable has a "Bayonet-Neill-Concelman" (BNC) connector on each end. Nodes
connect to a thinnet cable via a "T" shaped connector on the back of each
node's network interface card. Every thinnet cable must be attached to a T-
connector on both ends, and every open T-connector port must have a "BNC
Terminator" to prevent loss of data. In order to add a node to a thinnet
network, simply run a thinnet cable from an existing node's T-connector to the
new node's T-connector, and connect a terminator if necessary.
Though thinnet coaxial cable is easy to install, it is more expensive than twisted-pair and
does not support the newer 100BaseT and 1000BaseT network technologies. As a result, most
new LAN installations use twisted-pair rather than coaxial cable.
Fiber-Optic Cable
Fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic fibers that transmit signals via light pulses. Fiber-
optic cables can support extremely high data rates through a physically small cable. They are
immune to electrical noise and are therefore able to provide a low error rate at a great
transmission distance. The cable is inexpensive, but it is not easily tapped and is therefore
difficult to install. Fiber-optic cable supports a transmission rate of 100 Mbps to 1000 Mbps.
Fiber is often used for network backbones connecting multiple smaller department or
workgroup LANs, since these applications may exceed the 100m segment limit imposed by
twisted-pair. Fiber-optic is also commonly used in heavy industrial environments where
interference poses problems for twisted-pair and for military applications where security is of
paramount importance. There are two major categories of fiber-optic cable:
Multi-mode: Multi-mode fiber-optic cable typically has a 50 or 62.5-micron fiber-optic core
surrounded by a 125-micron protective cladding (this is typically labeled
62.5/125 micron fiber-optic cable). Since multi-mode cable is relatively large, it
is relatively easy to couple a light source to the cable. However, the larger
core diameter allows the light to bounce off the sides of the cable, which leads
to dispersion and signal degradation over distances greater than 2 km. LEDs
are often used as the signal source on interface cards using multi-mode cable.
Single-mode: Single-mode fiber typically has a much smaller 10-micron core. This smaller
core size minimizes dispersion and allows for much longer segment lengths —
100 km or more in some cases! The downside, however, is that single-mode
fiber typically requires a relatively expensive laser, rather than an LED, as a
signal source.

Module 2
Most HP fiber-optic interface cards require 62.5/125 multi-mode cable with Straight Tip (ST),
Subscriber Connect (SC), or Duplex SC type connectors. ST connectors are round in shape,
while SC connectors are square; a Duplex SC connector is simply a pair of SC connectors in a
single enclosure. Check your documentation to determine the specific cable/connector
combination required for your environment.
Comparison of LAN Transmission Media
Cable Type UTP Twisted-pair Coaxial Fiber-optic
Connector Type RJ-45 or 50 pin BNC Fiber-optic SC
Transmission Rate 10 Mbps to 1000 Mbps 10 Mbps 100 Mbps to 1000 Mbps
Maximum Segment 100m 185 m to 500 m 220 m to 1000 m+
Flexibility Flexible Stiff Flexible
Noise Immunity Good Good Excellent
Security Moderate Moderate Excellent
Ease of Installation Excellent Good Good
Cost per Connection Very Low Moderate Expensive
Reliability Good Good Excellent
* Adapted from HP's AdvanceStack Network Design Guide

Module 2
2–4. SLIDE: LAN Topologies
LAN Topologies
Ring Bus
A LAN’s Physical Topology:

Describes how a network is
Star physically cabled.
Hub A LAN’s Logical Topology:
Describes the logical pathway
a signal follows as it passes
among the network nodes.
Student Notes
Your LAN's topology determines the arrangement of the devices on your network. Three
different topologies are commonly used today:
Bus Topology
Devices connected via a bus topology connect to a single, common, shared cable. Devices
attach to the cable at regular intervals. Nodes attached to a network configured using a bus
topology typically broadcast messages in both directions on the cable simultaneously.
Ethernet standard networks usually use a bus topology when cabled via coaxial cable.
Ring Topology
Ring topology networks are cabled in a ring. Data is passed from node to node around the
ring until it arrives at its destination. Some FDDI networks use a ring topology.

Module 2
Star Topology
Star topology networks are the most common LAN type today. In a star topology network,
cables radiate outward from a central device (typically called a hub) to each node on the
network. Any time a host wishes to contact another host, it must send the signal to the hub,
which then propagates the signal to the desired destination. Ethernet networks using
twisted-pair cable are cabled in a star topology.
Physical versus Logical Topologies
A distinction should be drawn between the terms logical topology and physical topology.
A network's physical topology determines how devices on the network are physically
cabled. A network's logical topology, on the other hand, defines the logical pathway a signal
follows from host to host.
In some cases, the physical topology may be identical to the logical topology, but in some
cases, they may be different. For example, twisted-pair Ethernet networks use a physical star
topology, but use a logical bus topology. Although cables radiate from a central Ethernet hub,
the circuitry within the hub approximates the signal path of a bus topology network. Ethernet
networks are not unique in this respect; Token ring networks are cabled using a star
topology, but use a logical ring topology.

Module 2
2–5. SLIDE: LAN Access Methods
LAN Access Methods
CSMA/CD Method
Token Passing Method

Token+Data
Student Notes
After you have physically attached two or more nodes to your network, your network
interface cards must determine which node is given an opportunity to transmit data and
when. Several different LAN access methods have been used over the years to control
access to local area networks. The two most common access methods are described below:
CSMA/CD CSMA/CD stands for Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Detection. Hosts on a CSMA/CD network monitor the network before
transmitting. If a host has data to transmit, and the network is not already
in use, the node transmits its signal on the wire. On a busy network, two
nodes could potentially choose to transmit at the same time, resulting in a
collision. If a collision occurs, the nodes responsible for the collision wait
a random period, then retransmit. The random wait period makes it highly
unlikely that the two nodes will retransmit at the same time again and
create another collision. Ethernet networks use the CSMA/CD access
method.

Module 2
Token Passing Hosts on LANs that use a token passing access method pass a "token"
from node to node in a circular fashion. Only the node that currently
possesses the token is permitted to access the network. If the node
receiving the token does not have data to transmit, it simply passes the
token along to the next node. Token passing provides guaranteed access
to every node on the network and is efficient under heavy traffic loads.
FDDI and Token Ring networks both use the token passing access
method to manage network access.

Module 2
2–6. SLIDE: Ethernet 802.3 Interface Cards
Ethernet 802.3 Interface Cards
10Base2 10BaseF 10BaseT 100BaseTX100BaseFX 1000BaseT 1000BaseSX

Data Rate 10Mbps 10Mbps 10Mbps 100Mbps 100Mbps 1000Mbps 1000Mbps
Log. Topology Bus Bus Bus Bus Bus Bus Bus
Phys. Topology Bus Star Star Star Star Star Star
Access CSMA/CD CSMA/CD CSMA/CD CSMA/CD CSMA/CD CSMA/CD CSMA/CD
Cable Type Coax Fiber Cat 3/5 Cat 5 Fiber Cat 5 Fiber
Max. Segment 185m 1000m+ 100m 100m 412m+ 100m 220m+
T T
Hub/Switch
Student Notes
HP supports a variety of Network Interface Card (NIC) types for the HP 9000 server and
workstation families. The next few slides present an overview of the most common NIC card
types found in HP boxes today. Each of the standards described here define:
• What cable types are supported

• What cable segment lengths are supported
• That maximum data transmission rate is supported
• What topologies are supported
• What LAN access method is used
• How collisions are handled
• And much more
Ethernet Standards
The network standards shown on the slide above are all variations on the Ethernet/IEEE
802.3 LAN standard. The first Ethernet network was developed at the Xerox PARC research
lab in the early 1970s. This was among the first networks ever to use the CSMA/CD access
method. In 1980, DEC, Intel, and Xerox banded together to publish what became known as
the "DIX Ethernet Standard,” which was followed by the official IEEE (Institute of Electrical
and Electronic Engineers) 802.3 Standard in 1985; both standards were based on the

Module 2
CSMA/CD research done at PARC. In the years since 1985, Ethernet has become the most
widely used LAN technology.
The original Ethernet IEEE 802.3 standard was based on ThickLAN, or 10base5 coaxial cable,
and offered a 10 Mbps transmission speed. Since then, as networking technology has
progressed, IEEE has supplemented the original 802.3 standard. The table on the slide lists
the most common Ethernet interface card types that HP supports today.
Note that although the various Ethernet specifications support different cable types,
transmission speeds, segment lengths, and physical topologies, they all share several features
in common. All support the traditional Ethernet frame structure, the CSMA/CD access
method, and a logical bus topology.
10Base5 10 Mbps Ethernet specification using thicknet coaxial cable, with a 500-meter
maximum segment length. HP stopped supporting 10Base5 for HP 9000s in
1998.
10Base2 10 Mbps Ethernet specification using thinnet coaxial cable, with a 185-meter
maximum segment length. 10Base2 networks typically use a physical bus
topology. Since twisted-pair has become the preferred cable type in most
shops, few interface cards today include a built-in 10Base2 port. Instead, you
must attach a 10Base2 LAN "transceiver" to the 15-pin AUI (Attachment Unit
Interface) port on the back of the interface card. Then attach a BNC
T-connector to the transceiver, which then connects to the thinnet cable run.
Be sure to install a thinnet "terminator" on any unused T-connector ports.
10BaseF 10 Mbps Ethernet specification using fiber-optic cable with a maximum

segment length of 1000 meters or more depending on the type of cable and
transceiver used. "10BaseF" is often used interchangeably with the terms
"FOIRL" (Fiber-optic Inter-Repeater Link) and "10BaseFL" (Fiber Link).
10BaseFL is physically cabled in a star topology with pairs of fiber-optic
cables radiating out from a central 10BaseFL fiber-optic repeater hub. The
fiber-optic cables use two ST (Straight Tip) connectors to attach to a
10BaseFL LAN transceiver, which then attaches to the AUI port on the back of
your Ethernet interface card.
10BaseT 10 Mbps Ethernet specification using Cat 3 or 5 twisted-pair cable with a

100-meter maximum segment length. 10BaseT is physically cabled in a star
topology with cable radiating out from a central switch or hub. Twisted-pair
cable may be attached directly to an RJ45 port on the back of your interface
card or to a 10BaseT transceiver on the LAN interface card.
100BaseTX 100 Mbps Ethernet specification using Cat 5 twisted-pair cable with a
100-meter maximum segment length. "100BaseTX" is oftentimes used
interchangeably with the abbreviation "100BaseT.” 100BaseTX is physically
cabled in a star topology, with Cat 5 twisted-pair cable radiating out from a
central 100BaseTX hub or switch. The cables attach directly to an RJ45 port
on the back of your LAN interface card.

Module 2
100BaseFX 100 Mbps Ethernet specification using fiber-optic cable with a maximum
segment length of 412 meters or more, depending on the type of cable and
transceiver (Consult your card's documentation for details). 100BaseFX is
physically cabled in a star topology with fiber-optic cable radiating out from a
central 100BaseFX fiber-optic hub or switch. The cables attach directly to the
LAN interface card via a Subscriber Connector (SC) duplex connector.
1000BaseT 1000 Mbps Ethernet specification using Cat 5 twisted-pair cable with a
maximum segment length of 100 meters. "1000BaseT" is oftentimes used
interchangeably with the term "Gigabit Ethernet.” 1000BaseT is physically
cabled in a star topology with Cat 5 twisted-pair radiating out from a central
switch. Each cable attaches directly to a server's or workstation's LAN card
via an RJ45 jack.
1000BaseSX 1000 Mbps Ethernet specification using fiber-optic cable with a maximum
segment length of 220 meters or more, depending on the type of cable and
transceiver. 1000BaseSX is physically cabled in a star topology with fiber-optic
cable radiating out from a central 1000BaseSX fiber-optic switch. The cables
attach directly to the LAN interface card via an SC duplex connector.
NOTE: When you purchase a new interface card, make sure that the card type you
buy matches the type of network to which you plan to connect your server or
workstation!
Software Requirements
In order to use any of the interface card types listed above, you must install HP's LAN/9000
Link product. You may verify that this product is installed on your system with the swlist
command:
# swlist LAN*
For the 100 Mbps and 1000 Mbps interfaces listed on the slide, other software bundles are
required as well.
NOTE: For the latest list of interface card types supported on your HP 9000, consult
HP's web site: http://www.hp.com. For detailed instructions on installing
all types of LAN interface cards, follow the "Networking & Communications"
link on the http://docs.hp.com website.
IEEE 802.3 versus Ethernet

There are some minor differences between IEEE 802.3 and Ethernet LANs. Because both
types utilize the same cable media, Ethernet nodes may coexist on the same LAN segment
with the IEEE 802.3 nodes. The most significant differences are in the frame format and the
electrical grounding of the hardware. All HP 9000 LAN interfaces are able to transmit and
receive both IEEE 802.3 and Ethernet frames. The "IP Multiplexing" slide in the next chapter
describes how to specify the frame type you wish to use on your network.

Module 2
Full-Duplex versus Half Duplex

In networks designed according to the original 10Base5 802.3 standard, all hosts on the
network connected to a single thicknet cable. The CSMA/CD protocol determined when each
host could transmit data on the shared wire. Since all data traveled along one cable, it was
impossible for a host to transmit and receive at the same time. This is known as "Half-Duplex
Mode" operation.
The advent of twisted-pair cable and Ethernet switches, however, made it possible to offer
"Full-Duplex" functionality in an Ethernet environment. Hosts could transmit data over two
of the eight wires in a twisted-pair cable, while simultaneously receiving data over two of the
remaining six wires. Thus, full-duplex mode operation essentially doubles the available
bandwidth. Consider 100BaseTX as an example. When operating in half-duplex mode, a
100BaseTX interface card operates at up to 100 Mbps; when operating in full-duplex mode,
the very same card may operate at up to 200 Mbps!
In order to be included in the 802.3 standard, a cabling scheme must include some provision
for half-duplex, bus-based, CSMA/CD operation. All of the 802.3 standards on the slide except
10Base5 and 10Base2 allow full-duplex operation in addition to the required half-duplex
functionality.
• 100BaseTX interface cards use two wires in the twisted-pair cable to transmit and two to
receive when operating in full-duplex mode.
• 1000BaseT cards use four wires to transmit, and four to receive when operating in
full-duplex mode.
• 10BaseFL, 100BaseFX, and 1000BaseSX all use two parallel fiber-optic cables when
operating in full-duplex mode.
In order for full-duplex mode to work properly, both your interface card and the switch to
which your host connects must support full-duplex operation!
Auto Negotiation
In order to simplify connectivity between older 10BaseT devices and newer interface cards,
all HP 100BaseTX interface cards can operate at either 10 Mbps or 100 Mbps. 1000BaseT
interface cards can operate at 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps, or 1000 Mbps. Both card types are capable
of operating in either half- or full-duplex mode.
If you wish, you can allow your interface card to "Auto Negotiate" with the switch to which
you are attached in order to determine a mutually acceptable speed and duplex setting. If
your switch does not support auto-negotiation, HP-UX will automatically sense the link speed
and adjust accordingly. It will default to half-duplex operation — even if your switch
supports full-duplex functionality!
You can ensure that your link is always configured properly by explicitly setting the card's
speed and duplex settings via the lanadmin command. This procedure will be discussed in
detail in the next chapter.
Auto Port Aggregation

The table on the slide shows that 1000BaseT Ethernet interface cards offer 1000 Mbps
transmission rates. What can be done if your server needs to move more than 1000 Mbps?

Module 2
One solution currently available to HP customers is "Auto Port Aggregation.” APA is a

purchasable software product for HP-UX 11.x, which makes it possible to aggregate multiple
interface cards together to form a single, logical, high-bandwidth channel with a single
IP address. This offers two major advantages:
• Redundancy. If a link should fail within the APA group, APA provides automatic fail-over
for the lost link by redistributing traffic loads across the remaining links within the
channel.
• Bandwidth. Using four full-duplex 100BaseTX interface cards in an APA configuration

yields an aggregate bandwidth of up to 800 Mbps. Using four 1000BaseSX interface cards
in an APA configuration yields an aggregate bandwidth of up to 8Gbps.
HP has several documents describing Auto Port Aggregation in the Networking and
Communications section of the http://docs.hp.com website.

Module 2
2–7. SLIDE: Token Ring 802.5 Interface Cards
Token Ring 802.5 Interface Cards
Token Ring
Data Rate 4 or 16 Mbps
Topology (Logical) Ring MultiStation
Topology (Physical) Star Access
Unit
Access Method Token
Cable Types Cat 3/5
Max. Segment 100m
Student Notes
Token Ring 802.5 Standard

Token Ring network technology was originally developed by IBM, but was eventually
standardized and endorsed by IEEE in the IEEE 802.5 standard. Today, token ring interface
cards are still used primarily in IBM mainframe environments, but may also be found in some
HP 9000 boxes that interface with legacy systems.
The following attributes characterize 802.5 networks:
• Bandwidth: 4 Mbps or 16 Mbps

• Logical Topology: Ring
• Physical topology: Star
• Access Method: Token Passing
• Cable Types: IBM Type 1, or Cat 3/5 Twisted-pair
• Maximum Segment Length: 100 meters
The HP Token Ring/9000 product provides a complete link connection to a token ring
network. It is fully compliant with IEEE 802.5.

Module 2
Token Ring networks can be cabled using IBM Type 1 Shielded Twisted-pair (STP) cable with
special IBM data connectors, or, more commonly, with standard Cat 3 or 5 Unshielded
Twisted-pair (UTP) cabling with RJ45 connectors. HP's Token Ring interface cards provide
ports for both cable types, and auto sense which port is currently connected. In either case,
the network is connected in a physical star configuration, with cables radiating outward from
a central Multi Station Access Unit (MAU or MsAU).
In order to use a Token Ring interface card on your HP 9000, you must install the Token
Ring/9000 software product on your system and include the appropriate driver in your kernel.
Check your interface card documentation. Some Token Ring cards require you to configure
the ring speed and duplex settings manually; some cards require you to configure these
settings via switches on the card itself, while others allow you to make the changes via SAM
or the lanadmin command. See your interface card documentation for details!
all types of LAN interface cards, follow the "Networking & Communications"
link on the http://docs.hp.com website.

Module 2
2–8. SLIDE: FDDI Ring Interface Cards
FDDI Ring Interface Cards
FDDI Ring
Data Rate 100 Mbps
Single Attachment Stations
Topology (Logical) Ring
Topology (Physical) Dual Ring
Star
Access Method Token
Cable Type Fiber Concentrator
Max. Segment 2000m
Dual Attachment Station Dual Attachment Station
Student Notes
The ANSI FDDI standard was developed back in 1986 to provide 100 Mbps, reliable network
technology using fiber-optic cable. Even with the advent of fast Ethernet over twisted-pair
and fiber, FDDI remains a popular choice for network backbones.
FDDI networks are characterized by the following attributes:

• Bandwidth: 100 Mbps
• Logical Topology: Dual Ring
• Physical topology: Dual Ring, or Star
• Access Method: Token Passing
• Cable Types: Fiber-optic
• Maximum Segment Length: 2000 meters
The FDDI network consists of two independent 100 Mbps rings: the primary and the
secondary. The dual-ring approach provides redundancy and the ability to reconfigure the
network under fault conditions.

Module 2
HP supports two different types of FDDI interface cards. Dual-attach (Class A) FDDI
interface cards connect to both rings. Single-attach (Class B) FDDI cards attach to a hub-like
FDDI concentrator, which then attaches to both FDDI rings. The concentrator maintains the
fault tolerant capability if one ring becomes unusable.
After physically installing an FDDI card on your system, you must install the FDDI/9000
software product to support it.
FDDI interface cards, follow the "Networking & Communications" link on the
http://docs.hp.com website.

Module 2
2–9. SLIDE: Repeaters
Repeaters
Repeaters extend
Repeater the maximum
allowed distance
telnet
between nodes.
Repeaters
• Repeaters repeat a signal from one port to another.
• Repeaters pass all traffic through without error checking or filtering..
• Repeaters pass collisions, too.
• Repeaters are used primarily to overcome maximum segment length restrictions.
Student Notes
As an electrical signal travels further and further from the signal source, the signal strength is
gradually degraded, which may lead to data corruption. Repeaters provide a mechanism for
boosting signal strength and extending the maximum distance between nodes on a network.
Consider the following example: the maximum distance allowed between any two nodes on
an Ethernet thinnet segment is 185 meters. A repeater makes it possible to connect two 185m
segments to create a single, larger, physical network. The repeater automatically propagates
signals from one segment to the other, and vice versa.
Note that repeaters do nothing to mitigate collisions or errors; they simply propagate signals
from port to port.
Question
At which layer of the OSI model does a repeater function?

Module 2
2–10. SLIDE: Hubs
Hubs
Hub
Hubs make it
very easy to add
and remove hosts
on a network.
telnet
Hubs...
• Hubs propagate a signal received on one port to all other ports..
• Hubs propagate errors and collisions across ports, too.
• Hubs simplify the addition and removal of nodes on a LAN.
• Hubs are also used to connect network segments cabled with different media types.
Student Notes
A hub is simply a multi-port repeater that provides a central connection point for nodes on a
network. When a signal is received on one hub port, the hub immediately propagates that
signal to the other hub ports. Like repeaters, hubs do nothing to manage collisions. However,
they do offer two very important benefits:
• Hosts can be added and removed without disrupting service to other hosts. To add a host,
simply run a cable from an available port to the new node. Nodes can also be
disconnected from the hub without affecting other hosts on the segment.
• Hubs are also used to connect hosts cabled using different media types. For instance, a
hub may have several thinnet cable ports and several twisted-pair ports. Signals arriving
on the twisted-pair ports are automatically propagated to the thinnet ports and vice versa.
Question
At which layer of the OSI model does a hub function?

Module 2
2–11. SLIDE: Bridges
Bridges
Bridge Bridges make it

possible to segment
Hub Hub your network into
separate collision
domains to minimize
collisions and
improve performance.
telnet telnet
Separate Collision Domains
Bridges
• Bridges provide all the functionality of a hub, PLUS ...
• Bridges filter frames by destination MAC, and segment a LAN into multiple collision domains.
• Bridges filter signal and timing errors.
• Bridges can be used to connect segments operating at different speeds.
Student Notes
Bridges, like hubs, can be used to simplify the addition and removal of nodes and pass data
between segments that have been cabled using different media types. However, bridges offer
several advantages over repeaters and hubs:
• Bridges filter frames by destination MAC and segment a LAN into multiple collision
domains.
On an Ethernet network connected exclusively with hubs and repeaters, no two hosts can
transmit simultaneously without causing a collision. All the hosts on the network are
members of a single "collision domain.” As the number of hosts in a collision domain
increases, collisions will likely increase, and performance will be degraded.
Bridges maintain "bridge forwarding tables" that record which MAC addresses are on
each network segment. When a bridge receives a frame, it examines the frame's
destination MAC and forwards only that frame to the segment that the destination host is
on. This filtering mechanism prevents traffic between hosts on one segment from
impacting hosts on other segments and effectively separates a network into two or more
collision domains.

Module 2
• Bridges filter signal and timing errors.
Occasionally, a malfunctioning interface card may transmit improperly formatted frames.

Repeaters and hubs propagate these errors across all ports, which can potentially wreak
havoc on the entire network. Bridges reformulate frames before propagating them across
ports. This prevents signal or frame errors in one collision domain from affecting other
collision domains.
• Bridges can be used to connect segments operating at different speeds.
Many Ethernet networks today include a heterogeneous mix of older hosts with 10 Mbps
interface cards and newer servers with 100 Mbps or even 1000 Mbps interface cards.
Bridges use a "store and forward" mechanism to pass data between segments operating at
different speeds.
In the past, bridges were typically used to segment departments within a company into
separate collision domains to reduce collisions and improve performance. Today, bridges are
gradually being replaced by switches, which are described on the next slide.
Question
At which layer of the OSI model does a bridge function?

Module 2
2–12. SLIDE: Switches
Switches
Switches are
Switch
similar to bridges,
but offer multiple
parallel communication
channels across ports
for improved
performance.
telnet telnet
Switches
• Switches provide all the functionality of a bridge PLUS ...
• Switches typically offer more ports than bridges.
• Switches allow for multiple, parallel channels of communication between ports.
• Switches sometimes offer “full-duplex” functionality.
• Switches are replacing both bridges and hubs in many modern networks.
Student Notes
A switch offers many of the same benefits that a bridge offers. Like a bridge, a switch can be
used to connect different types of LANs and can filter frames by MAC address in order to
divide a busy network into separate collision domains. However, switches offer several
important advantages over traditional bridges:
• Switches typically offer more ports than bridges. Traditional bridges only had two ports
and were designed to split a network into two separate collision domains. Switches
generally offer multiple ports, each of which functions as a separate collision domain.
• Switches allow for multiple, parallel channels of communication between ports. This can
dramatically improve performance on many networks.
• Some switches offer “full-duplex” functionality. Host-to-switch connections that are

operating in full-duplex mode allow a host to transmit data at the same time that it is
receiving data, completely eliminating collisions! This configuration may improve
network performance considerably.

Module 2
• Switches are replacing both bridges and hubs in many modern networks. The price-per-
switch-port has dropped in recent years to the point that it is now reasonably economical
to provide a dedicated, full-duplex, 100 Mbps switch port for every node on a network.
This eliminates collisions and provides a dedicated 100 Mbps link for every workstation
and server.
Question
At which layer of the OSI model does a switch function?

Module 2
2–13. SLIDE: Routers and Gateways
Routers and Gateways
Router Router Router

Gateway
Router
Mainframe
Routers and Gateways

• Routers use IP addresses to route data between networks.
• Routers can be used to connect different network types.
• Routers don’t forward broadcast packets; broadcast packets are dropped.
• Gateways are used to connect dissimilar networks over all 7 OSI layers
Student Notes
Routers serve the following functions:
• Routers use IP addresses to route data between networks.
Whereas repeaters, hubs, bridges, and switches are primarily designed to move data
within a network, routers are designed to pass data between networks. For instance, in
order for a packet of data to travel from a host in your Chicago office to a host in your
San Francisco office, the packet must pass through multiple networks. Routers on the
Internet determine which route the packet should take to get to the final destination.
Any HP 9000 system with two LAN cards can serve as a router, but most networks use
dedicated rack-mounted routers instead.
• Routers can be used to connect different network types.
Many organizations today have a heterogeneous network environment. Some

departments may be configured as Token Ring networks. Others may be configured as
Ethernet networks. Your backbone may be an FDDI network. Your WAN may be an ATM
network. Routers typically are used to provide connectivity between different network
types.

Module 2
• Routers do not forward broadcast packets; broadcast packets are dropped.
Routers provide several mechanisms to improve network performance. Routers treat

each port as a separate collision domain, like bridges and switches; however, unlike
bridges, routers also filter broadcast traffic. When a broadcast packet arrives on a router
port, the router checks the IP network portion of the broadcast address and ensures that
the broadcast is propagated only on the desired network. Routers refuse to allow hosts
on one network to broadcast traffic to hosts on other networks.
Some switches these days are also able to filter broadcast traffic.
• Gateways are used to connect dissimilar networks over all 7 OSI layers.
Gateways are required when you wish to share data across two very different networks
that are incompatible at all of the OSI layers. For instance, a gateway would be required
in order for HP-UX hosts running TCP/IP over Ethernet to communicate with IBM
mainframes on an SNA-based network. An HP 9000 system can operate as an SNA
gateway with the SNAplus Link product.
Since more and more platforms these days use Ethernet and TCP/IP in OSI layers 1
through 3, today's gateways often function in only the top layers of the OSI model. For
instance, UNIX hosts use the SMTP protocol over TCP/IP to deliver email, while
Microsoft Windows clients use a different email protocol. Since the two platforms use
different email protocols, they must communicate with one another through a mail
gateway. An HP 9000 system can operate as a UNIX/Microsoft mail gateway using HP's
OpenMail product.
NOTE: The terms router and gateway are often used interchangeably. Technically,
however, routers operate only at the lower layers of the OSI model, while
gateways operate in the upper layers of the OSI model.
Questions
At which layer of the OSI model does a router function?
At which layer of the OSI model does a gateway function?

Module 2
2–14. SLIDE: Firewalls
Firewalls
Firewalls make it
possible to control
access to and from
Internet Firewall your local area
network.
Firewalls
• Firewalls determine what traffic is allowed in and out of your network.
• Firewalls may filter packets by IP or port number.
• Firewalls may log what packets are sent to and from whom.
• Firewalls use these and many other features to improve network security.
Student Notes
Almost every network today includes some sort of firewall to control who has access to
specific hosts and when this access can occur. Most firewalls allow the administrator to filter
incoming and outgoing packets based on source and destination IP addresses.
For even more flexibility, most firewalls allow the administrator to control access based on
source and destination port numbers. An administrator can choose to allow incoming traffic
to reach port number 25 (the port that sendmail uses to receive incoming email) but can
prevent incoming traffic from using telnet to reach port number 23.
Some firewalls provide even more sophisticated filtering functionality. For example, they
look at the contents of incoming email to search for dangerous attachments that might
contain viruses.
Most firewalls provide some sort of logging mechanism to track which hosts are initiating
outbound connections, and which hosts are attempting to get into the internal network.
Question
At which layer of the OSI model does a firewall function?

Module 2
2–15. SLIDE: Pulling It All Together
Pulling It All Together
Internet
Firewall
Gateway Router Router
Bridge Switch
(chicago office) (london office)
Mainframe
Hub Hub
(sales) (research)
Student Notes
The slide shows how hubs, bridges, switches, routers, gateways, and firewalls might be used
together in a work environment.
The protocols and devices that were discussed in this chapter are summarized in the
following OSI chart:
OSI Layer Associated Protocols and Devices

7 Gateways, Firewalls
6
5
4
3 Routers
2 IEEE 802.3, IEEE 802.5, FDDI, Bridges, Switches
1 Twisted-pair Cable, Coaxial Cable, Fiber-optic Cable,
Repeaters, Hubs

Module 2

Objectives
• Configure software and drivers to support a newly installed network interface card.
• Configure link layer connectivity with the lanadmin command.
• Configure and view the system host name with the hostname command.
• Configure and view the system IP address and netmask with the ifconfig command.
• Configure IP multiplexing.
• Configure and use the /etc/rc.config.d/netconf configuration file.
• Configure the /etc/hosts configuration file.

Module 3
Configuring IP Connectivity
3–1. SLIDE: TCP/IP Configuration Overview
TCP/IP Configuration Overview
Obtain an IP address and hostname from your IT department or ISP.

Physically install the LAN card.
Install the appropriate LAN software.
Verify that the new card successfully autoconfigured.
Configure link layer connectivity.
Configure IP connectivity.
Configure IP multiplexing (optional).
Student Notes
Several steps are required to configure an HP-UX host to communicate with a local area
network.
First, you must request a valid IP address and host name from your ISP or IT department.
Your organization should maintain an up-to-date network map and information table to
record which IP addresses and host names have been assigned to which hosts. This
minimizes the possibility of duplicate IP addresses, and greatly simplifies network
troubleshooting. In your information table, you should record the following information
about each host and network device:
• Manufacturer
• Model number
• OS type and version
• LAN card type
• Host name
• IP Address
• MAC Address
• Administrator name

Module 3
After obtaining an IP and host name, you are ready to install and configure your interface
card! The slide above overviews the required steps, and the remaining slides in the chapter
will explain the details.

Module 3
3–2. SLIDE: Installing LAN Software
Installing LAN Software
# swinstall Networking Kernel
LAN/9000 Subsystem
LANIC Drivers
Student Notes
The first step in configuring a connection to a local area network is to physically install a
LAN interface card. For the latest list of LAN interface cards supported on your HP 9000,
check the HP web site at http://www.hp.com.
Installing the Networking Product

In order to use your new interface card, you will need to install the Networking product on
your system. Among other things, the Networking product includes the LAN/9000 and
DLPI/9000 kernel subsystems that allow your system to communicate with TCP/IP networks.
The Networking product comes standard with HP-UX and was probably included in your
original OS install. Use the swlist command to verify that the Networking product exists on
your system:
# swlist –l product Networking
Networking B.11.11 HP-UX_Lanlink_Product

Module 3
If the Networking product is missing, insert the CoreOS CD that came with your system and
run the swinstall graphical user interface to install the product:
# swinstall (follow the intuitive GUI menus that follow)
The Networking product includes all of the software necessary to configure and use a
standard Ethernet interface card. If, however, you are using FDDI, Token Ring, 100VG, or
other types of LAN cards, it may be necessary to load additional products on your system.
Consult your LAN card documentation for more information.
Configuring Kernel Subsystems and Drivers

Installing the Networking product should automatically configure the LAN/9000 and
DLPI/9000 subsystems in the kernel, as well as the drivers required for a 10baseT interface
card. However, if ioscan -fnC lan shows your LAN card as UNCLAIMED, you may need
to configure the LAN drivers manually and regenerate your kernel. Consult your
documentation to determine which drivers and subsystems are required to support your LAN
card.
SAM provides the easiest method for configuring kernel drivers and subsystems:
# sam --> Kernel Configuration --> Subsystems

--> Drivers

Module 3
3–3. SLIDE: Checking LANIC Autoconfiguration
Checking LANIC Autoconfiguration
# ioscan -fnC lan

Class I H/W Path Driver S/W State H/W Type Description
================================================================
lan 0 8/16/6 lan2 CLAIMED INTERFACE Built-in LAN
dev/diag/lan0 /dev/ether0 /dev/lan0
lan 1 8/20/5/1 btlan0 CLAIMED INTERFACE EISA card INP05
; Is the “S/W State” “CLAIMED” ?

(UNCLAIMED indicates missing drivers.)
; Does the LAN card appear to have device files?
(NOTE: Some EISA LAN cards do not require device files.)
Student Notes
Assuming the proper drivers are configured in your kernel, HP-UX should automatically
recognize new LAN interface cards, and auto-configure hardware paths and device files
during the system boot process. You can check the auto-configuration via the
/usr/sbin/ioscan –funC lan command.
Check the ioscan output for the following:

• Does the card appear at all in the output? If not, the card may not be seated properly in its
slot.
• Does the card appear to be CLAIMED? If not, the card’s kernel driver is probably missing.
Return to the previous slide to learn how to configure drivers in the kernel.
• Does the card have the necessary device files? Most LAN cards will not function without
device files. Assuming the LAN card’s driver is configured in the kernel, you can create
device files for your LAN card via /usr/sbin/insf –eC lan. Note that some EISA
LAN cards, such as the 100BT LAN card shown on the slide, do not require device files.

Module 3
Diagnostic Device Files

Diagnostic device files are required by the LAN diagnostic tools linkloop and lanadmin.
These and other troubleshooting tools will be presented later in this course. Check the
diagnostic device files with ll:
# ll /dev/dlpi*
crw-rw-rw- 1 bin bin 72 0x000077 May 11 15:32 /dev/dlpi
crw-rw-rw- 1 bin bin 119 0x000000 May 11 15:32 /dev/dlpi0
Recreate the diagnostic device files with insf:
# cd /dev
# insf -d dlpi -e
insf: Installing special files for pseudo driver dlpi
LAN Interface Cards with Two LAN Connectors

Most of the built-in, and all additional LAN interfaces, have two LAN connectors. Some older
machines had an AUI and a ThinLAN port, but all new machines are shipped with an AUI and
an EtherTwist port. Older LAN interfaces had a jumper to select one of the two ports. The
new LANICs detect the connected port automatically.

Module 3
3–4. SLIDE: HP-UX Network Startup Files
HP-UX Network Startup Files
/sbin/init.d
hostname /etc/rc.config.d/netconf Host name configuration
hpbase100 /etc/rc.config.d/hpbase100conf
hpbaset /etc/rc.config.d/hpbasetconf
hpeisabt /etc/rc.config.d/ hpeisabtconf
hpether /etc/rc.config.d/ hpetherconf
Link layer configuration
hpgsc100 /etc/rc.config.d/ hpgsc100conf
hpvgal /etc/rc.config.d/hpvgalconf
hptoken /etc/rc.config.d/hptokenconf
net /etc/rc.config.d/netconf IP configuration
Student Notes
During the system startup process, the /sbin/rc program executes several scripts in the
/sbin/init.d directory. These /sbin/init.d scripts read configuration parameters
from a collection of configuration files in the /etc/rc.config.d directory, and initialize
your network connection. The remaining slides in this chapter will describe the parameters in
each of these configuration files in detail.
WARNING: Never modify the scripts in /sbin/init.d! Startup script configurable

parameters should be modified only with the configuration files in
/etc/rc.config.d.

Module 3
3–5. SLIDE: Configuring Link Layer Connectivity
Configuring Link Layer Connectivity
/etc/rc.config.d/hpbase100conf
HP_BASE100_INTERFACE_NAME[0]=lan0
HP_BASE100_STATION_ADDRESS[0]=0x080009000001
HP_BASE100_SPEED[0]=100FD
/sbin/init.d/hpbase100 start
lanadmin -A 0x080009000001 0
lanadmin -X 100FD 0
Student Notes
The /sbin/init.d directory contains several scripts that initialize data link layer
parameters associated with your LAN interface cards. Since different interface cards support
different configurable parameters, there are separate scripts for each supported interface
card type. The sample script and configuration file shown on the slide are used to configure
HP 100BaseT PCI interface cards. Check your documentation to determine which
configuration file your LAN card uses.
Configuring the /etc/rc.config.d/* Files

The parameters available in the configuration file vary somewhat from interface card to
interface card, but some are common across many card types. Note that each of these
variable names will be preceded by a string identifying the LAN card type.
INTERFACE_NAME Identifies the name of the LAN card defined by the current block of
variables (lan0, lan1, etc.). Use the lanscan command to list the
recognized LAN interfaces on your system.
STATION_ADDRESS Sets the LAN card’s MAC address. If left blank (recommended!), the
card will use the preset MAC address coded on the interface card by
the manufacturer. If you choose to override the preset MAC address,

Module 3
you must use a 12-digit hexadecimal number, preceded by a “0x”

prefix. Use this feature with caution!
DUPLEX Many LAN cards can operate in either “full-duplex” mode, which
permits the host to transmit and receive simultaneously, or “half-
duplex” mode, which prevents the host from transmitting and
receiving simultaneously. Check with your IT department to determine
the appropriate setting for your environment and change the DUPLEX
value accordingly. Most cards recognize two values: “FULL” or
“HALF.”
SPEED Some LAN cards may operate at 10 Mbps (if connected to a 10BaseT
network), 100 Mbps (if connected to 100BaseT network), or even 1000
Mbps (if connected to a 1000BaseT network). In most cases, the card
will “auto-sense” and set the appropriate speed setting automatically.
On some cards, however, you may override the default speed via the
SPEED variable and the –X option on lanadmin.
Typically, startup scripts that consult the SPEED variable do not

consult the DUPLEX variable. Instead, both parameters are defined via
a single variable using one of the following:
SPEED[0]=100FD
SPEED[0]=100HD
SPEED[0]=10FD
SPEED[0]=10HD
SPEED[0]=auto_on # “autosense”
Here again, you should ask your IT department which setting to use in
your environment.
If you have multiple interface cards on your system, you may replicate the block of variable
definitions in this file, one block for each interface card. Change the index following each
variable in the second block of lines to [1]s, in the third block of lines to [2]s, and so on.
Then fill in the variable values as appropriate.
Executing lanadmin via the /sbin/init.d/* Scripts

When your system boots, it automatically executes the /sbin/init.d scripts, which, in
turn, read the configuration files in /etc/rc.config.d. The /sbin/init.d scripts use
the lanadmin command to set the link layer parameters that you have defined.
The list of parameters that may be configured via lanadmin varies from card to card.
Consult your documentation for more information. The general syntax for lanadmin is
consistent. The first option/argument pair determines which parameter you wish to
configure, and the last argument identifies the card you wish to configure. At HP-UX 10.20,
the card is identified by the "Network Management ID (NMID) Number", while HP-UX 11.x
requires you to specify the card to configure by "Physical Point of Attachment (PPA)
Number". Both of these values may be obtained via the lanscan command. Note that the
/etc/rc.config.d/hpbase100conf configuration file simply takes the interface name
as an argument and automatically determines the PPA/NMID numbers as needed. Consider

Module 3
the following examples. The first example below shows the procedure required at 11.x, while
the second block of lines shows the procedure required at 10.20:
# lanscan -ip # determine the PPA number (for 11.x)

# lanadmin –A 0x080009000001 0 # set the MAC address for card at PPA 0
# lanadmin –X 100FD 0 # enable 100Mbit, full-duplex
# lanscan -in # determine the NMID number (for 10.20)

# lanadmin –A 0x080009000001 1 # set the MAC address for card at NMID 1
# lanadmin –X 100FD 1 # enable 100Mbit, full-duplex
lanadmin may also be used to check the currently defined parameters for one of your
interface cards. Again, lanadmin requires a PPA number at 11.x, or an NMID number at
10.20:
# lanadmin –a 0 # check PPA 0s MAC address

# lanadmin –s 0 # check PPA 0s speed setting
# lanadmin –x 0 # check PPA 0s duplex setting
(not supported on all cards)
A Note about Non-Ethernet LAN Interface Cards

The discussion on this slide concentrates on Ethernet interface cards, since those are the
most common LAN interfaces found on HP systems today. Other interface cards have similar
configuration files in /etc/rc.config.d that are used to define interface card specific
parameters. For instance, installing the Token Ring/9000 software product on your system
creates a file called /etc/rc.config.d/hptokenconf. This file includes several token
ring specific parameters:
HP_TOKEN_INTERFACE_NAME[0] # which card does this apply to?

HP_TOKEN_STATION_ADDRESS[0] # MAC address
HP_TOKEN_MTU[0] # maximum transmission unit
HP_TOKEN_RING_SPEED[0] # 4 Mbits or 16 Mbits per second?
The /sbin/init.d/hptoken startup script uses these variable values as arguments to the
lanadmin command to configure your system’s token ring interface cards fully during the
system boot process.
Other interface cards use other configuration files with different variable parameters. Consult
your documentation for more information.

Module 3
3–6. SLIDE: Configuring IP Connectivity
/etc/rc.config.d/netconf
HOSTNAME=sanfran
INTERFACE_NAME[0]=lan0
IP_ADDRESS[0]=128.1.1.1
SUBNET_MASK[0]=255.255.0.0
BROADCAST_ADDRESS[0]=""
INTERFACE_STATE[0]=""
DHCP_ENABLE[0]="0"
/sbin/init.d/hostname start
uname -S sanfran
hostname sanfran
/sbin/init.d/net start
ifconfig lan0 128.1.1.1 netmask 255.255.0.0 up
Student Notes
/etc/rc.config.d/netconf file is the primary TCP/IP configuration file in HP-UX. This
file is read by several different startup scripts that configure everything from the system host
name to the gated dynamic routing protocol daemon. For now, we will concentrate on the
first half of the file which defines the system host name and IP address.
Modifying /etc/rc.config.d/netconf
The first block of lines in the netconf file defines some general system parameters. Change
the HOSTNAME variable if you wish to change the system host name. The other two
parameters, OPERATING_SYSTEM and LOOPBACK_ADDRESS, should never be changed.
HOSTNAME="sanfran"
OPERATING_SYSTEM=HP-UX
LOOPBACK_ADDRESS=127.0.0.1

Module 3
Further down in the file, look for the following block of lines:
INTERFACE_NAME[0]=lan0 # use the name shown in lanscan

IP_ADDRESS[0]=128.1.1.1 # set the IP address here
SUBNET_MASK[0]=255.255.0.0 # netmask in dotted decimal
BROADCAST_ADDRESS[0]="" # broadcast address may be defaulted
INTERFACE_STATE[0]="" # bring card “up” at boot? default=up
DHCP_ENABLE[0]="0" # if “1”, DHCP will set the IP address
If you have multiple LAN cards, copy this block of lines and change the variable indices. Then
change the variable values as appropriate. Appending the sample block of lines below to the
netconf file would assign IP address 192.1.1.1 to the lan1 interface card:
IP_ADDRESS[1]=192.1.1.1
SUBNET_MASK[1]=255.255.255.0
DHCP_ENABLE[1]="0"
Setting the System Host Name with /sbin/init.d/hostname

When the system boots to run level 1, the /sbin/init.d/hostname script sources
/etc/rc.config.d/netconf and sets the system host name.
Technically, UNIX systems may be identified by two different host names. The “UNIX-to-
UNIX copy” (UUCP) service identifies hosts by UUCP host name. The UUCP host name may
be both set and verified via the uname command:
# uname –S sanfran # set the uucp hostname

# uname –n # view the uucp hostname
Most other network services identify hosts by their internet host names. You may set and
view the Internet host name via the hostname command:
# hostname sanfran # set the internet hostname

# hostname # view the system hostname
Theoretically the uucp host name may be different from the Internet host name. However, HP
strongly recommends that the two host names be identical. The /sbin/init.d/hostname
startup script guarantees this by using the HOSTNAME variable as an argument to both uname
–S and hostname during the system startup process.
Setting IP Addresses with /sbin/init.d/net

When the system reaches run-level 2, the /sbin/init.d/net script sources
/etc/rc.config.d/netconf and sets your system IP address(es) and netmask(s) using
the ifconfig command. The most common ifconfig syntax is shown below:
# ifconfig lan0 up # allow traffic on lan0

# ifconfig lan0 down # deny all traffic on lan0
# ifconfig lan0 128.1.1.1 netmask 255.255.0.0 up # change lan0’s IP/netmask

Module 3
If you specify ifconfig interface with no other parameters, ifconfig displays the
name of the enabled network interface, the IP address, subnet mask, broadcast address, and
other flags.
# ifconfig lan0
lan0: flags=863<UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,MULTICAST>
Watch particularly for the UP flag in the ifconfig output. If ifconfig doesn’t explicitly
state that a card is UP, the card will neither send nor receive any IP traffic!
CAUTION: Many applications (including CDE!) are dependent on the IP address and the
host name. Ideally, you should shut down all applications before changing
your IP address or host name. Perhaps the simplest approach is to make the
desired changes in /etc/rc.config.d/netconf, then reboot to restart all
of your applications.

Module 3
3–7. SLIDE: Configuring IP Multiplexing
Configuring IP Multiplexing
INTERFACE_NAME[0]=lan0:0
Internet
IP_ADDRESS[0]=129.1.1.1
SUBNET_MASK[0]=255.255.0.0
129.1.1.1 ijunk.com
IP_ADDRESS[1]=129.2.1.1
SUBNET_MASK[1]=255.255.0.0
129.2.1.1 bigcorp.com
129.3.1.1 estuff.com
IP_ADDRESS[2]=129.3.1.1
SUBNET_MASK[2]=255.255.0.0
ifconfig lan0:0 129.1.1.1 netmask 255.255.0.0 up
Student Notes
HP-UX version 11.00 introduced “IP Multiplexing” to its TCP/IP protocol stack. This new
functionality makes it possible to assign multiple IP addresses to a single physical interface
card.
The example on the slide shows one application of this feature. The web server shown in the
graphic has a single physical interface card connected to the Internet. However, this single
physical interface card has three different “logical” interfaces. Each logical interface has a
different IP address, each associated with a different host name and a different instance of
the WWW server software. This makes it possible for a server with a single LAN card to host
multiple web sites with different IP addresses and host names.
Interface Names in a Multiplexed Environment

Traditionally, HP-UX identified LAN interface cards with simple interface names following
the format lan0, lan1, lan2, etc. These interface names were assigned by the system and could
be viewed via the lanscan command.
In a multiplexed environment, a single physical interface may have several logical interfaces.
Each logical interface is identified by an index number appended to the physical LAN
interface name.

Module 3
The first index assigned to an interface card is always “0”, resulting in logical interface name
lan0:0 (or simply lan0). Once you have configured lan0:0, subsequent index numbers
may be assigned in any order desired. The physical interface card shown on the slide has
three logical interfaces configured: lan0:0, lan0:1, and lan0:2. Each logical instance
may be assigned a different IP address, and a different host name.
Using IP Multiplexing to Configure IP/Ethernet Versus IP/IEEE 802.3

Logical interfaces are also used when an interface card is used for both IP/Ethernet and
IP/IEEE 802.3 frames. You may have noticed two interface names for each LAN card in your
lanscan output: lan0 and snap0. All HP Ethernet interface cards support both the
Ethernet and the IEEE 802.3 encapsulation standards. The interface name you choose to
configure determines which encapsulation method will be used. Using the lan0 interface
name ensures that Ethernet encapsulation should be used. Using the snap0 interface name
ensures that the IEEE 802.3 encapsulation standard is used.
A card may be configured to support both encapsulation methods simultaneously by

configuring IP addresses for both lan0 and snap0. lan0 and snap0 must have different IP
addresses, and the two IP addresses must be on different subnets. To provide IEEE 802.3
encapsulation via the LAN card shown on the slide, one would simply add the following three
lines to the system’s /etc/rc.config.d/netconf file:
INTERFACE_NAME[3]=snap0:0
IP_ADDRESS[3]=128.4.1.1
SUBNET_MASK[3]=255.255.0.0
The following ifconfig command would execute automatically at boot time as a result of
the lines shown above:
# ifconfig snap0:0 128.4.1.1 netmask 255.255.0.0 up
NOTE: Each logical interface must have a unique IP address. Logical interfaces that
use the same encapsulation method may have IPs on the same subnet. Logical
interfaces that use different encapsulation methods, however, must be on
different subnets.

Module 3
3–8. SLIDE: Configuring /etc/hosts
Configuring /etc/hosts
# vi /etc/hosts
127.0.0.1 localhost loopback
# local net hosts Use the /etc/hosts

128.1.1.1 sanfran user1 file to easily map
128.1.1.2 oakland user2 hostnames to
128.1.1.3 la IP addresses.
# other servers
129.1.1.1 mailsvr
130.1.1.1 filesvr
IP Addresses Hostnames Aliases
Student Notes
The /etc/hosts file is one of several mechanisms HP-UX hosts use to resolve host names
into IP addresses. Each /etc/hosts file entry must have an IP address and an associated
host name. Each entry may also contain one or more optional host name aliases, and an
optional comment preceded by a "#" sign.
At a minimum your /etc/hosts file should contain entries for:

• Each IP address listed in /etc/rc.config.d/netconf.
• The 127.0.0.1 loopback address.

Additional entries may be added or modified using vi, or any other editor.
• Fields can have any number of blanks or tabs separating them.
• There should be only one host entry per line.
• Do not include leading zeroes in IP addresses.
• Do not change or delete the localhost/loopback line.

Module 3
NOTE: The /etc/hosts file should be owned by bin and should have 0444
(-r--r--r--) access permission.
Other Name Resolution Mechanisms

The /etc/hosts file is just one of several mechanisms available for resolving host names in
HP-UX. Your system may be configured to use the Domain Name Service (DNS), Network
Information Service (NIS), or NIS+ in conjunction with or as a replacement for /etc/hosts.
HP-UX consults the /etc/nsswitch.conf file to determine which service should be used
for name resolution. /etc/nsswitch.conf will be discussed later in the course when DNS
and NIS are introduced.

Module 3
3–9. LAB: Configuring Network Connectivity
Directions
This lab will configure a new host name and IP address for each system in your classroom.
Preliminary Steps
1. Just in case something goes wrong during this lab, make a backup copy of all of your
network configuration files. There is a shell script in your labs directory designed
specifically for this purpose. The shell script will save a tar archive backup of your
network configuration files in the file you specify. Add the –l option to verify your
backup.
# /labs/netfiles.sh -s ORIGINAL
# /labs/netfiles.sh –l
# /labs/netfiles.sh –l ORIGINAL
2. Portions of this lab may disable your lan0 interface card. If you are using remote lab
equipment, login via the GSP/MP console interface for the duration of the lab.
3. Changing your host name and IP on a running system can wreak havoc on CDE and other
applications. Kill CDE before going any further:
# /sbin/init.d/dtlogin.rc stop
Part 1: Checking the Current LAN Card Configuration

Check the current configuration of the LAN card. Answer the following questions related to its
configuration.
1. How many LAN cards does your system have, and what are their Hardware paths?
Answer
2. Verify that the "Networking" product is installed on your machine. Is any additional
networking software installed on your machine to support your LAN interface cards?
Answer

Module 3
3. Does your kernel contain the drivers necessary to support your LAN cards? Which
command will tell you if a driver has CLAIMED your LAN cards? If your LAN card is
UNCLAIMED, install the necessary drivers.
Answer
4. Do device files exist for your LAN cards?
Answer
5. List the current MAC address, IP address, netmask, and broadcast address for each of
your LAN cards.
Answer

Module 3
Part 2: Configuring the New LAN Card Configuration

The goal of this portion of the lab exercise is to configure a new IP address and host name for
each of the machines in the classroom. Your instructor will assign you a host name from the
table below.
The first two octets in the IP addresses will vary from classroom to classroom, but should be
consistent across all hosts within your classroom. Ask your instructor what the first two
octets should be set to. The last two octets must be set in accordance with the table below.
Host Name IP Address

corp ____.____.0.1
sanfran ____.____.1.1
oakland ____.____.1.2
la ____.____.1.3
chicago ____.____.2.1
peoria ____.____.2.2
rockford ____.____.2.3
atlanta ____.____.3.1
athens ____.____.3.2
macon ____.____.3.3
nyc ____.____.4.1
albany ____.____.4.2
buffalo ____.____.4.3
paris ____.____.5.1
lyon ____.____.5.2
grenoble ____.____.5.3
london ____.____.6.1
leeds ____.____.6.2
ipswich ____.____.6.3
bonn ____.____.7.1
berlin ____.____.7.2
hamburg ____.____.7.3
tokyo ____.____.8.1
kyoto ____.____.8.2
osaka ____.____.8.3

Module 3
1. There should be a script in the /labs directory called netsetup.sh. This script will
ask you for your instructor-assigned hostname, and the first two IP octets that your
instructor should also provide. After you enter the requested information, the script will
display your assigned IP address and a variety of other network settings that you will use
later in the class. The script will also create a new hosts file in /tmp/hosts. Run the
script, then review the /tmp/hosts file. By default, the script doesn’t actually change
your network configuration.
# /labs/netsetup.sh
# cat /tmp/hosts
2. From the command line, change your IP to the address suggested in /tmp/hosts. Be
sure to change your netmask, too!
Answer
3. Is your new IP address set properly? How can you find out?
Answer
4. Modify the appropriate startup file to make your IP address change permanent. Allow the
system to default the broadcast address. Also, permanently change your host name in this
startup file. If a default route is currently defined, delete it. You will have a chance to
configure a new default route in the next chapter.
Answer
5. Copy the /tmp/hosts file into place as the default /etc/hosts file.
# cp /tmp/hosts /etc/hosts

Module 3
6. Define a host name alias for each of the host names in your row. Use the first name of the
user sitting at each station as the alias.
Answer
7. Reboot to see if your changes worked!
Answer

Module 3
Part 3: Checking the New Configuration

1. Check your LAN card's IP. Did the configuration work?
Answer
2. The hostname command will display your system host name. Check to ensure that your
host name is set properly.
Answer
3. Based on your Answers to questions 1 and 2 above, what commands did the
/sbin/init.d/net script appear to execute on your behalf during the boot process?
Answer
4. Try to ping your instructor’s new IP address. Does this work?
Answer
5. Try to ping your instructor’s hostname. Does this work?
Answer
6. Try to ping the a neighboring machine using an alias you defined in your /etc/hosts
file. Does this seem to work?
Answer

Objectives
• Configure static routes.
• Configure a default route.
• View the routing tables.

Module 4
Configuring IP Routing
4–1. SLIDE: Routing Concepts
Routing Concepts
Router
• The Internet is composed of many physical networks.

• Devices capable of routing data between these networks are called routers.
• A data packet may pass through multiple routers enroute to a destination host.
Student Notes
The Internet is composed of many physical networks. Network devices known as routers and
gateways interconnect these networks. A network router is a device that is physically
connected to two or more networks, and is capable of passing packets between these
networks. Any HP 9000 host may be configured as a router, though companies these days
more typically use dedicated, specially configured, rack-mounted routers instead.
The example on the slide shows several networks interconnected by routers. The host at the
top left of the picture wishes to send a packet to the host at bottom right. Since the two hosts
are on different networks, the packet must pass through several routers en route to its
destination.
The sending host starts by sending the packet to a router on its local network. When the
packet reaches the first router, it checks the packet's destination IP to select the next router
along the path toward the destination. Packets pass from router to router until they reach a
router that can ultimately deliver them directly to the destination host.
IP routing is considered "address-only" routing. This means that packets traveling across the
Internet contain only source and destination IP addresses. Along the way, the packet is "told
where to turn" by routers.

Module 4
4–2. SLIDE: Routing Tables
Routing Tables
sanfran mailsvr filesvr

128.1.1.1 129.1.1.1 130.1.1.1
RouterA RouterB
Net 128.1.0.0 Net 129.1.0.0 Net 130.1.0.0
128.1.0.1 129.1.0.1 129.1.0.2 130.1.0.1
Routing Table for RouterA Routing Table for RouterB

Dest. Network Next Hop Dest. Network Next Hop
128.1.0.0/16 128.1.0.1 128.1.0.0/16 129.1.0.1
129.1.0.0/16 129.1.0.1 129.1.0.0/16 129.1.0.2
130.1.0.0/16 129.1.0.2 130.1.0.0/16 130.1.0.1
Student Notes
Routers check routing tables maintained in memory to determine where packets should be
sent. Each routing table entry contains a pair of addresses.
The first element in each entry identifies a destination network address. When a router
receives a packet, it compares the packet's destination IP address to the destination network
and addresses in the routing table until a matching entry is identified.
Each routing table entry also identifies the next "hop" required to get to the associated
destination network. If the router has a direct connection to the destination network, the
"hop" field specifies the IP address of the router LAN card connected to that network. If the
router does not have a direct connection to the destination network, the "hop" field identifies
the IP address of the next router along the way to that destination.
In either case, the "hop" field must identify an IP address that the router can access directly.
Host-Specific Routes
Although routes are usually defined to entire networks, it is possible to define a route to a
specific host. The ability to specify a route for an individual machine is especially useful in
troubleshooting.

Module 4
Examples
The slide shows the routing tables for RouterA and RouterB. However, individual hosts
maintain routing tables, too. Complete the routing tables below:
Routing Table for sanfran

Destination Next Hop
128.1.0.0/16
129.1.0.0/16
130.1.0.0/16
Routing Table for mailsvr:

128.1.0.0/16
129.1.0.0/16
130.1.0.0/16
Routing Table for filesvr:

128.1.0.0/16
129.1.0.0/16
130.1.0.0/16

Module 4
4–3. SLIDE: Viewing Routing Tables
Viewing Routing Tables
# netstat -rn
Dest Gateway Flags Refs Interface Pmtu
127.0.0.1 127.0.0.1 UH 0 lo0 4136
128.1.1.1 128.1.1.1 UH 0 lan0 4136
127.0.0.0 127.0.0.1 U 0 lo0 0
128.1.0.0 128.1.1.1 U 2 lan0 1500
129.1.0.0 128.1.0.1 UG 0 lan0 1500
130.1.0.0 128.1.0.1 UG 0 lan0 1500
Flags:
Destination H = Route is for a single host
Next Hop
Network U = Route is "Up"
G = Route requires a hop across a gateway
Student Notes
You can view your system's routing table via the netstat command. Each entry in the
resulting table includes a "Destination" network or host address, the "Gateway" used to
access that destination, and several fields identifying the route usage.
The “Flags” field identifies the following: the route is up (U), the route uses a gateway (G),
the destination is a host or network (with or without H), the route was created dynamically
(D) by a redirect or by Path MTU Discovery, and a gateway route has been modified (M).
The “Refs” field shows the current number of active uses of the route. Connection-oriented
protocols normally use a single route for the duration of a connection, while connectionless
protocols obtain a route only while sending a particular message.
The “Interface” field displays the name of the network interface used by the route.

Module 4
The "Pmtu" field displays the maximum transmission unit size allowed on the interface card
used by the route.
# netstat -rn
Dest/Netmask Gateway Flags Refs Interface Pmtu
127.0.0.1 127.0.0.1 UH 0 lo0 4136
128.1.1.1 128.1.1.1 UH 0 lan0 1500
127.0.0.0 127.0.0.1 U 0 lo0 4136
128.1.0.0 128.1.1.1 U 2 lan0 1500
129.1.0.0 128.1.0.1 UG 0 lan0 1500
130.1.0.0 128.1.0.1 UG 0 lan0 1500
The –n option causes netstat to display IP addresses rather than host names. If you prefer
to view host names in your routing table, leave off the –n.
When executed with the –v option, netstat also displays the netmask associated with each
destination in the routing table.

Module 4
4–4. SLIDE: Configuring Static Routes
Configuring Static Routes
Use the route command to dynamically add and remove route table entries.
Add or delete a route to a specific host:

# route add host 129.1.1.1 128.1.0.1 1
# route delete host 129.1.1.1 128.1.0.1
Add or delete a route to a network:

# route add net 129.1.0.0 netmask 255.255.0.0 128.1.0.1 1
# route delete net 129.1.0.0 netmask 255.255.0.0 128.1.0.1
Flush all gateway entries from the routing table:
# route -f
Student Notes
You can add and remove entries in your routing table via the route command. Consider a
few examples.
Adding and Deleting Routes to Individual Hosts

The first couple of examples on the slide add, then delete a route to the host at address
129.1.1.1 via the router at address 128.1.0.1. The ”1” on the end of the command is the “hop
count” parameter. This should be set to “0” for hosts on your local network, or “1” if the route
requires hops across one or more gateways. The "hop count" is optional when deleting
existing routes from the routing table.
# route add host 129.1.1.1 128.1.0.1 1

# route delete host 129.1.1.1 128.1.0.1

Module 4
Adding and Deleting Routes to Entire Networks

Although it is possible to configure routes to individual hosts, it is much more common to
configure routes to entire networks. The examples on the slide add, then delete a route to the
129.1.0.0/16 network via the router at address 128.1.0.1. The netmask parameter is optional,
but recommended if you are part of a subnetted environment. Here again, the "hop count"
indicates if the route requires a hop across a gateway/router.
# route add net 129.1.0.0 netmask 255.255.0.0 128.1.0.1 1

# route delete net 129.1.0.0 netmask 255.255.0.0 128.1.0.1
Flushing the Routing Table

The last example flushes all gateway routes from the routing table, leaving nothing but the
host's own IP addresses, local routes, and loopback routes. If your routing table becomes
corrupted at some point, you may choose to use this option to flush all non-critical routes
from the routing table, then re-add the gateway entries manually with the route command.
# route –f
Auto-Configured Static Routes

Several routes are configured for you automatically when your IP address and loopback
address are set during system startup:
• A route to the host’s own IP address.

• A route to the host’s own local network.
• A route to the 127.0.0.1 address.
• A route to the 127.0.0.0/8 network.
These four routes must be present in order for your system to function properly!

Module 4
4–5. SLIDE: Configuring a Default Route
Configuring a Default Route
128.1.1.1 128.1.1.2 128.1.1.3

I'll deliver data to hosts on my
local network directly. All other
packets can simply be sent to
my default router!
128.1.0.1
Add a default route:
# route add default 128.1.0.1 1
To the Intranet
Delete the default route: and beyond!
# route delete default 128.1.0.1
Student Notes
Configuring a Default Router/Gateway

Although an HP-UX workstation or server may be configured as a router, most networks
today have dedicated rack-mounted routers. These routers typically support one or more
dynamic routing protocols, which continuously exchange information with other routers on
the corporate intranet or public Internet. This saves the administrator the drudgery of
manually configuring hundreds of entries in the routing tables.
Individual hosts on a network generally maintain routing tables with very few entries. Every
host, of course, can directly deliver frames to other hosts on the same network. To reach
other networks, most hosts define the nearest dedicated router as the default route in the
routing table. The default route is used whenever there is no specified route in the routing
table to a destination.
The default route may be defined using the route command:
# route add default 128.1.0.1 1

Module 4
At HP-UX 11.0, it became possible to define multiple default routes on a single host. Defining
multiple default routes offers two advantages. First, HP-UX provides some load balancing by
sending some packets via the first default router, and others via the second in a round-robin-
like fashion. Defining multiple default routes also offers improved reliability. HP-UX monitors
the status of the routers; if a router fails to respond, HP-UX uses the alternate default route
defined in the routing table.
Configuring Proxy ARP Default Routing

A simpler approach is to simply define your own IP address as the default route. In this case,
all packets destined to networks that aren’t explicitly listed in your routing table will simply
be dropped out on your local network. Assuming your local router supports the “Proxy ARP”
protocol, it will recognize all packets destined for IP addresses off the local network and
forward them automatically.
The example below configures a proxy ARP default route for host 128.1.1.1. Note that the hop
count variable should be null, or set to 0.
# route add default 128.1.1.1

Module 4
4–6. SLIDE: Configuring Routes in /etc/rc.config.d/netconf
Configuring Routes in
ROUTE_DESTINATION[0]="net 129.1.0.0"
ROUTE_MASK[0]="255.255.0.0"
ROUTE_GATEWAY[0]="128.1.0.1"
ROUTE_COUNT[0]="1"
ROUTE_ARGS[0]=""
ROUTE_DESTINATION[1]="default"
ROUTE_MASK[1]=""
ROUTE_GATEWAY[1]="128.1.0.1"
ROUTE_COUNT[1]="1"
ROUTE_ARGS[1]=""
route add net 129.1.0.0 netmask 255.255.0.0 128.1.0.1 1
route add default 128.1.0.1 1
Student Notes
During the system boot process, the /sbin/init.d/net script consults the
/etc/rc.config.d/netconf file to determine which routes need to be configured. To
permanently configure multiple routes, simply replicate the block of ROUTE variables in the
netconf file, increment the index for each block of lines, and set the variable values
accordingly. The slide shows some sample netconf route entries, and the route
commands that execute as a result of those entries.
You may notice that some of the routes listed in your routing table don’t appear in the
/etc/rc.config.d/netconf file. Each time you set or change your IP address, HP-UX
automatically creates a route to your own IP and your local network. Similarly, when you
remove an IP address, HP-UX automatically removes the route entries associated with that IP
address.
The routes to the loopback address (127.0.0.1) and the loopback network (127.0.0.0) are also
created automatically.

Module 4
4–7. LAB: Configuring Routing
Directions
Record the commands you use to perform the tasks suggested below.
Your instructor has configured host corp as a router with two LAN interfaces. Record corp’s
IP and network addresses here. The first IP should be a /16 address whose first two octets
match your first two octets. The second IP address should be a /24 address that is entirely
different from your system’s IP address.
corp's first interface’s IP: ___ . ___ . _ 0 . 1 /16 (should be on your net)
corp’s first interface’s network: ___ . ___ . _0 . 0 /16
corp's second interface’s IP: ___ . ___ . __ _ . _1__ /24 (should be on another net)
corp’s second interface’s network: ___ . ___ . _ . 0 /24
Verify that your instructor has configured corp’s second interface before proceeding.
Preliminary Steps
2. Modifying IP connectivity on a running system can wreak havoc on CDE and other
Part 1: Viewing and Modifying the Routing Table

1. View your routing table. What routes are currently defined on your host?
Answer
2. Are you able to ping corp’s first LAN card?

Are you able to ping corp’s second LAN card? Explain!
Answer

Module 4
3. From the command line, add a route to the second network via corp’s first LAN interface.
Then check your routing table again to verify that you were successful.
Answer
4. Can you ping the second interface on corp now?
Answer
5. Delete the route that you just added. Then check the routing table to verify that you were
successful.
Answer
6. Now, define corp’s first IP as your default route. Then check your routing table again to
be sure this worked.
Answer
7. Can you ping the second IP now, even though you do not have an explicit route to the
second network?
Answer
8. How can you ensure that your default route is defined after every system boot? Make it
so.
Answer

Module 4
9. Reboot your machine. When your machine comes back up again, check the routing table
to verify that the default route is defined.
Answer
Part 2: Adding Router Entries to the /etc/hosts File

1. Add an entry to your /etc/hosts file for corp's second LAN interface. Since corp has
two IP addresses, it should have two entries in the /etc/hosts file, and both entries
should resolve to hostname corp.
2. If you ping corp, which of corp's IP addresses does your system appear to choose?
Watch your ping output carefully.
Answer
3. For troubleshooting purposes, it may be helpful to be able to specify which IP address is

used when ping’ing a router such as corp. You may wish to assign /etc/hosts aliases
to each of the LAN cards on corp.
Answer
4. How can you specifically ping corp’s first interface now?

How can you specifically ping corp’s second interface?
Answer

Module 4
Part 3: Important! Backup Your New Network Configuration!

1. Use the netfiles.sh script to backup the new network configuration that you
configured over the last couple of chapters. Many of the labs that follow in this course
require access to this archive backup! You can verify that the backup succeeded by
running netfiles.sh –l.
# /labs/netfiles.sh –s NEW
# /labs/netfiles.sh –l NEW

Module 4

Objectives
• List the advantages and disadvantages of a subnetted network.
• Subnet a network on an octet boundary.
• Subnet a network on a non-octet boundary.
• Set an HP-UX subnet mask.

Module 5
Configuring Subnetting
5–1. SLIDE: Limitations of Large Networks
Limitations of Large Networks
• /8 networks provide ~16 million host addresses

• /16 networks provide ~65 thousand host addresses
• Reasons for not putting 65 thousand hosts on one network:
...
packet
...
65,000 hosts
Student Notes
Although a /8 network address allows for 16 million host addresses, in reality, it is impractical
to have that many hosts sharing a single physical network.
Topological Limitations Many LAN topologies don't allow 16 million nodes on a single
physical network.
Excessive Collisions If any two nodes on an ethernet network transmit at the same
instant, a collision results and both nodes must attempt to
retransmit. As the number of nodes on the network increases,
the likelihood of collisions increases as well.
Administrative Challenges Simply keeping track of who has which IP address in a 16-
million node network would be an administrative challenge for
even the best network administrator.
Poor Network Performance All of these issues result in degraded network performance as
more and more hosts compete for limited bandwidth on a
network.

Module 5
One solution to all of these issues would be to simply leave many of the IP host addresses on
/8 networks unused. The rapid depletion of the IP address space however, makes this
solution impractical. "Subnetting" provides a much better solution to these problems.

Module 5
5–2. SLIDE: Subnetting Concept
Subnetting Concept
• Break a large network into more manageable subnetworks

• Example: Subnetting a /16 network
Subnet 128.1.1.0
Router
(254 hosts)
Network 128.1.0.0/16
Subnet 128.1.2.0
(65,535 hosts) (254 hosts)
Router
Subnet 128.1.3.0
(254 hosts) Router
Non-subnetted network: Subnetted network:

one 65,535 node, network 254 subnets, each with 254 nodes
Student Notes
Subnetting makes it possible to divide a large network IP address space into several smaller,
more manageable "subnets."
The example on the slide shows a subnetted /16 network. Without subnetting, the 128.1.0.0/16
network would have 65 thousand hosts on the same physical network, which could easily
lead to excessive collisions.
This network, however, has been subdivided into 254 subnets. Each of these subnets could
potentially have up to 254 hosts.
Subnet Addresses
----------------
128.1.1.0
128.1.2.0
...
128.1.253.0
128.1.254.0
Subnets are separated from one another by routers, which overcome both the collision and
topological issues discussed on the previous slide.

Module 5
Subnetting also makes it easy for the network administrator to delegate authority for
portions of the IP network address space to other entities within the organization. Simply
assign each department a separate subnet. Each network administrator then becomes
responsible for a subnet within the larger corporate network.

Module 5
5–3. SLIDE: IP Addresses in a Subnetted Network
IP Addresses in a Subnetted Network
Non-subnetted network: IP addresses have two components.
128 . 1 . 0 . 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Network Host
Subnetted network: IP addresses have three components.
128 . 1 . 1 . 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Network Subnet Host
Student Notes
In a non-subnetted network, each IP address has just two components. A portion of the IP’s
bits identifies the network to which a host is attached, and the remaining bits uniquely define
individual hosts on the network.
Subnetted IP addresses have a third component as well: a portion of the IP address’s host bits
is used to define the subnet to which the host belongs.
Returning to the 128.1.0.0/16 network example: Normally, a host on a /16 network has 16 host
bits. When implementing subnetting, 8 of those bits are used to define the host's subnet,
leaving 8 remaining bits to define the individual host address.
The number of subnet bits may vary. Increasing the number of subnet bits allows more
subnets, but fewer hosts on each subnet. Decreasing the number of subnet bits decreases the
number of addressable subnets, but allows more hosts on each subnet.

Module 5
5–4. SLIDE: Netmasks in a Subnetted Network
Netmasks in a Subnetted Network
• The netmask masks network and subnet bits with 1s.
• Netmask for a non-subnetted /16 network:
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 = 255.255.0.0
Network Host Netmask
• Netmask for /24 subnetworks on a /16 network:

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 = 255.255.255.0
Network Subnet Host Netmask
Student Notes
The text on the previous page noted that the number of subnet bits can vary. So how do
routers and other network devices determine where the network/subnet portion of an IP
address ends, and where the host portion of an IP address begins on a subnetted network?
In printed form, the boundary between the network/subnet portion of the IP and the host
portion of an IP is typically indicated via the "/" suffix on the end of the IP. The number
following the "/" indicates the total number of network/subnet bits. All remaining bits are
assumed to be host bits. Consider the example on the bottom of the slide. The IP address in
the example has 16 network bits and 8 subnet bits. Since 16+8=24, IP addresses on these
subnets would be represented as x.x.x.x/24 addresses.
UNIX identifies the network/ subnet host boundary in an IP address via the IP netmask. On a
non-subnetted network, the 1s in the netmask identify network bits. On a subnetted network,
the 1s in the netmask mask both network and subnet bits.
The example on the slide shows a netmask that consists of 24 "1" bits, followed by 8 "0" bits.
Thus, the network/subnet portion of the IP addresses on this network appears to span the
first three octets, while the final octet represents the host portion of each IP address.

Module 5
Since the number of subnet bits varies from network to network, the netmask varies from
network to network as well. In a subnetted network, you must define the netmask for each
LAN interface card.

Module 5
5–5. SLIDE: Subnet Addresses
Subnet Addresses
Example: Network 128.1.0.0/16 subnetted into 254 subnets
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1st subnet
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2nd subnet
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3rd subnet
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4th subnet
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 11 1 11 1 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 254th subnet
Network Bits Subnet Bits Host Bits
Netmask = 255.255.255.0
Student Notes
A single network may contain multiple subnets. The network bits for all hosts on all of the
subnets within a network will be the same. However, each subnet is assigned a unique subnet
address. The subnet address is defined in the subnet bits specified by the netmask.
Continuing the example started in the previous slides, this slide shows the subnet addresses
for the 128.1.0.0/16 network. The 255.255.255.0 netmask tells us that the third octet defines
the subnet portion of the IP addresses on this network.
With eight subnet bits, it is possible to represent 256 addresses:
00000000 = 0 Not allowed by some devices.

00000001 = 1
00000010 = 2
00000011 = 3
...
11111101 = 253
11111110 = 254
11111111 = 255 Not allowed by some devices.

Module 5
Although it is possible to represent 256 subnet addresses with 8 subnet bits, some devices
and do not allow all-0 or all-1 subnets. Eliminating these addresses leaves the following
subnet addresses:
128.1.1.0/24
128.1.2.0/24
...
128.1.253.0/24
128.1.254.0/24
All-0 and All-1 Subnet Bits in HP-UX

Before HP-UX 11i, HP-UX did not support IP addresses that had all 0s or all 1s in the subnet
portion of an IP address. Starting at HP-UX 11i, all-0 and all-1 subnet addresses are
supported, but only if the ip_check_subnet_addr tunable network parameter has been
set to "0". Network tunable parameters, including ip_check_subnet_addr, can be both
viewed and set using the ndd command:
# ndd -get /dev/ip ip_check_subnet_addr Check the current value

# ndd -set /dev/ip ip_check_subnet_addr 0 Enable all-0/all-1 subnets
# ndd -set /dev/ip ip_check_subnet_addr 1 Disable all-0/all-1 subnets
By default, this parameter is set to 0, and all-0 and all-1 subnet addresses are allowed.
Changes made via ndd are lost at reboot time, unless they are recorded in the
/etc/rc.config.d/nddconf file:
# vi /etc/rc.config.d/nddconf
TRANSPORT_NAME[1]=ip
NDD_NAME[1]=ip_check_subnet_addr
NDD_VALUE[1]=0
This is just one of many parameters that may be tuned via the ndd command. For a full list of
tunable ndd parameters, type ndd -h.

Module 5
5–6. SLIDE: Host IP Addresses on a Subnet
Host IP Addresses on a Subnet
• The host address with all 0s represents the address for the entire subnet.
• The host address with all 1s represents the broadcast address for the subnet.
• All other addresses within the subnet may be used for hosts.
• Examples: IP addresses for subnet 128.1.1.0/24:
Subnet #1 : 10000000.00000001.00000001.00000000 = 128.1.1.0/24

Host #1 : 10000000.00000001.00000001.00000001 = 128.1.1.1/24
Host #2 : 10000000.00000001.00000001.00000010 = 128.1.1.2/24
Host #3 : 10000000.00000001.00000001.00000011 = 128.1.1.3/24
. . .
. . .
. . .
Host #253 : 10000000.00000001.00000001.11111101 = 128.1.1.253/24

Host #254 : 10000000.00000001.00000001.11111110 = 128.1.1.254/24
Broadcast : 10000000.00000001.00000001.11111111 = 128.1.1.255
Netmask = 255.255.255.0
Student Notes
Each subnet may contain multiple hosts. Within a subnet, all network and subnet bits must
be identical for every host. However, each host must have a unique sequence of host bits to
distinguish it from all the other hosts on the subnet.
Consider the 128.1.1.0/24 subnet from the previous page. Each host on this subnet will have
an IP address that begins with 128.1.1. This leaves eight host bits.
With eight bits, it is possible to represent 256 values:
00000000 = 0
00000001 = 1
00000010 = 2
00000011 = 3
...
11111101 = 253
11111110 = 254
11111111 = 255
The address formed by setting all the host bits to 0 is used to define routes to the subnet in
the network routing tables. This address should not be assigned to a specific node.

Module 5
The address formed by setting all the host bits to 1 is a reserved address as well. It is the
subnet broadcast address.
All remaining addresses may be assigned to hosts in the subnet. Valid addresses for hosts on
the 128.1.1.0/24 subnet, then, include:
128.1.1.1/24
128.1.1.2/24
128.1.1.3/24
...
128.1.1.253/24
128.1.1.254/24

Module 5
5–7. SLIDE: Limitations of Subnetting on an Octet Boundary
Limitations of Subnetting on an Octet

Boundary
How would you subnet your network, if . . .
• You have a /24 network address?
• You want exactly six subnets from a

/16 network address?
Student Notes
The example discussed thus far in the chapter used a simple netmask that placed the
subnet/host boundary on an octet boundary. Although this makes it easy to determine which
subnet a given IP address is on, subnetting on an octet boundary may not provide the
flexibility you need as you design your subnets.
Octet-boundary subnetting is not even an option in a /24 network. Since /24 addresses have
just one host octet, using that octet to define an IP's subnet would not leave any host bits!
Octet boundary subnetting may prove limiting on a /16 network, too. What happens if you
have a /16 network, and need exactly six subnets? Octet-boundary subnetting would break
your network into 254 subnets. This is many more than you actually need.
For these reasons, octet-boundary subnetting rarely offers the flexibility needed to subnet a
large network.

Module 5
5–8. SLIDE: Subnetting on a Non-Octet Boundary
Subnetting on a Non-Octet Boundary
Example: Network 192.6.12.0/24 subnetted into 6 subnets:
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1st subnet
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 2nd subnet
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 3rd subnet
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 4th subnet
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 10 1 0 0 0 0 0 5th subnet
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 6th subnet
Network Subnet Host

Bits Bits Bits
Netmask = 255 . 255 . 255 . 224
Student Notes
Subnetting on a non-octet boundary simply means that the subnet/host boundary does not
fall on an octet boundary. The example on the slide shows a /24 network, 192.6.12.
Formulating the Subnet Address

The administrator has chosen to break the network shown on the slide into six subnets by
using three bits from the fourth octet as subnet bits. With three bits, it is possible to represent
eight values:
000 Not allowed by some routers.

001
010
011
100
101
110
111 Not allowed by some routers.

Module 5
Recall that the subnet address is defined by setting all of the remaining host bits to 0. Thus,
the subnet addresses on this network are:
192.6.12.00100000 = 192.6.12.32
192.6.12.01000000 = 192.6.12.64
192.6.12.01100000 = 192.6.12.96
192.6.12.10000000 = 192.6.12.128
192.6.12.10100000 = 192.6.12.160
192.6.12.11000000 = 192.6.12.192
Formulating the Netmask

The netmask is defined by setting all of the network and subnet bits to 1. In this case the
result is:
11111111.11111111.11111111.11100000 = 255.255.255.224
Formulating the Host Addresses

Taking three bits from the last octet to define the subnet leaves just five bits to define the
host portion of the IP. The chart on the text page that follows shows the valid addresses for
each subnet.
Recall that the broadcast address for a subnet is formulated by setting all the host bits to 1.
The subnet address is formulated by setting all the host bits to 0.

Module 5
5–9. TEXT PAGE: More Subnetting on a Non-Octet Boundary
The chart below shows all of the IP addresses for the 192.6.12.0/16 network example from the
previous page:
IP Address (Decimal & Binary) IP Address Usage
192 6 12 00000000 192.6.12.0/24 Network address
192 6 12 00100000 192.6.12.32/27 Subnet #1

192 6 12 00100001 192.6.12.33/27 Subnet #1, First Host
192 6 12 00111110 192.6.12.62/27 Subnet #1, Last Host
192 6 12 00111111 192.6.12.63/27 Subnet #1, Broadcast
192 6 12 01000000 192.6.12.64/27 Subnet #2

192 6 12 01011110 192.6.12.94/27 Subnet #2, Last Host
192 6 12 01100000 192.6.12.96/27 Subnet #3

192 6 12 01100001 192.6.12.97/27 Subnet $3, First Host
192 6 12 01111110 192.6.12.126/27 Subnet #3, Last Host
192 6 12 10000000 192.6.12.128/27 Subnet #4

192 6 12 10011110 192.6.12.158/27 Subnet #4, Last Host
192 6 12 10100000 192.6.12.160/27 Subnet #5

192 6 12 10111110 192.6.12.190/27 Subnet #5, Last Host
192 6 12 11000000 192.6.12.192/27 Subnet #6

192 6 12 11011110 192.6.12.222/27 Subnet #6, Last Host
255 255 255 11100000 255.255.255.224 Netmask

Module 5
5–10. SLIDE: Routers in a Subnetted Network
Routers in a Subnetted Network
Facilities subnet (192.6.12.128/27)
Finance subnet (192.6.12.96/27)
Marketing subnet (192.6.12.64/27)
Manufacturing subnet (192.6.12.32/27)
Student Notes
Subnets on the network are separated by routers. In the example on the slide, the facilities
subnet is the network backbone. The other three subnets all connect to the facilities subnet
via routers.
Although each subnet has a different subnet address, all share the same netmask.
The next slide describes the steps required to configure subnetting of the hosts on the
"manufacturing" subnet.

Module 5
5–11. SLIDE: Configuring Subnetting
Facilities subnet (192.6.12.128/27)
192.6.12.129/27
192.6.12.33/27
Manufacturing subnet (192.6.12.32/27)
192.6.12.34/27 192.6.12.35/27 192.6.12.36/27

HostA HostB HostC
HostA# ifconfig lan0 192.6.12.34 netmask 255.255.255.224 up

HostA# route add default 192.6.12.33 1
Student Notes
This slide shows the steps required to configure subnetting on each of the hosts on the
manufacturing subnet. When configuring the interface card on a host connected to a
subnetted network, you must specify the subnet mask as an argument to the ifconfig
command. All of the hosts on the subnet must have the same subnet mask.
To ensure that your host has access to other subnets and networks, define a default route to
your nearest router. If you wish to make your configuration permanent, modify
/etc/rc.config.d/netconf. For HostA, the netconf file should contain the following:
HOSTNAME=HostA
IP_ADDRESS[0]=192.6.12.34
SUBNET_MASK[0]=255.255.255.224
ROUTE_DESTINATION[0]=default
ROUTE_GATEWAY[0]=192.6.12.33
ROUTE_COUNT[0]=1

Module 5
The /etc/rc.config.d/netconf file should be similarly configured on other hosts in the

manufacturing subnet, with appropriate host names and IP addresses.

Module 5
5–12. TEXT PAGE: Class B and Class C Subnetting Reference

Sheet
You may use as many of the host bits as you wish to define the subnet portion of an IP.
Increasing the number of subnet bits increases the number of subnets available, but
decreases the number of hosts on each subnet. The following formulas determine how many
subnets and hosts per subnet may be defined, if all-0 and all-1 subnet addresses are not
allowed:
2number of subnet bits - 2 ≥ number of subnets available

number of host bits
2 - 2 = number of host addresses per subnet
Allowing all-0 and all-1 subnet addresses changes the first formula slightly:
2number of subnet bits

- 2 = numbers of subnets available
2number of host bits
- 2 = number of host addresses per subnet
The tables below show the number of subnets and hosts available for various netmasks on
/16 and /24 networks, excluding the all-0 or all-1 subnets.
Net Type # Subnet Bits # Host Bits Netmask # Subnets # Hosts

-------- ------------- ----------- --------------- --------- -------
/16 0 16 255.255.0.0 0 65534
2 14 255.255.192.0 2 16382
3 13 255.255.224.0 6 8190
4 12 255.255.240.0 14 4094
5 11 255.255.248.0 30 2046
6 10 255.255.252.0 62 1022
7 9 255.255.254.0 126 510
8 8 255.255.255.0 254 254
9 7 255.255.255.128 510 126
10 6 255.255.255.192 1022 62
11 5 255.255.255.224 2046 30
12 4 255.255.255.240 4094 14
13 3 255.255.255.248 8190 6
14 2 255.255.255.252 16382 2
Net Type # Subnet bits # Host Bits Netmask # Subnets # Hosts

-------- ------------- ------------ --------------- --------- -------
/24 0 8 255.255.255.0 0 254
2 6 255.255.255.192 2 62
3 5 255.255.255.224 6 30
4 4 255.255.255.240 14 14
5 3 255.255.255.248 30 6
6 2 255.255.255.252 62 2

Module 5
5–13. LAB: Configuring Subnets
Directions
Answer all of the questions below. Assume that your network contains some older devices
that don't support all-0 or all-1 subnet addresses.
Part 1
1. Your company's network address is 128.20.0.0/16, but your netmask is set to
255.255.255.0. Given this netmask, how many bits are in the subnet portion of your
IP address?
2. Given your answer to the previous question, how many host addresses may be configured
on each subnet?
3. What are the lowest and highest subnet addresses?
4. What are the lowest and highest host addresses on the first subnet?

Module 5
Part 2
Your company's network address is 192.30.40.0/24, and you need to create two subnets.
1. How many contiguous bits are needed, and in which octet?
2. What is the subnet mask?
3. What are the valid subnet addresses?

Module 5
Part 3
Your company's network address is 132.40.0.0/16. You need to configure nine subnetworks.
1. How many bits are needed to form 9 subnets?
2. What will be the subnet mask in dotted decimal notation?
3. List the first three subnet addresses.
4. How many hosts can be on each subnet?
5. What is the complete address for the first host on the first subnet?
6. What would be the complete address for the last host on the first subnet?

Module 5
7. Fill in the variable values you would expect to see in the /etc/rc.config.d/netconf
file for the last host on the first subnet. Record the variable values below, but do not
actually modify the /etc/rc.config.d/netconf file on your system.
IP_ADDRESS[0]=
SUBNET_MASK[0]=
8. What command would the /sbin/init.d/net script execute as a result of the

netconf values in the previous question?

Objectives
• Use the following tools to troubleshoot network connectivity:
− lanscan
− lanadmin
− linkloop
− arp/ndd
− ping
− netstat -i
− netstat -a
− netstat -r
− hostname
− nslookup

Module 6
Troubleshooting Network Connectivity
6–1. SLIDE: Network Troubleshooting Tools Overview
Network Troubleshooting Tools Overview
Several network troubleshooting tools are included with HP-UX, including:
• lanscan (HP-specific tool)

• lanadmin (HP-specific tool)
• linkloop (HP-specific tool)
• arp (BSD)
• ping (public domain)
• netstat (BSD)
• nslookup (BSD)
Student Notes
Connectivity problems are not always clearly and directly shown by the tools. Often you get
only hints, which you have to interpret. You will have to use several tools in logical steps;
therefore, you must be knowledgeable about the networking concepts and the capabilities of
each networking tool.

Module 6
6–2. SLIDE: Potential Network Connectivity Problems
Potential Network Connectivity Problems
• LAN terminators are not connected properly.

• The LAN interface is not powered up.
• The LAN interface has the wrong IP address.
• The subnet mask is incorrect.
• The same IP address is used by another system.
• The routing table is configured incorrectly.
• The router is down.
• The LAN cable is defective.
• The LAN segment is too long.
• The /etc/hosts file is configured incorrectly.
Student Notes
• LAN terminators not connected properly.
Many times users do not terminate their LAN cables properly. You must have two
terminators on your network—one at each end.
• The LAN interface is not powered up.
The ifconfig command fails if the LAN interface is defective. You may inadvertently
introduce syntax errors into the configuration files if you modify these files with an editor
such as vi.
• The LAN interface has the wrong IP address.
Someone may have made a mistake when configuring the IP_ADDRESS within the
/etc/rc.config.d/netconf file.

Module 6
• The subnet mask is incorrect.
Someone may have made a mistake when configuring the SUBNET_MASK within the
• The same IP address is used by another system.
Sometimes someone connects his or her system to the network without asking the
network administrator for a unique IP address.
• The routing table is configured incorrectly.
Someone may have made a mistake when configuring the ROUTE parameters within the
• The router is down.
Sometimes a system must be shut down. If you are shutting down a router, you should
announce the shutdown at least one day in advance.
• The LAN cable is defective.
There are specific instruments to detect a break in a cable.
• The LAN segment is too long.
If coaxial cables were installed a long time ago without using a cabling map, it is possible
that the cables have become too long. When a new system is added to the segment, if the
cable is extended beyond the segment length limitation, problems will eventually arise.
There are cable testers to measure cable lengths.
• The /etc/hosts file is configured incorrectly.
If your system cannot resolve a host name to the correct IP address, you probably have a
problem in your hosts table. When using /etc/hosts, the first match working down
from the top of the file is used. If two IP addresses are in /etc/hosts (for example, for
a gateway), gethostbyname() will always return the first IP address, which may not be
the desired one. You should check your hosts file regularly to make sure the entries for
your machines are correct.

Module 6
6–3. SLIDE: The lanscan Command
The lanscan Command
Application 7
Presentation 6
Session 5
Transport 4
Networking 3
Data Link 2
Physical 1
• The lanscan command lists information for all LAN interface

cards within the system.
Example (for D-Series system)
# lanscan
8/16/6 0x0060B0A39825 0 UP lan0 snap0 1 ETHER Yes 119
8/20/5/1 0x0060B058A8C6 1 UP lan1 snap1 2 ETHER Yes 119
Student Notes
Any user can execute this simple and quick command. It provides the most efficient way to
determine the link level address of the interface card.
It also displays the following information:
Hardware path HP-UX hardware address of the LAN interface, also displayed
by ioscan.
Station address Link level address.
Crd IN# Card instance number, which is a logical number for the
hardware path (displayed by ioscan -f).
Hardware state Autoconfigured (up) or not autoconfigured (down).
Net-Interface Name PPA The network interface Name and the PPA number are
concatenated together. A single hardware device may have
multiple NamePPA identifiers, which indicates multiple
encapsulation methods may be supported on the device.

Module 6
NM ID Network management ID, which is assigned uniquely by the

system. It is used by lanadmin, a diagnostic tool.
MAC type Specifies the medium access control (MAC) standard of the
LAN link.
HP DLPI support Indicates whether or not the LAN device driver will work with
HP's Common Data Link Provider interface. It must be yes to
use diagnostics linkloop and lanadmin.
Mjr Num DLPI major number
Syntax of lanscan
/usr/sbin/lanscan [-aimnpv]
in which
a Displays station addresses (link level address) only.
i Displays interface names (lan?) only.
m (new in 11.0) Displays MAC types only.
n Displays network management id only.
p (new in 11.0) Displays PPA numbers only.
v Provides verbose output. The output consists of additional lines per interface, and includes
the encapsulation method (IEEE and/or ETHER).
For more information, please see the man page lanscan(1M).
NOTE: Before HP-UX 10.30, lanscan displays the interface state of each networking
device. This will no longer be the case. LAN drivers no longer maintain the
interface state. The Network Interface State field has been removed from the
lanscan output. Instead, the netstat command can be used to determine
the state of the interface.

Module 6
6–4. SLIDE: The linkloop Command
The linkloop Command
Application 7 Application 7
Presentation 6 Presentation 6
Session 5 Session 5
Transport 4 Transport 4
Networking 3 Networking 3
Data Link 2 Data Link 2
Physical 1 Physical 1
• The linkloop command tests layer 2 connectivity.

• The linkloop command succeeds even if the destination IP
address is not configured or is incorrect.
Example
# linkloop 0x0060b007c179
Link connectivity to LAN station: 0x0060b007c179
-- OK
Student Notes
/usr/sbin/linkloop tests the physical and data link layers (layers 1 and 2) of the OSI
model.
linkloop uses IEEE 802.3 link test frames to check connectivity within a LAN. You must be
root to execute the linkloop command.
NOTE: linkloop requires the device file /dev/dlpi and the dlpi kernel driver.
The linkloop command is a quick way to test your own LAN interface. If you provide
linkloop with the link level address of the machine for which you want to test connectivity,
linkloop will report whether or not the connectivity is OK. The link level address can be
obtained with the commands lanscan and lanadmin.
Before HP-UX 10.30, LAN drivers maintained the interface state. Beginning with HP-UX 10.30,
the physical point of attachment (PPA) number for DLPI is no longer equivalent to the
network management identifier (NMID). The PPA number has been changed to be the same
as the card instance number.

Module 6
The linkloop syntax, shown on the slide, has the following parameters:
-n count Sets the number of frames to transmit.
-i PPA Specifies the PPA to use. If this option is omitted, linkloop uses the first
PPA it encounters in an internal data structure.
(For releases earlier than HP-UX 10.30, this option will refer to the nmid,
which refers to the network management ID as displayed by lanscan.)
-t timeout Specifies time in seconds to wait for a reply.
-s size Specifies the size of the data packet.
-v Verbose option.
linkaddr The link level address.
For more information, see the man page for linkloop(1M).

Module 6
6–5. SLIDE: The lanadmin Command
The lanadmin Command
Application 7
Presentation 6
Session 5
Transport 4
Networking 3
Data Link 2
Physical 1
The lanadmin command is a LAN diagnostic tool available

specifically for HP 9000 business servers and workstations.
Capabilities of the lanadmin command:

• resets the LAN interface card
• changes the maximum packet size for the LAN card
• changes the speed setting of the LAN card
• displays driver statistics for the LAN card
• resets the driver statistics to zero for the LAN card
Student Notes
lanadmin allows you to do the following:
• Display and change the station address.

• Display and change the maximum packet size (MTU-max transmission unit) for the LAN
card.
• Display and change the maximum speed setting for the LAN card.
• Gather LAN interface statistics.
• Reset the interface card.
• Execute the interface self-test to check for hardware problems.

Module 6
The following are the lanadmin command options:
-e Echos the input commands on the output device. This is useful if you want to
redirect your output to a file.
-t Suppresses the display of the command menu before each command prompt.
This is the same as the test selection mode terse command.
-a Display current station address corresponding to PPA Number. The -A

argument can be used to change the station address.
-m Display current MTU size corresponding to PPA Number. The -M argument

can be used to change the MTU size.
-s Display current speed setting corresponding to PPA Number. The -S

argument can be used to change the speed setting.
-h Display on-line help related to the syntax of the command.
When executed in the most common way, without parameters, the following menu is
displayed:
# /usr/sbin/lanadmin
LOCAL AREA NETWORK ONLINE ADMINISTRATION, Version 1.0

Fri, May 27,1994 16:38:54
Copyright 1994 Hewlett Packard Company.

All rights are reserved.
Test Selection mode.
lan = LAN Interface Administration

menu = Display this menu
quit = Terminate the Administration
terse = Do not display command menu
verbose = Display command menu
Enter command: lan
When you invoke lanadmin, you are in the test selection mode. From here, you have only
one choice. Either enter the diagnostic by entering lan or just the first letter, l.
The LAN interface diagnostic allows you to test your LAN hardware (layers 1 and 2 of the OSI
model).
NOTE: lanadmin requires the device file /dev/dlpi and the kernel driver dlpi.

Module 6
6–6. SLIDE: Example lanadmin
Example lanadmin
# lanadmin
LOCAL AREA NETWORK ONLINE ADMINISTRATION, Version 1.0
Wed, Aug 12,1998 23:03:30
Copyright 1994 Hewlett Packard Company.
All rights are reserved.
lan = LAN Interface Administration
quit = Terminate the Administration
terse = Do not display command menu
verbose = Display command menu
Enter command: lan

LAN Interface test mode. LAN Interface PPA Number = 0
clear = Clear statistics registers
display = Display LAN Interface status and statistics registers
end = End LAN Interface Administration, return to Test Selection
ppa = PPA Number of the LAN Interface
quit = Terminate the Administration, return to shell
reset = Reset LAN Interface to execute its selftest
Enter command: display
. . .
Student Notes
To enter the LAN interface test mode, type lan while in the test selection mode. The LAN
interface test mode allows you to test the physical and data link layers (layers 1 and 2) of the
OSI model. Specifically, you can gather LAN interface statistics, reset the interface card, and
execute the interface self-test to check for hardware problems.
The following are the LAN interface test commands:
clear Clears the LAN interface card network statistics registers to zero. This
command requires superuser status to execute.
display Displays the local LAN interface card status and statistics registers. Allows
you to find out how busy the network is.
end Returns the diagnostic to the test selection mode.
menu Displays the LAN interface test mode command menu.
ppa Allows you to tell lanadmin which interface card to test.

Module 6
quit Terminates lanadmin.
reset Resets the local LAN interface card, causing it to execute its self-test. Local
access to the network is interrupted. This command requires superuser
status to execute. Resetting the card may be necessary when the host has been
disconnected from the LAN cable for a long time.
NOTE: If you have a second LAN interface, you must create the proper device files for
the interface (for example, /dev/lan1) in order to use this diagnostic.
The following is the output from the display command.
LAN INTERFACE STATUS DISPLAY

Fri, March 13,1998 16:56:51
PPA Number = 0
Description = lan0 Hewlett-Packard LAN Interface Hardware Rev 0
Type (value) = ethernet-csmacd(6)
MTU Size = 1500
Speed = 10000000
Station Address = 0x80009707445
Administration Status (value) = up(1)
Operation Status (value) = up(1)
Last Change = 100
Inbound Octets = 2887895
Inbound Unicast Packets = 23560
Inbound Non-Unicast Packets = 6382
Inbound Discards = 0
Inbound Errors = 833
Inbound Unknown Protocols = 5813
Outbound Octets = 1673233
Outbound Unicast Packets = 20981
Outbound Non-Unicast Packets = 12
Outbound Discards = 0
Outbound Errors = 0
Outbound Queue Length = 0
Specific = 655367
Ethernet-like Statistics Group

Index = 0
Alignment Errors = 0
FCS Errors = 0
Single Collision Frames = 0
Multiple Collision Frames = 0
Deferred Transmissions = 0
Late Collisions = 0
Excessive Collisions = 0
Internal MAC Transmit Errors = 0
Carrier Sense Errors = 0
Frames Too Long = 0
Internal MAC Receive Errors = 0

Module 6
The output of lanadmin is tremendous. Detailed knowledge about the data link layer
protocols is necessary to understand all of the information offered by lanadmin. The
following are only a few tips on how to use and interpret the information that lanadmin
displays:
PPA -Physical Point of Attachment The Physical Point of Attachment (PPA) number of the
LAN interface.
Type (value) LAN interface type. (IEEE 802.3/Ethernet interface in

the preceding example.)
MTU Size The maximum transfer unit is the maximum size of a

frame. The default for Ethernet and IEEE 802.3
interfaces is 1,500 bytes.
Speed Maximum transfer rate of the interface. (10 Mbps in the

example.)
Station Address Link level address (MAC level address).
Administration Status Up means that the autoconfiguration of the LANIC was

successfully completed. Down means that the LANIC is
defective or no kernel driver for this interface is
configured.
Operation Status Up means the LANIC was successfully powered up by

the ifconfig command.
To interpret all other values, look for lines with terms like Discards, Errors, Collision,
Deferred, and Too Long.
Lines with values that are not equal to 0 are not necessarily a problem. If you have a real
problem in OSI layer 1 or 2, lanadmin will show some lines with very high values.
Produce an output listing of lanadmin when you do not have any problems with your
network and keep this listing. Compare this listing with the lanadmin output you get when
problems occur. This information is very helpful when troubleshooting your network.
To produce lanadmin output with a shell script, do the following:
lanadmin -te > listing.lanadmin <<!

lan
display
quit
!

Module 6
6–7. SLIDE: The arp Command
The arp Command
Application
Presentation
Session
Transport
Networking
Data Link
Physical
• ARP is the address resolution protocol.

• The arp command is used to display and modify entries in the ARP table.
• Options which modify the ARP table require root privilege.
Example
# /usr/sbin/arp -a
frank (192.6.30.1) at 0:60:b0:7:4c:4d ether
beverly (192.6.30.5) at 0:60:b0:7:c1:79 ether
jeff (192.6.30.4) at 0:60:b0:7:e1:12 ether
bill (192.6.30.2) at 0:60:b0:7:7e:69 ether
larry (192.6.30.3) at 0:60:b0:7:e1:a2 ether
Student Notes
The /usr/sbin/arp command displays or modifies the entries in the ARP kernel table that
relate Internet (level 3) to Ethernet (level 2) addresses used by the ARP protocol. It has
several options, some of which can only be used by a superuser.
Syntax:
arp hostname Displays the current ARP entry for hostname.
arp -a [system][core] Displays all current ARP entries by reading the table from
file core (default /dev/kmem) based on the kernel file
system (default /stand/vmunix).
arp -d hostname If an ARP entry exists for the host called hostname, then
delete it. This requires superuser privileges.
arp -s [parameter] Create an ARP entry for a host with a new Ethernet
address. This requires superuser privileges.

Module 6
arp -f filename Read file filename and set multiple entries in the ARP
tables. Entries in the file should be of the form hostname
address [temp] [pub] [trail]. This requires
superuser privileges.
If a defective LAN interface is replaced by a new one, remember that the new unit will have a
new link level address. Any remote host that has still the old link level address in its ARP
table will not be able to communicate with this replacement interface. You must delete the
wrong entry from the ARP tables on these remote hosts.
If you want to know the link level address of a remote host in your network, you can send a
ping to this host and read then your ARP table.
For more information, see the man pages for arp(1M) and arp(7).

Module 6
6–8. SLIDE: The ping Command
The ping Command
Application 7 Application 7
Presentation 6 Presentation 6
Session 5 Session 5
Transport 4 Transport 4
Networking 3 Networking 3
Data Link 2 Data Link 2
Physical 1 Physical 1
• The ping command tests the IP connectivity to a remote system.

Example
# ping bill
PING 192.6.30.2: 64 byte packets
----bill PING Statistics----

5 packets transmitted, 4 packets received, 20% packet loss
round-trip (ms) min/avg/max = 43/158/223
Student Notes
ping tests up through the network layer (layer 3) of the OSI model. Any user can execute
ping.
When you encounter a network problem, it is typically a good idea to execute the ping
command first. If ping is successful in transferring packets, you can typically rule out
problems below layer 3 (hardware problems such as bad cables or transceivers), and you can
run tests on the upper layers. If ping fails, you should use lanadmin or lanscan to
diagnose your LAN hardware.
Use ping
• to do a preliminary connectivity check when setting up new nodes.

• when difficulties arise in connecting to a particular node.

Module 6
Syntax
ping hostname [packet_size] [-n [num_packets]]
in which
hostname The IP address or the official host name.
packet_size By default, the size of transmitted packets is 64 bytes. The

minimum value for packet size is eight bytes and the maximum
is 4,096 bytes. If packet_size is less than 16 bytes, there is
not enough room for timing information, so round-trip times
will not be displayed.
num_packets The number of packets ping will transmit before terminating.

By default, ping will send packets until interrupted by
pressing CTRL + c . If you do not specify a packet size, you need
to use -n num_packets.
NOTE: If you use ping on your local host (loopback), you test just the network layer
(layer 3). The test could be successful even if the LAN hardware is down.

Module 6
6–9. SLIDE: The netstat -i Command
The netstat -i Command
Application
Presentation
Session
Transport
Networking
Data Link
Physical
• The netstat -i command displays a LAN interface status report.

• The netstat -in command displays IPs instead of hostnames.
• An asterisk (*) in the output indicates the interface is down.
• The output of netstat -i varies from HP-UX 10.x to HP-UX 11.00.
Example for HP-UX 11.00
# netstat -i
lo0 4136 127.0.0.0 localhost 838 838
lan0 1500 192.6.30.0 bill 160952 111715
Student Notes
The netstat command reports network and protocol statistics regarding traffic and the
status of the local LAN interface. Any user can execute netstat.
There are many options to netstat. The most useful options are those that display
information that is not available through other commands (such as ping, lanscan, and
lanadmin). Within this module, we will discuss only the following options, which display
information about OSI layers 1, 2, and 3:
-n Used in conjunction with other options, this option shows IP network

addresses as numbers in dot notation (instead of names).
-i Shows the state of the network interfaces. This includes both primary and
logical interfaces.
-r Lists all routes in the local routing tables. When -v is used with the -r option,
netstat also displays the network masks in the route entries. The -r -s
combination is not supported in HP-UX 11.0.
-s Displays routing statistics.

Module 6
The netstat -i command shows information about the status of all LAN interfaces as well
as a table of cumulative statistics regarding packets transferred. In version 10.20 and earlier,
there was information on collisions and errors as well. The cumulative statistic starts with
powering up the interface. It can be reset by the reset functionality of the lanadmin
command.
Name Name of the network interface.
• lan0 is your first IEEE 802.3/Ethernet network interface.
• lan1 is your second network interface. The hardware path is displayed by

lanscan.
• lo0 refers to your local loopback interface (IP address 127.0.0.1).
• ni0 and ni1 are two built-in RS 232 interfaces. They are possible network
interfaces. You can configure them with the serial line interface protocol
(SLIP) to use the IP protocol in a point-to-point serial network. For more
information, see the man page pppd(1).
The asterisk (*) shows that the interface was not activated.
Mtu Maximum transmission unit shows the biggest possible size of a frame. With
IEEE 802.3 it is 1500 Bytes.
Network Shows the IP address or the name of the network to which this interface
belongs. If there is a name, the file /etc/networks is configured. none
indicates that the interface is not powered up.
Address Shows the IP address or the name of the interface. If there is a name, the IP
address was translated by the hosts file, NIS, or BIND. none indicates that
the interface is not powered up.
Ipkts Number of input packets received.
Opkts Number of output packets transmitted.
To determine the number of packets going over the network, use the netstat interval
option. Network traffic through the local network interface will be reported every interval
seconds. The first line and every 24th line thereafter show cumulative statistics since the
system was powered up or the statistics were reset with lanadmin. The slide shows the
number of packets transmitted and received, the number of packets with errors, and the
number of collisions.
Most of this information can also be gathered with lanadmin. The difference is that
lanadmin provides a snapshot view (a single sample), whereas netstat is continuously
sampling.

Module 6
6–10. SLIDE: The netstat -r Command
The netstat -r Command
Application
Presentation
Session
Transport
Networking
Data Link
Physical
• The netstat -r command displays all routes defined in the route table.
• The netstat -rn command displays IP addresses instead of hostnames.
Example
# netstat -rn
Routing tables
Dest/Netmask Gateway Flags Refs Interface Pmtu
127.0.0.1 127.0.0.1 UH 0 lo0 4136
192.6.30.2 192.6.30.2 UH 0 lan0 4136
192.6.30.0 192.6.30.2 U 2 lan0 1500
127.0.0.0 127.0.0.1 U 0 lo0 4136
default 192.6.30.1 UG 0 lan0 1500
Student Notes
netstat -r shows your host's routing tables. By default, netstat resolves IP addresses to
hostnames. If you wish to view IP addresses in the routing table, use the -n option in
addition to -r.
• The Dest/Netmask field identifies the destination host or network for each table entry.
• The Gateway field identifies the next hop required to get to each of the destinations.
• The Flags field may contain any or all of U, G, or H.

U The router is up and running.
G The router entry is a gateway (means a remote router).
H The destination is a host, not a network.

• The Refs field gives the current number of active uses of the route.
• Pmtu is the maximum transmission unit (maximum frame size).

Module 6
If you have only one LAN interface, you should have a minimum of four entries in your
routing table:
• A route to the loopback address (127.0.0.1)

• A route to the loopback network (127.0.0.0)
• A route to your own IP address through your own interface card.
• A route to your own IP network through your own interface card.
Each time you configure an additional logical interface via the ifconfig command, HP-UX
automatically adds that IP address to your routing table, as well as a route to the network to
which your new interface is attached.
Entries can be added to and removed manually from the routing table via the route
command.

Module 6
6–11. SLIDE: The nslookup Command
The nslookup Command
Application
Presentation
Session
Transport
Networking
Data Link
Physical
• The nslookup command resolves hostnames to IP addresses.

• The nslookup command is useful for identifying problems with /etc/hosts.
• The nslookup command contains other capabilities which operate at different
layers of the OSI model.
Example
# nslookup mickie
Using /etc/hosts on: bill
Name: mickie
Address: 192.6.30.3
Student Notes
The nslookup command checks how the local system resolves host names to IP addresses:
$ nslookup
Default Name Server: chris.hp.com
Address: 192.6.21.2
> Ctrl + d
$ nslookup darren
Default Name Server: chris.hp.com
Address: 192.6.21.2
Name: darren.hp.com
Address: 192.6.21.4

Module 6
Some other useful nslookup built-in commands are:
> host server Looks up information for host using name server
>ls -d domain Lists all information for domain (can be long...)
>ls -d domain > file Lists all information for domain and redirect it to file
>set debug Turns debugging mode on
>set all Prints the current values of the various options that have been
set
>policy Prints the order of precedence in the IP address lookup

sequence.

Module 6
6–12. LAB: Troubleshooting Network Connectivity

Directions
Answer all questions below. Also, record the commands you use to find the answers.
Preliminary Steps
2. Disabling the LAN card can cause problems for CDE, too. Before starting the lab, shut
down CDE:
Part 1: Determining Your Current Network Configuration

1. Determine your host name, and MAC address and IP address of your lan interface(s).
MAC address(es) :
IP address(es) :
Hostname :
Answer
2. To which network are you directly connected?

Do you have a default route defined so you can reach other networks?
Answer
3. Given a host name, how can you determine that hostname’s corresponding IP address?
Which IP address is associated with corp’s first interface?
Answer
4. Can you determine the MAC address associated with corp’s first interface, too? Record
this MAC address for future reference.
Answer

Module 6
Part 2: Testing LAN Connectivity

1. Ensure that your lan0 card is in an "UP" state, and verify that you can ping hostname
corp.
Answer
2. Can you still ping other hosts if your LAN interface is "DOWN"? Change the IP
configuration state of your lan0 interface to "DOWN.” Which field in the netstat –in
output indicates that the interface is down?
Answer
3. While your LAN card is DOWN, can you ...
ping your corp?

ping your own hostname?
ping your loopback address?
Answer
4. Now try linkloop'ing to your corp's MAC address. Does this work? Explain.
Answer
5. Based on your answer to the previous question, when might linkloop be useful?
Answer

Module 6
6. Bring your lan0 card back to an "UP" state.
Answer
Part 3: Troubleshooting Connectivity Problems

1. Before starting this exercise, make sure you are able to ping host name "corp”.
2. There should be a shell script in your /labs directory called /labs/corrupt.sh. Run
the script. When prompted, enter a number between 1 and 5. Based on your response, the
script will corrupt your LAN configuration in one of five different ways. When the script
terminates, your task is to fix your LAN configuration so the command ping corp
succeeds. Take advantage of all the tools we discussed in this chapter.
3. Once you successfully troubleshoot and fix your configuration, run the script again,
choose a different number, and again fix the resulting problem. If time permits, try each
of the five options provided by the script.
Good luck!
Part 4: Cleanup
Before moving on to the next chapter, restore your network configuration to the state it was
in before this lab.
# /labs/netfiles.sh –r NEW

Objectives
• Describe how run levels are used during system boot time.
• Change and view the system's current run level.
• Define the default system run level.
• Enable and disable services using the /etc/rc.config.d config files.
• Create custom startup and shutdown scripts to start additional services during the boot
process.
• View the startup error log file.

Module 7
Starting Network Services
7–1. SLIDE: Starting System and Network Services
Starting System and Network Services
PDC chooses a boot disk.

LANIC
Network Drivers ISL finds and loads the kernel. 1
/
Kernel
(vmunix) Network … 1
Subsystem
/stand /etc /sbin /usr

Kernel calls /sbin/init. 2
4
2
Network
init
3 daemons vmunix rc1.d rc2.d rc3.d Init calls /sbin/rc. 3
/sbin/rc
/sbin/rc starts system and

4
File System network services.
Memory
NFS NTP
DNS
Student Notes
In earlier chapters, we walked through the process of configuring a LAN interface and
connecting an HP-UX system to a network. After configuring a LAN interface, numerous
services can be configured to use the system's LAN connection. The slide above lists just a
few examples:
• NFS: Makes it possible to access file systems across the network.
• DNS: Is a network service that resolves host names to IP addresses.
• NTP: Can be used to synchronize the system clocks on the LAN.

These services, as well as many other system services such as cron and lp require a daemon
to be running on the system. This chapter will discuss the process used by HP-UX to start
these daemons during a system boot, and kill them during system shutdown.

Module 7
Review of the Early Steps in the System Boot Process

The early stage of the system boot process simply finds and loads the kernel into memory.
Immediately after the system is powered on, the "Processor Dependent Code" (PDC) is
loaded in memory from the system's BootROM chip. The PDC does an initial hardware test,
then checks stable storage to determine which disk is the default boot disk.
Each boot disk contains a boot area that includes an "Initial System Loader" executable. The
ISL calls the HP-UX kernel loader, which then loads the kernel in memory. The kernel does a
sanity check on the root file system, and then calls the init daemon. The init daemon is
responsible for bringing the system to a fully functional state. The init daemon performs
some of the system initialization tasks itself. It checks for corruption in the file systems listed
in /etc/fstab, initializes the system console, and performs several other tasks defined in
/etc/inittab.
init calls on the /sbin/rc program, however, to start most of the system services such as
NFS, DNS, and NTP that are required to bring the system to a fully functional state.

Module 7
7–2. SLIDE: Run Levels
Run Levels
z init and /sbin/rc start and stop services in stages called

run levels.
• The system run level determines what services are available.
• At boot, init progresses from run level 1 to 3, starting
services.
• At shutdown, init progresses from run level 3 to 0, killing
services.
Example: (Not all run levels and services shown)
Run Level Services Available

3 syncer, NFS, CDE
Shutdown
Startup
2 syncer, NFS
1 syncer
0
Student Notes
Numerous services must be started to bring an HP-UX system up to a fully functional state.
There may be some dependencies to consider as all of these services are starting. For
example, it would not make sense to start Networked File System functionality until the LAN
cards have been configured. So how does init guarantee that these dependencies are met?
Introduction to Run-Levels
The init daemon brings the system up to a fully functional state in stages known as "run
levels.” A run level is a system state in which a specific set of processes is allowed to run. The
run level your system is at determines what functionality and services are available.
• More services are available at higher run levels.
• Fewer services are available at lower run levels.

Module 7
Valid run levels in HP-UX range include 0, s, S, 1-6:
Run-level 0 Reserved for system shutdown. When running in run-level 0, the

system performs the normal shutdown procedure, thereby stopping all
processes and halting the system.
Run-level s is a special run-level reserved for system administration tasks. It is also

referred to as single-user run-level meaning it is reserved for a single
user, typically, the system administrator. For example, shutting down
the system (/sbin/shutdown) brings you to run-level s.
Run-level S Similar to run-level s. In run-level s, only the physical system console

has access to the operating system, whereas in run-level S the
capabilities of the system console are switched to the terminal where
you are logged in, thus making it the virtual system console.
Run-level 1 Similar to single-user, but file systems are mounted and the syncer is
running. This run level can also be used to perform system
administrative tasks.
Run-level 2 Multiuser state. This run level allows all users to access the system.
Run-level 3 For HP CDE users, HP CDE is active at this run level. Beginning with
HP-UX release 10.20, CDE is the default user desktop environment.
Also, at run-level 3, NFS file systems are exported; this capability is
called Networked Multiuser state.
Run-level 4 For HP VUE users. In this mode, HP VUE is active, providing the
operating system release is 10.30 or below. As of HP-UX 11.00, HP VUE
is no longer supported.
Run-Levels and the Startup/Shutdown Procedure

Initially, init brings the system to run-level 1, then 2, then 3, and so forth until it reaches
the default run level defined by the init default line in /etc/inittab. At each run level,
init calls /sbin/rc to start additional services.
At system shutdown, then, init brings the system down to run-level 0 one run-level at a
time. At each run-level, /sbin/rc has an opportunity to kill whatever services are no longer
needed.
Changing and Viewing the System Run-Level

You can determine your current run level with the who -r command. You may also change
your system run level with the init command:
# who -r # check your current run-level

# init 4 # move up to run-level 4
# init 2 # move down to run-level 2
# init 3 # move back up to run-level 3

Module 7
Questions
1. Try the init command to change run-levels a few times. What happened when you
moved up to run-level 4? Did any additional services appear to start?
2. What happened when you moved from run-level 4 to run-level 2? Did any services
disappear?
3. How might changing run levels affect your users?
4. When might it be useful to change run levels?

Module 7
7–3. SLIDE: /sbin/rc*.d Directories
/sbin/rc*.d Directories
z /sbin/rc*.d directories determine at which run levels

services start and stop.
z /sbin/rc runs S scripts to start services during system startup.
z /sbin/rc runs K scripts to kill services during system
shutdown.
/sbin
rc3.d K100dtlogin.rc
K900nfs.server
rc2.d
S340net
rc1.d S430nfs.client
S500inetd
rc0.d S660xntpd
Student Notes
At each run level, the init daemon calls /sbin/rc to start any necessary system and
network services. The /sbin/rc program determines which services to start and stop at the
new run level by consulting one of the /sbin/rc*.d directories.
There is one /sbin/rc*.d directory for each defined system run level:
/sbin/rc0.d
/sbin/rc1.d
/sbin/rc2.d
/sbin/rc3.d
The /sbin/rc*.d directories contain "S" and "K " scripts. “ S" scripts start services, while
"K" scripts stop (kill) services. Most services started by /sbin/rc have both an "S" script
and a "K" script in the /sbin/rc*.d directories. You can use the ls command to see which
services are started at each run level:
# ls /sbin/rc*.d/*

Module 7
Questions
1. Do an ls /sbin/rc*.d/*. At which run level are the majority of the system services
and daemons started? Which rc*.d directory contains the most kill scripts?
2. If a service's "S" script is in /sbin/rc2.d, where would you expect to find its "K" script?
Do an ls /sbin/rc*.d/* to see if your hypothesis is true.

Module 7
7–4. SLIDE: S/K Script Naming Convention
S/K Script Naming Convention
/sbin/rc2.d/S730cron
Run Level
Type
Sequence Number
Service Name
Student Notes
There are several components to each S/K script name.
The first character in each script name simply indicates whether the script should be called
to start a service (S) or kill a service (K).
The second component of each script name is a "sequence number.” When init brings the
system to a higher run-level, /sbin/rc executes the "S" scripts in the appropriate
/sbin/rc*.d directory in ascending order by sequence number. When init brings the
system to a lower run-level, /sbin/rc executes the "K" scripts in the appropriate
/sbin/rc*.d directory in ascending order by sequence number. This allows /sbin/rc to
accommodate dependencies within a run level.
The final component of each script name simply identifies the service or daemon with which
the S/K script is associated.
Assigning Sequence Numbers

In order to meet dependency requirements, services are generally killed in the reverse order
from which they are started.

Module 7
For example, assume there are four services, W, X, Y, and Z. The S/K script names for these
services would likely be:
/sbin/rc3.d: /sbin/rc2.d:
------------ ------------
S200W K800W
S300X K700X
S400Y K600Y
S500Z K500Z
What appears to be the relationship between start and kill sequence numbers?
NOTE: S/K sequence numbers may range in value from 100 to 900.For custom S/K
startup scripts that you create, HP recommends that you use the generic start
and kill sequence numbers:
Generic start sequence number: 900

Generic kill sequence number: 100
Questions
Consider the following sample S/K scripts and answer the questions that follow:
/sbin/rc2.d/K900nfs.server
/sbin/rc2.d/S340net
/sbin/rc2.d/S430nfs.client
/sbin/rc2.d/S500inetd
/sbin/rc2.d/S660xntpd
1. When moving up to run-level 2, which services would be started, and in which order?
2. When moving down to run-level 2 from run-level 3, which services would be stopped, and
in which order?
3. Write the full path names for the "K" scripts that you would expect to be associated with
each of the "S" scripts shown above.
4. Write the full pathname of the S script that would correspond to the nfs.server kill
script shown above.

Module 7
7–5. SLIDE: /sbin/init.d/* Scripts
/sbin/init.d/* Scripts
/sbin
rc1.d init.d rc2.d
K270cron link cron link S730cron
• Every service started by /sbin/rc has an associated script in

/sbin/init.d.
z /sbin/init.d scripts contain code needed to actually start/kill
services.
z /sbin/rc*.d/* scripts are just symbolic links to
/sbin/init.d scripts!
Student Notes
If you do a long listing of the /sbin/rc*.d directories, you will note that the S/K scripts
aren't really scripts at all.
Each service started by /sbin/rc has a shell script in the /sbin/init.d directory. These
scripts contain the commands necessary to both start AND stop their associated services.
The files in the /sbin/rc*.d directories are actually nothing more than symbolic links to
scripts in the /sbin/init.d directory.

Module 7
7–6. SLIDE: What's in an init.d Script?
What’s in an init.d Script?
• Scripts in /sbin/init.d accept a single argument.

• Scripts do one of four things, depending on the argument value.
Sample init.d script (simplified):
/sbin/init.d/cron:
case $1 in
start_msg) echo “Start clock daemon”
stop_msg) echo “Stop clock daemon”
start) # Commands to start cron
stop) # Commands to kill cron
esac
Student Notes
All of the scripts in the /sbin/init.d directory have essentially the same structure. All are
built around a case statement that evaluates the first argument passed to the script ($1). The
scripts recognize four valid values for this first argument:
start_msg The start_msg argument simply echoes a message indicating what

service or daemon the script controls. /sbin/rc uses the
start_msg argument to generate the checklist of services that
appears on the system console during system startup.
stop_msg The stop_msg has much the same purpose as the start_msg
argument. /sbin/rc calls the /sbin/init.d scripts with
stop_msg to generate the shutdown checklist that appears on the
console during system shutdown.
start When called with the start argument, the /sbin/init.d scripts
execute whatever commands are necessary to actually start the
associated service.

Module 7
stop When called with the stop argument, the /sbin/init.d scripts
execute whatever commands are necessary to actually stop the
associated service.
Starting and Stopping Services Manually

Usually, /sbin/rc calls the /sbin/init.d scripts automatically during startup and
shutdown. However, you can also manually start or stop a service. The example below might
be used to manually start or stop the cron daemon:
# /sbin/init.d/cron start
# /sbin/init.d/cron stop

Module 7
7–7. SLIDE: /etc/rc.config.d/* Files
/etc/rc.config.d/* Files
• You may wish to disable a service that’s not needed, or enable a new
service.
• Services may be enabled or disabled via control variables.
• Control variables are defined in files under /etc/rc.config.d.
z /sbin/init.d/ scripts source /etc/rc.config.d/* files to
determine control
variable values.
/etc/rc.config.d/cron
CRON=1 # Set control variable to 1 to enable

# Set control variable to 0 to disable
/sbin/init.d/cron (simplified)
case $1 in
start_msg) echo “Start clock daemon”
stop_msg) echo “Stop clock daemon”
start) if CRON=1 then start the cron daemon
stop) if CRON=1 then kill the cron daemon
esac
Student Notes
In addition to an /sbin/init.d script, most services also have an associated configuration
file in the /etc/rc.config.d directory. These configuration files allow the administrator
to:
• Disable unneeded daemons/service
• Change parameters to customize a service's behavior
Enabling/Disabling Services with Control Variables

Most init.d scripts check a control variable to determine if the associated service should
be started.
• Control variable = 1 --> Script should run at startup/shutdown.
• Control variable = 0 --> Script should not run at startup/shutdown.

Module 7
The control variable usually takes the name of the service it controls.
• Control variable for /sbin/init.d/cron: CRON.
• Control variable for /sbin/init.d/nfs.server: NFS_SERVER.
• Control variable for /sbin/init.d/nfs.client: NFS_CLIENT.
The values of these control variables are set in the configuration files under the
/etc/rc.config.d directory. Some /sbin/init.d scripts have their own, dedicated
configuration files in /etc/rc.config.d, but some services share a common configuration
file.
Examples
/sbin/init.d script /etc/rc.config.d file control variable
------------------- --------------------- ----------------
cron /etc/rc.config.d/cron CRON
nfs.client /etc/rc.config.d/nfsconf NFS_CLIENT
nfs.server /etc/rc.config.d/nfsconf NFS_SERVER
Many configuration files set other parameters used by the startup script, too. Recall that the
/etc/rc.config.d/netconf file, for example, defined the system host name, IP
address, and routing information.
WARNING: Never modify the scripts in /sbin/init.d directly.
Modify startup script parameters via the /etc/rc.config.d config

files.

Module 7
7–8. SLIDE: Pulling It All Together
Pulling It All Together
Pool of Startup/Shutdown Scripts Data Configuration Files

rc Script /sbin/rc1.d /sbin/init.d /etc/rc.config.d
stop_msg
K500inetd
stop
K660net
net netconf
/sbin/rc2.d inetd netdaemons
start_msg
K900nfs nfsconf
start nfs.server
S340net
namesvrs
S500inetd
nis.client .
. .
. .
/sbin/rc3.d .
S100nfs.server
Student Notes
The above slide summarizes all the files and directories involved in starting and shutting
down processes/daemons at startup and shutdown, and shows how the files and directories
interact.
The graphics recap the concepts presented on the five previous slides, including:
The /sbin/rc*.d These directories, also known as run level directories, contain
directories the names of scripts to execute when transitioning to the
various run levels.
The S/K naming convention Within the /sbin/rc*.d directories (run-level directories),
all scripts followed a pre-defined naming convention which
indicated whether to Start or Kill a daemon, and the order in
which the scripts were to execute.
The /sbin/init.d This directory contained all the executable scripts.

directory These scripts are referenced via symbolic links from the
/sbin/rc*.d run level directories.

Module 7
The contents of the Each executable script contained instructions for starting and
init.d scripts stopping the processes/daemons associated with the
subsystem.
The /etc/rc.config.d This directory contained customization files for all the
directory executable scripts in /sbin/init.d. Because the
executables should NOT be modified directly, the
customization for these scripts were kept in separate files
located under this directory.

Module 7
7–9. SLIDE: Viewing Console Messages When Changing Run

Levels
Viewing Console Messages When

Changing Run Levels
init brings system to run level 2.
init calls /sbin/rc.
/sbin/rc executes /sbin/rc2.d/S* scripts with start_msg argument.

Start clock daemon..................[ ]
Start internet services daemon......[ ]
Start NFS client subsystem..........[ ]
/sbin/rc executes /sbin/rc2.d/S*scripts with start argument

Start clock daemon..................[N/A]
Start internet services daemon......[OK ]
Start NFS client subsystem..........[OK ]
Transition to run level 2 complete.
Student Notes
During the transition from one run-level to another, a checklist of all the actions to be
performed during the transition will appear on the screen. The /sbin/rc program creates
the checklist by calling each execution script with an argument of start_msg (if
transitioning to a higher run level) or stop_msg (if transitioning to a lower run level).
Once the checklist is created, the /sbin/rc program calls each execution script again, this
time with an argument of start or stop. This invocation attempts to either start or stop the
subsystem. The outcomes of this second invocation is indicated on the checklist screen (the
far right side) with one of the following status:
OK The execution script successfully started up (or shutdown) the subsystem.
FAIL The execution script was unable to start (or stop) the subsystem. When an
execution script fails, a message will appear at the bottom of the screen,
stating:
* - An error has occurred!
* - Refer to the file /etc/rc.log for more information

Module 7
N/A The execution script did not try to start (or stop) the subsystem because it
was disabled in the /etc/rc.config.d configuration file.
When Things Go Wrong ...

Occasionally, a misconfigured /etc/rc.config.d/ file, or some other problem on the
system may cause startup scripts to hang or fail. In most cases, you can terminate the
currently running startup script and escape to a console login by hitting Control-\. Check
the /etc/rc.log file for messages that may indicate why the script hung. After
troubleshooting the problem, reboot the system and see if the problem is solved.

Module 7
7–10. SLIDE: Creating Custom Start Scripts
Creating Custom Startup Scripts
1. cp /sbin/init.d/template /sbin/init.d/myservice
2. vi /sbin/init.d/myservice
a. Edit start_msg statement
b. Edit stop_msg statement
c. Edit start statement
i. Change CONTROL_VARIABLE to MYSERVICE
ii. Add command to start your service
iii. Add command set_return
d. Edit stop statement
i. Change CONTROL_VARIABLE to MYSERVICE
ii. Add command to stop your service
iii. Add command set_return
3. vi /etc/rc.config.d/myservice
a. Add single line, MYSERVICE=1
4. ln -s /sbin/init.d/myservice /sbin/rc3.d/S900myservice
ln -s /sbin/init.d/myservice /sbin/rc2.d/K100myservice
Student Notes
Although most services and applications provide standard startup/shutdown scripts, it may
occasionally be necessary to create a custom /sbin/init.d script on your system. This
slide presents a cookbook approach for creating these scripts.
1. HP-UX includes a template /sbin/init.d startup script that you can copy, then modify
for your particular service. Make a copy of the template using your service name as the
new script name.
# cp /sbin/init.d/template /sbin/init.d/myservice
2. Use your editor of choice to customize the new startup script.
# vi /sbin/init.d/myservice

Module 7
a. Scroll down to the case statement towards the middle of the script. Look for the
following:
'start_msg')
# Emit a _short_ message relating to running this script
# with the "start" argument; this message appears as part
# of the checklist.
echo "Starting the <specific> subsystem"
;;
Customize the echo statement:

'start_msg')
# of the checklist.
echo "Starting the myservice subsystem"
;;
b. Scroll down to the stop_msg portion of the case statement that looks like this:
'stop_msg')
# with the "stop" argument; this message appears as part
# of the checklist.
echo "Stopping the <specific> subsystem"
;;
Customize this echo statement, too:
'stop_msg')
# of the checklist.
echo "Stopping the myservice subsystem"
;;
c. Scroll down to the start argument in the case statement that looks like this:
# Check to see if this script is allowed to run...

if [ "$CONTROL_VARIABLE" != 1 ]; then
rval=2
else
# Execute the commands to start your subsystem
:
fi
;;
Customize the CONTROL_VARIABLE to match your service name, and add the
command necessary to start the service. If you are starting a daemon that should run
perpetually on your system, be sure to start it in the background. Also add a call to
the set_return function to notify /sbin/rc if the daemon successfully starts:

Module 7

if [ "$MYSERVICE" != 1 ]; then
rval=2
else
/opt/myservice/bin/myservice &
set_return
:
fi
;;
d. Next, scroll down to the stop argument in the case statement that looks like this:

rval=2
else
:
# Execute the commands to stop your subsystem
fi
;;
Change the CONTROL_VARIABLE, and add the command necessary to kill the
service. Some applications include a script that should be used to kill their daemons.
Otherwise, just use the kill command. In either case, be sure to add a call to the
set_return function to notify /sbin/rc if the daemon successfully starts:

if [ "$MYSERVICE" != 1 ]; then
rval=2
else
:
kill $(ps –ef|grep /opt/myservice/bin/myservice|grep –v
grep|cut –c10-14)
set_return
fi
;;
e. Save your changes and quit the editor.

Create a configuration file and a control variable for your new startup script:
# vi /etc/rc.config.d/myservice
MYSERVICE=1
3. Create start and kill links for the new service. You may use any sequence number
you wish, but the “don’t care” sequence numbers (S900 and K100) are recommended.
# ln –s /sbin/init.d/myservice /sbin/rc3.d/S900myservice
# ln –s /sbin/init.d/myservice /sbin/rc2.d/K100myservice

Module 7
4. Test your new startup script by executing both the start and kill links interactively. After
running each script. Use ps to verify that the scripts succeed.
# /sbin/rc3.d/S900myservice start
# ps –ef | grep myservice
# /sbin/rc2.d/K100myservice stop
# ps –ef | grep myservice
5. Finally, try changing run levels a few times, and watch the checklist to verify that your
scripts succeed.
# init 2
# init 3
# init 2
Note that the first init 2 may fail. Can you explain why?

Module 7
7–11. LAB: Starting Network Services
Directions
Work on your own to perform the following tasks.
Preliminary Step
Part 1: Exploring the Startup/Shutdown Scripts

You have seen in this chapter that many system and network services are started
automatically during the boot process via "S" scripts in the /sbin/rc*.d directories. You
can view a list of these scripts by typing:
# ls /sbin/rc*.d/S*
Answer the questions below, using the output from the ls command above.
1. At which run level does NFS client functionality start?
2. At which run level does NFS server functionality start?
3. At which run level does your system set its host name?

Module 7
4. At which run level does the net script set your IP address?
5. At which run level does the sendmail daemon begin delivering mail?
6. At which run level does the NIS service become available?
7. At which run level does the system enable access to ftp, telnet, and other Internet
services? HINT: Internet services are started by the inetd Internet daemon.

Module 7
Part 2: Starting and Stopping Services

Most services may be manually started and stopped using the startup scripts in the
/sbin/init.d directory.
1. Is the sendmail daemon currently running on your machine?
2. Stop the sendmail daemon using the init.d script.
3. Is the sendmail daemon running?
4. Restart sendmail properly, then check to ensure the daemon is running

Module 7
Part 3: Enabling, Disabling, and Configuring Services

There are many network and system services available, but you may not need all of those
services to be enabled. For instance, if you do not use networked file systems, you may
choose to disable NFS. Most services may be enabled or disabled via their control variables.
Usually control variables match the name of the service they control, for example, the
sendmail daemon is controlled by the SENDMAIL control variable.
Setting a control variable to "1" enables that service at next boot, while setting the control
variable to "0" disables the service at next boot. Control variables are set in configuration files
in /etc/rc.config.d/*. Sometimes the configuration file matches the name of the
service. You can always use the grep command to find the proper configuration file for a
service. For instance, the output from the following grep command suggests that the
sendmail control variable is defined in /etc/rc.config.d/mailservs.
# grep -il sendmail /etc/rc.config.d/*

/etc/rc.config.d/mailservs
See if you can find the /etc/rc.config.d configuration files for each of the services
below, and determine which of those services are enabled on your system.
Service Name Configuration File Name Enabled?

nfs.server
nfs.client
nis.server
nis.client
sendmail
named (DNS)
xntpd

Module 7
Part 4: Creating a Custom Startup Script

In this part of the lab exercise, you will have an opportunity to create a custom
startup/shutdown script to start and stop the pfs_mountd daemon used by the PFS file
system in HP-UX. The “Portable File System” is one of the few services in HP-UX that does
not include a pre-configured startup script, so this is a particularly practical exercise!
1. Make a copy of the /sbin/init.d/template to use as a template for your
pfs_mountd startup script.
# cp /sbin/init.d/template /sbin/init.d/pfs_mountd

# vi /sbin/init.d/pfs_mountd
following:
'start_msg')
# of the checklist.
;;
Change the echo statement to the following:

'start_msg')
# of the checklist.
echo "Starting the pfs_mountd subsystem"
;;
'stop_msg')
# of the checklist.
;;

'stop_msg')
# of the checklist.
echo "Stopping the pfs_mountd subsystem"
;;

Module 7
rval=2
else
:
fi
;;
Change the CONTROL_VARIABLE, and add the command necessary to start

pfs_mountd as shown below. Also add a call to the set_return function to notify
/sbin/rc if the daemon successfully starts:
if [ "$PFS_MOUNTD" != 1 ]; then
rval=2
else
/usr/sbin/pfs_mountd &
set_return
:
fi
;;
rval=2
else
:
fi
;;
f. Change the CONTROL_VARIABLE, and add the command necessary to kill
rval=2
else
:
kill $(ps –ef | grep /usr/sbin/pfs_mountd | grep –v grep |\
cut –c10-14)
set_return
fi
;;
e. Save your changes and quit /sbin/init.d/pfs_mountd.

Module 7
3. Create a configuration file and a control variable for your new startup script:
# vi /etc/rc.config.d/pfs_mountd
PFS_MOUNTD=1
4. Create a start link to start the new service at run level 3 using the “don’t care” 900
sequence number, and a kill link to kill the new service with sequence number 100 at run
level 2:
# ln –s /sbin/init.d/pfs_mountd /sbin/rc3.d/S900pfs_mountd
# ln –s /sbin/init.d/pfs_mountd /sbin/rc2.d/K100pfs_mountd
5. Test your new startup script by executing both the start and kill links.
# /sbin/rc3.d/S900pfs_mountd start
# ps –ef | grep pfs_mountd
# /sbin/rc2.d/K100pfs_mountd stop
# ps –e
6. Assuming the previous test succeeded, try changing run levels a few times to further test
your scripts.
# init 2
# init 3
# init 2

Objectives
• Describe the purpose and function of NFS.
• Define NFS server and NFS client.
• List probable candidates for file sharing via NFS.
• Describe the purpose of NFS RPCs.
• Describe the purpose of the portmap and rpcbind daemons.
• Compare and contrast the NFS PV2 and NFS PV3 protocols.
• Compare and contrast the NFS and CIFS protocols.

Module 8
NFS Concepts
8–1. SLIDE: What Is NFS?
What Is NFS?
NFS is a service for sharing files and directories across a LAN.

NFS works across multiple UNIX and PC platforms.
NFS allows transparent access to files from any node on the LAN.
usr home tmp
user1 user2 user3 Client Workstations

I need to share my
home directories with other
systems on the network.
Student Notes
• NFS is a service for sharing files and directories across a LAN.
The first module in this course noted that the primary purpose of a LAN is to provide a
mechanism for sharing resources. Disk space is one of the most commonly shared
resources on LANs today. Although many file sharing solutions have been developed over
the years, Sun's Network File System (NFS) protocol is by far the most common in the
UNIX world today. Using NFS, administrators can share executables, data files, and even
home directories across multiple systems on Local- and Wide-Area Networks.
• NFS works across multiple UNIX and PC platforms.
NFS was first released by Sun in the early 1980s and was ported to HP-UX in 1986. Today,
nearly every UNIX platform available supports NFS. In fact, the client portion of NFS has
even been ported to the Microsoft and Macintosh operating systems! File systems shared
from an HP-UX NFS server can be mounted on any one of these NFS clients.

Module 8
NFS Concepts
• NFS allows transparent access to files from any node on the LAN.
NFS is virtually transparent to users and applications on the NFS clients. The same file
manipulation commands (cp, mv, ls, cat, and so on) and system calls (open(),
write(), read(), and so on) that are used to access files on a local HFS or VxFS file
system can also be used to access files on an NFS file system. When users cd to
/home/user1, they may be accessing a directory physically stored on a local logical
volume, or on a disk attached to an NFS server elsewhere on the network.
The remainder of this chapter introduces some key NFS concepts and terminology, while the
next two chapters discuss NFS configuration issues.

Module 8
NFS Concepts
8–2. SLIDE: What Files Should I Share via NFS?
What Files Should I Share via NFS?
Good candidates for file sharing via NFS:

/
• Home directories
• Application files under /opt usr home tmp
• Operating System files under /usr user1 user2 user3

• Data files used by multiple nodes
I’ll share
my home
Poor candidates for file sharing via NFS: directories!
• Device files under /dev
• System-specific configuration files under /etc
• Dynamic operating system files under /var
• Single-user mode command files under /sbin
Student Notes
NFS can be used to share almost any file on an HP-UX system. However, some files and
directories are better candidates than others.
Good Candidates for File Sharing via NFS
• Storing home directories on an NFS server offers many advantages. Users can log in on
any workstation on the LAN and have access to their home directory. Administrators are
saved the drudgery of scheduling backups on individual workstations if users store all
their files on a central server. Disk space management is simplified since users store files
on the server rather than their local disks. However, there are disadvantages to this
approach. If the server goes down, users will be able to login, but will be placed in the /
directory rather than their normal home directories. Storing home directories on an NFS
server may also dramatically increase network traffic. The root home directory should
always be stored in a local file system to ensure that it is available even when the network
is inaccessible.

Module 8
NFS Concepts
• Application directories under /opt can be stored on the NFS server. Doing so provides a
central point of administration and saves disk space on users' desktop machines. If you
choose to share executables via NFS, make sure you do not mount a file system full of
Solaris executables on your HP-UX box, or vice-versa! Although NFS provides
transparent access to files across platforms, the code contained in those files may be
platform-specific!
• When disk space was more expensive, some administrators stored the /usr/lib,
/usr/share, /usr/local, and /usr/contrib on NFS servers. As disks have become
cheaper, most administrators have chosen to store these directories on users' local disks
to minimize network traffic.
• Data files shared by multiple nodes are ideal candidates for sharing via NFS, too.
Poor Candidates for File Sharing via NFS

Generally speaking, host-specific files should not be shared or mounted via NFS.
• Device files under /dev are certainly host specific.
• System-specific configuration files under /etc should not be shared via NFS.
• With the exception of the email directory, /var/mail, /var is rarely shared.
• /sbin contains executables used in the early stages of the boot process. Since these
programs run before network connectivity is established, /sbin should always be stored
on a local disk.

Module 8
NFS Concepts
8–3. SLIDE: NFS Servers and Clients
NFS Servers and Clients
NFS Server NFS Client
/ /
usr tmp usr tmp

home home
user1 user2 user3 user1 user2 user3
Exported NFS File System Mounted NFS File System
Student Notes
Hosts in an NFS environment can be configured as NFS servers, NFS clients, or both.
NFS Servers
A host on which a shared file system physically resides is known as an NFS server. The NFS
server administrator can choose which directories and files should be made available to
other hosts.
• The administrator can choose to share an entire file system, such as /home, or /opt.
• The administrator can choose to share only one or more subdirectories within a file
system. For instance, instead of sharing the entire /home file system, the administrator
can simply choose to share the /home/user1 and /home/user2 subdirectories.
• The administrator can even choose to share a single file, such as /home/user1/data!
File systems, directories, and files that have been made available to other hosts via NFS are
said to be "exported.”

Module 8
NFS Concepts
NFS Clients
Hosts that access NFS file systems from an NFS server are called NFS clients. NFS file
systems must be mounted on a local mount point directory in much the same way that a local
logical volume is mounted on a mount point directory. After an NFS file system is mounted
on a mount point directory, all attempts to access files and directories below that mount
point are automatically forwarded to the NFS server.
The NFS client administrator may choose to mount all or part of an exported file system. For
instance, if the NFS server administrator exports /home, the client administrator may choose
to mount the entire /home file system via NFS, or a single subdirectory from within /home.
Dual Role Hosts

A default HP-UX install actually enables both NFS server and client functionality. It is
perfectly acceptable for a host to mount a file system from an NFS server, and then export a
different file system to other NFS clients. However, it is not possible for a host to mount an
NFS file system from a server, and then re-export that same file system to other NFS clients.

Module 8
NFS Concepts
8–4. SLIDE: NFS Remote Procedure Calls
NFS Remote Procedure Calls
Client
executes
RPC call message

Server invoked
Procedure called Server

Client executes
blocks procedure
Procedure returns
Client Request completed

continues
execution RPC return message
Student Notes
The NFS remote mount capability is implemented via "Remote Procedure Calls" (RPCs)
developed by Sun Microsystems.
The RPC mechanism makes it possible for a client system to execute a procedure remotely
on an NFS server. Most of the system calls that applications use to access local file systems
have closely related RPC calls. For instance, applications use the read() system call to read
from a file; NFS clients use a read() RPC to read from a file on an NFS server. Applications
use the write() system call to write data to a local file; NFS clients use a write() RPC to
write data to a file stored on an NFS server. These are just a couple of the RPCs recognized
by an NFS server.
When an application executes a file access system call, the kernel automatically determines if
the target file is on a local device that can be accessed directly, or an NFS file system that
may require an RPC call. If the target file is on an NFS file system, the client's kernel
automatically sends an appropriate RPC request to the NFS server. Thus, NFS is transparent
to your applications and processes.

Module 8
NFS Concepts
Other important points regarding RPCs:

• RPCs are designed to be platform independent. Windows, Macintosh, and UNIX clients all
use the same RPC requests to access NFS servers.
• Each RPC takes one parameter and returns one result.
• All data passed to and from RPC procedures is encoded using a platform-independent
format called the External Data Representation (XDR) standard. This makes it possible
for hosts using different byte ordering, size, and word alignments to pass data back and
forth successfully.
• Although NFS is the most common service that uses Sun's remote procedure calls, other
services, such as NIS, use RPCs, too.

Module 8
NFS Concepts
8–5. SLIDE: NFS portmap and rpcbind Daemons
NFS portmap and rpcbind Daemons
Ports
To: Prog#100003 (nfs)
111 rpcbind
To: Prog#100005 (mountd)
2049 nfsd
The portmap/rpcbind
daemons are responsible for
routing all incoming RPC rpc.mountd
requests to the appropriate RPC 4955
daemons on the NFS server. 6
Student Notes
RPCs use sockets and the TCP/UDP transport protocols to pass data between NFS clients
and servers. At boot time, the NFS server launches several RPC programs to handle incoming
RPC requests from clients. Each RPC program listens for requests on a separate, randomly
chosen port number.
If the RPC programs listen for incoming requests on randomly chosen port numbers, how do
the clients know to which port number to address their requests? When the RPC programs
start up, the rpcbind daemon registers which RPC programs are running on which ports.
RPC clients simply send their RPC requests to the rpcbind daemon, which always runs on
port number 111. rpcbind then forwards the incoming RPC requests to the appropriate port
numbers.
Clients specify the RPC program they wish to contact by "Program Number.” The /etc/rpc
file associates RPC programs with their well-known program numbers. Although an RPC
program's port number may vary from system to system, and reboot to reboot, the RPC
program numbers are consistent across all platforms and hosts. This ensures that Solaris NFS
clients can successfully communicate with HP-UX NFS servers, and vice versa.

Module 8
NFS Concepts
This mechanism for dynamically binding RPC programs to port numbers is desirable because
the range of reserved port numbers is very small, and the number of potential RPC programs
is very large.
Starting and Stopping rpcbind

If the rpcbind daemon crashes, all RPC server daemons must be restarted so they can be re-
registered.
If rpcbind aborts or terminates on SIGINT or SIGTERM, it will write the current list of
registered services to /tmp/portmap and /tmp/rpcbind.file. Starting rpcbind with
the -w option instructs it to look for these files and start operation with the registrations
found in them. This allows rpcbind to resume operation without requiring all RPC services
to be restarted.
CAUTION: The rpcbind daemon must be started before inetd.
WARNING: If rpcbind crashes, all RPC server daemons must be restarted.
A Note for 10.20 Administrators

Before HP-UX 11.00, the portmap daemon served the purpose that is currently served by
rpcbind. The two daemons are indistinguishable to your users and applications.
Example /etc/rpc
##
# file of rpc program name to number mappings
##
portmapper 100000 portmap sunrpc

nfs 100003 nfsprog
mountd 100005 mount showmount
pcnfsd 150001 pcnfs
llockmgr 100020
nlockmgr 100021
status 100024
:

Module 8
NFS Concepts
8–6. SLIDE: NFS Stateless Servers
NFS Stateless Servers
When my clients request access to a file, I just send back a “file handle”.
I don’t keep track of which files my clients are using.
After my initial “lookup” request, I can simply identify

the file I want to access by its file handle.
lookup(/home/user1/data)
file handle: 1234
Implications
Improved performance
NFS servers can reboot with minimal impact on their clients
NFS clients can reboot with minimal impact on their servers
Stale file handle errors may occur if a client removes a file being used by other clients
File locking, and other “stateful” operations are more complicated
Student Notes
One key difference between NFS and local disk-based file systems is that NFS operates in a
"stateless" manner, while local file systems operate in a "statefull" manner.
When applications open files on a local disk-based file system, the kernel uses "file
descriptors" to track which processes are using which files. When a user removes a file from
a local file system, the file's data blocks are not actually de-allocated until the last user using
the file is finished. Similarly, if the administrator attempts to unmount a local file system that
is still being used by a user, the umount command fails with a "device busy" message. In
other words, local file systems are accessed in a "statefull" manner; the kernel tracks which
files and directories are being used by whom, and prevents one user's requests from
interfering with others' requests.
NFS, on the other hand, operates in a "stateless" manner. When a client opens a file on an
NFS server via the lookup() RPC, the server sends the client a "file handle" derived from
the requested file's inode number. The server does not record the fact that the file is in use,
nor does it create a file descriptor to record which portion of the file the client is currently
accessing. Since the server does not maintain state, a client may possibly remove a file that
another client still has open for reading. An NFS client can even remove another client's

Module 8
NFS Concepts
present working directory! Both of these situations result in "stale file handles": file handles
that reference files or directories that no longer exist.
NFS statelessness has both advantages and disadvantages:
• Advantage: Improved performance. Maintaining client state information would place a

heavy burden on NFS servers.
• Advantage: NFS servers can reboot with minimal impact on their clients. After a reboot,
NFS servers can immediately resume processing as if nothing had happened. Client file
handles should remain unchanged, and each client simply re-transmits any access
requests that went unanswered while the server was down. If NFS were a statefull
protocol, some sort of complicated recovery process would be required to determine
which clients had files open at the time of the reboot.
• Advantage: NFS clients can reboot with minimal impact on their servers. Since the server
does not attempt to track which clients have open files, a downed client requires no
action on the part of the server.
• Disadvantage: Stale file-handle errors may occur if a client removes a file being used by
other clients. Since the NFS server does not attempt to track which files are being used
by its NFS clients, NFS allows clients to remove files that are still in use by other clients.
• Disadvantage: File locking and other “stateful” operations are more complicated. Some
applications use file locks to ensure that only one process at a time may access critical
files. Since NFS does not track which files are in-use, file locking becomes more
complicated. File locking is, however, possible via two daemons that are included with
NFS: rpc.lockd and rpc.statd. Clients that wish to lock a region of a file may send a
request to the server's rpc.lockd daemon. rpc.lockd uses a "semaphore" to mark the
requested file region "locked.” The server's rpc.statd daemon begins polling the client
at regular intervals; if the client reboots unexpectedly, the server removes the lock so
other clients can access the file.
NFS only implements "advisory" locks. When an application attempts to access a file, the
onus is on the application to check for existing advisory locks on the file; NFS does not
forcefully prevent other processes from accessing a locked file region.

Module 8
NFS Concepts
8–7. SLIDE: NFS PV2 versus NFS PV3
NFS PV2 versus NFS PV3
NFS PV2 was used through HP-UX 10.20.

NFS PV3 was first implemented at HP-UX 11.00.
Features and benefits of NFS PV3 include:
Improved performance
Large File support
AutoFS support
NFS over TCP support
Student Notes
HP supports two different NFS protocol versions. HP-UX version 10.20 supported NFS
Protocol Version 2 (PV2). HP-UX version 11.00 introduced support for NFS Protocol Version
3 (PV3), but retained backward compatibility with PV2. Servers running PV3 still accept
mount requests from PV2 clients, and PV3 clients can still successfully mount file systems
from PV2 servers. Some PV3 features have been back-ported to HP-UX 10.20.
NFS PV3 Features
• Improved performance. The NFS caching algorithms were enhanced for PV3, which may
lead to significant performance gains in some environments.
• Large file support. One of the most beneficial features of NFS PV3 is its ability to support
large files. NFS Version 2 supported a 32-bit file size, while NFS Version 3 supports a
64-bit file size. The maximum file size on NFS PV2 is only 2 Gigabytes, while NFS PV3
supports a maximum file size of 128 Gigabytes.

Module 8
NFS Concepts
• AutoFS support. NFS PV2 included a service called "automounter,” which automatically
mounted and unmounted NFS file systems on an as-needed basis. NFS PV3 includes a
more flexible, more robust version of automounter called AutoFS. Automounter and
AutoFS will be discussed in detail later in the course.
• NFS over TCP support. NFS PV2 and the initial release of NFS PV3 used the UDP
protocol to transmit RPC traffic between NFS servers and clients. UDP functions well on
local area networks, but often generates excessive timeouts and other performance
problems on wide area networks. In February 2000, HP released a patch for 11.0 NFS PV3
that supports NFS over TCP (see the text below for details). TCP is the default NFS
transport protocol at HP-UX 11i. The NFS over TCP functionality is not available for
HP-UX 10.20.
Enabling NFS over TCP on HP-UX 11.00

TCP is the default NFS transport protocol at HP-UX 11i, but must be manually enabled on
HP-UX 11.00 via the following procedure:
1. Look on the http://www.itrc.hp.com website for the latest 11.00 NFS over TCP
patch. Install the patch and all its dependencies according the .text file included with
the patch.
2. Reboot your system.
3. Add the NFS_TCP variable to the bottom of the /etc/rc.config.d/nfsconf file:
# vi /etc/rc.config.d/nfsconf
NFS_TCP=1
4. Stop and restart NFS.
# /sbin/init.d/nfs.server stop
# /sbin/init.d/nfs.client stop
# /sbin/init.d/nfs.client start
# /sbin/init.d/nfs.server start
After going through this procedure, your host will attempt to use TCP whenever possible.
If a server or client does not support NFS over TCP, your host will automatically revert to
NFS over UDP.

Module 8
NFS Concepts
8–8. SLIDE: NFS versus CIFS
NFS versus CIFS
Sharing Files via NFS Sharing Files via CIFS
NFS CIFS
Unix Unix UNIX UNIX
CIFS
NFS
UNIX Windows
Unix Windows
CIFS
CIFS/9000 provides an easier, more
flexible mechanism for sharing files UNIX Windows
and directories between
HP-UX and Windows PC’s using CIFS
Microsoft’s CIFS protocol
Windows Windows
Student Notes
NFS is the de facto standard for file sharing among UNIX systems, and NFS client
functionality has even been ported to the Microsoft Windows. However, since NFS is not a
native Windows protocol, an NFS server does not provide all of the functionality provided by
a regular Windows NT file server:
• NFS servers cannot provide Windows Primary Domain Controller functionality.

• NFS servers cannot provide Windows Name Resolution Services (WINS).
• NFS file systems do not appear in Windows clients' network neighborhood browsers.
Finally, NFS provides no functionality for exporting Windows file systems back to UNIX
clients.
CIFS/9000
Now there is an alternative for administrators who wish to share file and print services in a
heterogeneous environment. HP-UX 11.x supports a new product called CIFS/9000 that
provides a full implementation of Microsoft's "Common Internet File System" protocol, which
is used by Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows 2000, and NT for sharing file and printer
resources. Using CIFS/9000, HP-UX, and Microsoft Windows systems can seamlessly and
transparently share resources.

Module 8
NFS Concepts
CIFS/9000 includes several components:

• The server portion of CIFS/9000 is based on Samba, an open source CIFS server solution
that has been ported to many UNIX platforms. File systems made available from an
HP-UX box via Samba can be mounted on Windows clients as standard drive letters and
can be accessed via the Windows "Network Neighborhood" and "Windows Explorer" like
standard Microsoft file shares. In fact, your HP-UX Samba server can even be a Primary
Domain Controller and print server for Microsoft clients!
• HP includes CIFS client software in the CIFS/9000 product. This software makes it
possible to mount file shares from any Samba or Microsoft server on an HP-UX client
using the /etc/fstab file and the standard UNIX mount command. File systems
mounted via the CIFS client software may be accessed using all the standard UNIX
utilities and system calls.
• Finally, the CIFS/9000 product includes a Pluggable Authentication Module (PAM) library
to allow users to log onto their HP-UX systems using their Windows domain usernames
and passwords.
CIFS/9000 is not available for HP-UX 10.x but is included for no additional charge on the
HP-UX 11.x Applications CD.
The remaining notes on this slide describe the steps required to configure a simple CIFS
server and client. For more information on Samba and CIFS, sign up for one of HP's UNIX/NT
integration courses, read HP's CIFS documentation on http://docs.hp.com, or purchase
O'Reilly and Associates, Using Samba (ISBN 1-56592-449-5).
Configuring a Simple CIFS/9000 Server
1. Install the CIFS/9000 server bundle from the HP-UX 11.x Applications CD.
# mkdir /cdrom
# mount /dev/dsk/cxtxdx /cdrom #use your CDROM's device file
# swinstall -s /cdrom
2. Configure the SAMBA control variable to enable the Samba daemons after every reboot.
# vi /etc/rc.config.d/samba
RUN_SAMBA=1
3. Create or modify the /etc/opt/samba/smb.conf configuration file to specify which files

and directories you want to share with CIFS clients. You may edit this file with vi, or use
the /opt/samba/bin/swat GUI based configuration tool. The sample file below exports all
user home directories and the /tmp directory. Note that there are over a hundred
parameters that may be specified in the smb.conf file. This sample file lists only the most
basic parameters required to share a few directories.
Replace the hostname parameter with your server's hostname. Replace the
WORKGROUP parameter with your clients' workgroup name or NT domain name.
Replace the 128.1. parameter with a space separated list of subnets that need access to
the shares on this server.

Module 8
NFS Concepts
# vi /etc/opt/samba/smb.conf
[global]
netbios name = hostname
workgroup = WORKGROUP
server string = Samba Server
hosts allow = 128.1.
security = user
encrypt passwords = yes
[homes]
comment = Home Directories
writeable = yes
browseable = yes
[tmp]
comment = Temporary Directory
path = /tmp
writeable = yes
browseable = yes
4. Run the Samba testparm program to search for syntax errors in your configuration file.
This will also list all of the default parameters that will be set for you automatically.
# /opt/samba/bin/testparm
5. Create a Samba password file. This file determines which client users will be able to
access your CIFS shared directories.
# touch /var/opt/samba/private/smbpasswd
# chmod 500 /var/opt/samba/private
# chmod 600 /var/opt/samba/private/smbpasswd
6. Add a few of the users from your UNIX password file to the Samba password file. The
usernames specified must already exist in the /etc/passwd file.
# /opt/samba/bin/smbpasswd -a user1
7. Start the Samba daemon.
# /sbin/init.d/samba start
8. Use the smbclient utility to verify that your Windows domain/workgroup and username
are set properly and to list the shares that have been made available to clients. You can
replace the "%" sign with a specific username if you wish to see which shares are
available for a specific Windows user.
# /opt/samba/bin/smbclient -L localhost -U%

Module 8
NFS Concepts
Configuring a CIFS/9000 Client
1. Install the CIFS/9000 Client bundle from the HP-UX 11.x Applications CD.
# mkdir /cdrom
# mount /dev/dsk/cxtxdx /cdrom #use your CDROM's device file
# swinstall -s /cdrom
2. Define your Windows workgroup or domain name in the cifsclient.cfg file.
# vi /etc/opt/cifsclient/cifsclient.cfg
domain = "WORKGROUP"
3. Configure the RUN_CIFSCLIENT variable to ensure that the client daemon starts after
every system boot, then run the startup daemon to start the daemon.
# vi/etc/rc.config.d/cifsclient
RUN_CIFSCLIENT=1
# /sbin/init.d/cifsclient start
4. Create mount point directories for your CIFS file system(s).
# mkdir /homes
5. Add the CIFS file system(s) to your /etc/fstab file. (Replace "server" with your Samba
server's hostname.)
# vi /etc/fstab
server:/homes /homes cifs defaults 0 0
6. Mount the new CIFS file systems. If you choose to use CIFS on a production box, you
would probably include this mount command in the same startup script that you use to
execute the cifsclient start command.
# mount -aF cifs
7. CIFS behaves somewhat differently than NFS. Once an NFS file system is mounted, any
user on the system can access that file system. In CIFS, access to file shares is granted on
a user-by-user basis. Thus, even though you have already mounted your CIFS file systems,
users cannot access those mounted file systems without providing a valid CIFS password.
Log in as a CIFS user using one of the usernames and passwords you added to the
smbpasswd file on the server.
# /opt/cifsclient/bin/cifslogin server user1
8. List the CIFS shares to which you have access now that you are logged in. Explore one of
the shares with the cd and ls commands.
# cifslist -A
# ls /homes

Module 8
NFS Concepts
9. When you are done with the CIFS file systems, terminate your connection to the CIFS
server with the cifslogout command. Then unmount the CIFS file systems.
# /opt/cifsclient/bin/cifslogout server
# umount -aF cifs
Accessing a CIFS/9000 File System from a Windows NT Client
1. Login as any user on an NT workstation.
2. Verify that you are a member of the same workgroup as your SAMBA server.
Start -> Settings -> Control Panel -> Network -> Identification
3. Launch the Network Neighborhood tool from the Desktop, an icon should appear for
your SAMBA server's hostname. Double click on the SAMBA server icon.
4. A username dialog box should pop up. Enter one of the usernames and passwords that
you created on the SAMBA server. When you click OK, your SAMBA server shares should
appear!

Objectives
• Configure NFS server functionality.
• Export file systems and determine access privileges for those file systems.
• Configure NFS client functionality.
• Mount and unmount NFS file systems.
• Automatically mount NFS file systems.
• Determine which file systems have been exported and mounted.
• Describe the function of the following NFS configuration files:

/etc/exports
• List the daemons that must be running on an NFS server and client.
• Use showmount, rpcinfo, and nfsstat to troubleshoot problems with NFS.

Module 9
Configuring NFS
9–1. SLIDE: NFS Configuration Considerations
NFS Configuration Considerations
Which files and directories should be shared?

What is an appropriate client-to-server ratio?
Which system should be used as the NFS server?
What are the implications if the server goes down?
What superuser access will be allowed?
usr home var
user1 user2 user3
NFS Server Exported File System NFS Clients
Student Notes
If you decide to implement NFS, the first step is to decide exactly which file systems should
be shared. The slide above highlights several issues you should consider.
• Which files and directories should be shared? Do you want to manage home directories,
executable directories, data directories, or all of the above? Remember that disk-based
file systems generally provide better performance than NFS file systems. Also, note that
NFS can place a tremendous strain on your network infrastructure. The more file systems
you share via NFS, the greater the load NFS will place on your NFS servers and network
infrastructure.
• What is the client-to-server ratio? Generally speaking, as the number of NFS clients
increases, the load on the NFS server grows. If you have many clients, it may be
necessary to configure multiple NFS servers to share the load. The characteristics of your
applications should be considered when making this decision. If the application tends to
be disk-use intensive, and performance is important, you should aim for a lower client-to-
server ratio. If the application is less disk-intensive, it may be possible for many more
clients to share the same server.

ã 2003 Hewlett-Packard Development Company, L.P.
Module 9
Configuring NFS
• Which system should be used as the NFS server? Ideally, choose the biggest, fastest
system you have to be your NFS server. An underpowered NFS server may prove to be a
bottleneck for all of the NFS clients. Your HP Sales representative should be able to help
you size your NFS server appropriately.
• What are the implications if the server goes down? NFS provides a single point of
administration; however, that single point of administration becomes a single point of
failure if the NFS server crashes! If the NFS server does go down, what impact will that
have on your clients? If all of your users' home directories are stored on the NFS server,
no clients will be able to use their workstations effectively until the server comes back up
again! Ideally, you should prevent server downtime by administering the server carefully
and implementing HP's MC ServiceGuard and MirrorDisk/UX high availability solutions.
• What superuser access will be allowed? By default, the administrator of an NFS client is
not allowed root access to the files stored on an NFS server. However, this security
feature can be disabled on a client-by-client basis. Which clients require root access to
your NFS file systems? Are the root users on those clients properly trained?
All of these questions need to be answered before you begin configuring NFS!

Module 9
Configuring NFS
9–2. SLIDE: Configuring NFS Servers and Clients
Configuring NFS Servers and Clients
1. Keep UIDs and GIDs consistent.

2. Configure the NFS server.
a. Ensure the NFS subsystem is in the kernel.
b. Edit the server’s /etc/rc.config.d/nfsconf file.
c. Start NFS server daemons.
d. Create the /etc/exports file.
e. Export the directories.
f. Check the server configuration.
3. Configure the NFS client.
b. Edit the client’s /etc/rc.config.d/nfsconf file.
c. Start NFS client daemons.
d. Create a new entry in the /etc/fstab file.
e. Mount the NFS file system.
f. Check the client configuration.
4. Keep the time synchronized with all other nodes.
Student Notes
This slide overviews the steps that are required to configure NFS servers and clients. The
remaining slides in the chapter discuss each step in detail. Note that NFS can be configured
entirely via the SAM GUI/TUI interface. In order to understand better how NFS functions,
the slides and notes in this course concentrate on the command-line configuration method.

Module 9
Configuring NFS
9–3. SLIDE: Keep UIDs and GIDs Consistent
Keep UIDs and GIDs Consistent
1.Keep UIDs and GIDs consistent.

/ / b. Edit the server’s configuration file.
usr home var d. Create the /etc/exports file.
usr home var
user1 user2 user3 user1 user2 user3 3. Configure the NFS client.
(UID101) (UID102) (UID103) (UID101) (UID102) (UID103) a. Ensure the NFS subsystem is in the kernel.
server client b. Edit the client’s configuration file.
d. Create a new entry in /etc/fstab.
/home/user1 appears f. Check the client configuration.
to be owned by user3! 4. Keep the time synchronized with all other nodes.
server:/etc/passwd client:/etc/passwd
user1:…:101
user1:…:101:100:…:/home/user1:… user1:…:103:100:…:/home/user1:…
user3:…:101
Note: Avoid this user configuration!
Student Notes
Before you begin sharing files via NFS, it is critical to ensure that your UID and GID numbers
are consistent across all the hosts in your NFS environment.
UNIX file systems identify file owners by UID number, not by username. In the example on
the slide, UID 101 owns user1’s home directory. UID 102 owns user2’s home directory.
UID 103 owns user3’s home directory. These username/UID pairings are reflected in the
server's /etc/passwd file.
Unfortunately, the NFS client's /etc/passwd file disagrees with the NFS server's
username/UID assignments. As far as the client is concerned, all files owned by UID 101 are
associated with user3, and all files owned by UID 103 are associated with user1. In this
situation, it is very likely that user1 would be able to access the /home/user3 home
directory but not his or her own /home/user1 directory.
This configuration must be avoided! Users who have logins on multiple systems must have
the same UID and GID on all of those systems.
There are two ways to maintain consistent UIDs and GIDs across the network.

Module 9
Configuring NFS
Maintaining UID/GID Consistency with rcp

In order to solve the UID/GID consistency problem, some administrators choose one host to
be the keeper of the master /etc/passwd and /etc/group files and then propagate these
master files to all hosts on the network on a regular basis.
A cron job can be scheduled on each client to automate the propagation process:
# vi /root/cppasswd
#!/usr/bin/sh
# This script is used to copy files from the master machine
# to the localhost.
MASTER=masterhost
echo "Copying files from $MASTER:"
echo group; rcp -p $MASTER:/etc/group /etc/group
echo passwd; rcp -p $MASTER:/etc/passwd /etc/passwd
# chmod +x /root/cppasswd
# crontab -e
0 1 * * * /root/cppasswd | /usr/bin/mail root
The script above assumes that the master server's ~root/.rhosts file allows password
free access from all other hosts on the network.
This method has several shortcomings:

• The updates occur only once per day. If a new user account is created on the master host
at 2 am, the clients will not recognize the new user account until 1 am the next morning.
• All updates must be made on the master server. If a user changes his or her password on
any other host on the network, the change will be overwritten the next time the script
executes.
• The same root password must be used on all hosts in the NFS environment, since the root
account /etc/passwd entry is propagated out to all the hosts every morning. Many
administrators prefer to assign unique root passwords on each system to improve
security.
Maintaining UID/GID Consistency with NIS or NIS+

The NFS product includes two services called "NIS" and "NIS+," which provide a much more
elegant solution for maintaining UID/GID consistency. NIS will be discussed in detail in a
later chapter. NIS+ is a more flexible but much more complex solution. NIS+ is discussed in
HP's three-day NIS/NIS+ course (course #H3066S).

Module 9
Configuring NFS
Retrofitting /etc/passwd and /etc/group for Use with NFS

If you are installing NFS after you have been using your network for some time, you will have
to modify the /etc/passwd and /etc/group files so that each user has a unique UID and a
unique GID that are the same on all servers and clients.
If you do this, your backups will become obsolete (since recovered files will have wrong
ownership). Make sure you save a copy of /etc/passwd to passwd.old.

Module 9
Configuring NFS
9–4. SLIDE: Ensure That the NFS Subsystem Is in the Kernel
Ensure That the NFS Subsystem Is in the

Kernel
LANIC 1. Keep UIDs and GIDs consistent.

Network NFS b. Edit the server’s configuration file.
Subsystem Subsystem c. Start NFS server daemons.
Kernel f. Check the server configuration.
b. Edit the client’s configuration file.
Server f. Check the client configuration.
If the NFS subsystem is not present,

add it into the kernel via SAM
Student Notes
The LAN/9000 (networking) subsystem and the NFS subsystem must be compiled into the
server's kernel in order for NFS to work. There are several ways to verify whether the
subsystems are present in the kernel.
The simplest approach is to use SAM:
# sam -> Kernel Configuration -> Subsystems
On HP-UX 10.x systems, you can use the following command:
# grep -n -e nfs -e lan /stand/system
On HP-UX 11.x systems, use the following command:
# kmsystem | grep -e nfs -e lan
If either subsystem is missing, use SAM to reconfigure the kernel, then reboot.

Module 9
Configuring NFS
9–5. SLIDE: Edit NFS Server's Configuration File
Edit NFS Server’s Configuration File

/sbin/init /etc/inittab a. Ensure the NFS subsystem is in the kernel.
b. Edit the server’s configuration file.
/sbin/rc e. Export the directories.
Start Scripts Configuration File f. Check the server configuration.
/sbin/rc2.d/* /etc/rc.config.d/nfsconf a. Ensure the NFS subsystem is in the kernel.
/sbin/init.d/nfs.core f. Check the client configuration.
/sbin/init.d/nfs.client /etc/rc.config.d/nfsconf
NFS_CLIENT=1
NFS_SERVER=1 #Required!
NUM_NFSD=16 #Required!
/sbin/rc3.d/* NUM_NFSIOD=16
PCNFS_SERVER=1
PCNFS_SERVER=1 #Optional!
START_MOUNTD=1
START_MOUNTD=1 #Required!
/sbin/init.d/nfs.server NFS_TCP=1
NFS_TCP=1 #Optional!
Student Notes
After configuring the NFS subsystem in the kernel, you must ensure that the required NFS
server daemons are started automatically during the boot process. NFS daemons, like most
daemons in HP-UX, are started via startup links in the /sbin/rc*.d directories, which
point to the actual startup scripts in the /sbin/init.d directory.
There are three NFS startup scripts:
/sbin/init.d/nfs.core Starts the portmap/rpcbind daemons and performs

other initialization tasks that are required on both NFS
clients and servers. This script executes at run level 2
during system startup.
/sbin/init.d/nfs.client Starts the daemons that are required on an NFS client.

This script executes at run level 2.
/sbin/init.d/nfs.server Starts the daemons that are required on an NFS server.

This script executes at run level 3.

Module 9
Configuring NFS
All three of these startup scripts share a common configuration file called
/etc/rc.config.d/nfsconf. The NFS startup scripts read this configuration file at
startup time to determine how and if NFS functionality is configured on your system. The
slide above highlights the variables in /etc/rc.config.d/nfsconf that relate to NFS
server functionality. A later slide will discuss the variables used to configure NFS client
functionality.
Configuring NFS Server Variables in /etc/rc.config.d/nfsconf

Several variables in /etc/rc.config.d/nfsconf may need to be modified to enable and
configure your NFS server appropriately.
NFS_SERVER=1 Set this variable to "1" in order to enable NFS server functionality. If
this variable is set to "0,” the NFS server daemons will not be started
during the boot process.
NUM_NFSD=16 Every NFS client request to open, read, write or otherwise access a file
or directory on an NFS file system is processed by an nfsd daemon
running on the NFS server. Most NFS server administrators run several
nfsd daemons in parallel to enable the server to process multiple
client requests simultaneously. Generally speaking, as the number of
NFS clients increases, the number of nfsd daemons required to
service those clients will increase as well. The NUM_NFSD variable
determines how many nfsd daemons should be started at boot time.
In HP-UX 10.20 and standard HP-UX 11.00, the variable defaults to "4".
HP-UX 11i systems and HP-UX 11.00 systems that have the "NFS over
TCP" patch installed, function a bit differently. TCP NFS requests are
handled by a single, multi-threaded nfsd daemon. UDP NFS requests
are still handled by multiple independent nfsd processes. On these
systems that support NFS over TCP, the number of nfsd daemons
started to handle UDP NFS requests will be set equal to the greater of
either (a) four times the number of active CPUs or (b) the value of the
NUM_NFSD variable in /etc/rc.config.d/nfsconf. In either case,
one additional nfsd will be started to handle TCP NFS requests. In
HP-UX 11i, the default value of the NUM_NFSD variable is 16, which
yields 17 nfsd's in the process table.
PCNFS_SERVER=1 Although NFS was originally developed to share files among UNIX
systems, several vendors now offer NFS client software for the
Microsoft Windows operating systems. Sharing files with Windows
clients is complicated by the fact that Windows usernames and IDs are
entirely different from UNIX usernames and UIDs. By default, the NFS
server finesses this issue by granting all Windows clients the access
rights associated with UNIX UID -2, user "nobody.” Typically, this UID
has very few access rights on a UNIX system.
If you wish to grant more permissive access rights to Windows clients,

you must enable the rpc.pcnfsd server daemon by setting the
PCNFS_SERVER variable to "1" (the default value is "0"). If the
rpc.pcnfsd daemon is running, the server will prompt each

Module 9
Configuring NFS
Windows client for a UNIX username and password each time they
mount an NFS file system. Note that rpc.pcnfsd is not required in
order for Windows clients to mount NFS file systems; it is required
only if the Windows users need to have regular user access rights to
the files on the NFS server. If your server does not have any Windows
clients, set PCNFS_SERVER default to 0.
START_MOUNTD=1 This variable determines whether the rpc.mountd daemon should be

started automatically at boot time. In HP-UX 11.x, this variable must be
set to "1" on NFS servers. Before HP-UX 11.x, some administrators
chose to start rpc.mountd via the inetd daemon instead; this
approach is no longer supported.
NFS_TCP=1 If you are running HP-UX 11.00 and have installed the NFS over TCP
patch, the TCP functionality must be enabled by setting NFS_TCP=1 in
/etc/rc.config.d/nfsconf (if the variable doesn't yet exist, add
it to the end of the file). After making this change, both the NFS server
and client daemons must be stopped and restarted. At HP-UX 11i, this
variable is no longer used; NFS over TCP is enabled by default.
NOTE: If your system requires client and server functionality, you must configure
both the server variables described here, and the client variables described
later in the chapter.

Module 9
Configuring NFS
9–6. SLIDE: Start NFS Server Daemons
Start NFS Server Daemons

NFS Server NFS Client 2. Configure the NFS server.
portmap (10.20) c. Start NFS client daemons.
portmap (10.20) d. Create a new entry in /etc/fstab.
rpcbind (11.x) e. Mount the NFS file system.
rpcbind (11.x)
nfsd 16 f. Check the client configuration.
biod 16 (optional) 4. Keep the time synchronized with all other nodes.
rpc.mountd
rpc.statd
rpc.pcnfsd (optional)
rpc.lockd
rpc.statd
rpc.lockd
To start NFS server daemons:
/sbin/init.d/nfs.server start
Student Notes
After configuring the /etc/rc.config.d/nfsconf file as described on the previous page,
you can either reboot your system or manually run the NFS server startup script to stop and
restart the NFS server daemons:
The startup script starts the following daemons:
portmap This daemon, used in HP-UX 10.20 and earlier releases, converts RPC
program numbers into port numbers. When an RPC server program
starts, it registers the following information with portmap:
• The port on which it is listening.

• The RPC program numbers and versions it serves.
All RPC requests from clients are initially sent to the portmap daemon
on port number 111. portmap compares the "RPC Program Number"
in the incoming packet against the list of registered program numbers

Module 9
Configuring NFS
to determine to which port the RPC request should be forwarded.

portmap must be the first RPC program started and the last to die. If
the portmap daemon dies prematurely, then it, as well as all of the
registered RPC programs, must be restarted.
rpcbind This daemon is used in HP-UX 11.00 and beyond as a replacement for
portmap.
nfsd The NFS server daemons respond to clients' file system access
requests. When a client program needs to interact with a remote file
system, it sends a request to one of the server's nfsd processes.
rpc.mountd This RPC daemon answers clients' file system mount requests. Users
may also query this daemon to determine which file systems have been
exported or mounted.
rpc.pcnfsd The PC server daemon is called by PC-NFS users to perform PC user

authentication on HP-UX servers. This allows a PC user to access NFS
file systems with the appropriate UIDs and GIDs. It also allows access
to HP-UX printer facilities.
The rpc.pcnfsd daemon does not have to be running on the server

system to use PC-NFS. If rpc.pcnfsd is not running, or if the PC user
elects not to log in to the server system, the PC user becomes nobody
on the server system with the permissions of other.
rpc.lockd When an application is processing a critical file, the application may

place a "lock" on the file to prevent other processes from modifying the
file for a period of time. The NFS server's rpc.lockd daemon listens
for lock requests from NFS clients and locks the requested files
accordingly. However, locks requested via rpc.lockd are not really
enforced. rpc.lockd simply creates a flag, or "semaphore,” indicating
that a process has requested a lock on the file. Other processes may
choose to honor or ignore the lock flag. See the rpc.lockd(1m) and
lockf(2) man pages for details.
rpc.statd When an NFS client places a lock on a file via rpc.lockd, the server's
rpc.statd daemon is responsible for periodically verifying that the
client is still functioning. If the client reboots unexpectedly,
rpc.statd automatically removes all locks placed by the client to
allow other processes to again access the client's locked files.

Module 9
Configuring NFS
9–7. SLIDE: Create the /etc/exports File
Create the /etc/exports File
Examples: 1.Keep UIDs and GIDs consistent.

1. /usr/share/man b. Edit the server’s configuration file.
2. /home -access=oakland:la d. Create the /etc/exports file.
3. /opt/games -ro f. Check the server configuration.

4. /opt/appl -access=oakland:la,ro b. Edit the client’s configuration file.
5. /usr/local -rw=oakland d. Create a new entry in /etc/fstab.
6. /etc/opt/appl -root=oakland,access=la 4. Keep the time synchronized with all other nodes.
I can use the /etc/exports file to

control which clients mount my file systems!
Student Notes
After starting the NFS server daemons, you must configure the /etc/exports file to
specify which file systems you want to share with your NFS clients.
Each line in the /etc/exports file has two fields. The first field identifies a file system,
directory, or file that should be made available to NFS clients. NFS provides a great deal of
flexibility. If the first field identifies a directory that serves as a mount point for a local file
system, that entire file system is made available to clients. If you only want to share a
subdirectory tree within a file system, specify that subdirectory path in the first field. In fact,
you can even export a single file!
The second field determines which clients can mount the file system and what those clients
are allowed to do in the file system. Clients that are granted "read-only" access can view the
files and directories in the file system, but cannot make changes. Clients that are granted
"read-write" access can both view and modify the files and directories in the file system. Note
that the options in /etc/exports never mention "execute" permission. As far as the export
options are concerned, clients that have "read" access should be allowed to read executable
code into memory and execute it.

Module 9
Configuring NFS
The export options supplement, but do not replace normal UNIX file permissions. If the
permissions on a file are set to "000", none of the clients will be allowed to view, modify, or
execute the file regardless of the export options specified in /etc/exports.
The table below shows the most common export option combinations. The first column
shows several common combinations of export options. The remaining three columns
indicate which clients would be able to access each file system, and how, given the access
option listed on the left (rw="read and write access allowed", ro="read-only access allowed").
Look at the table, then see if you can guess which clients will be able to mount each file
system on the slide. (The slide examples are explained at the end of the notes accompanying
this slide.)
Table 1
export options used: hosta hostb others

/home –access=hosta rw — —
/home –access=hosta:hostb rw rw —
/home rw rw rw
/home –rw=hosta:hostb rw rw ro
/home –rw=hosta rw ro ro
/home –ro ro ro ro
/home –access=hosta:hostb,ro ro ro —
/home –access=hosta,ro ro — —
By default, root on the client systems is treated as user nobody when processing files on
NFS servers. In order to grant NFS clients root access, the root option to the export
command must be used. If a file system is exported to a client with the root option, then the
user root on that client will have root permission on that file system. The table below
shows several examples using the root export option:
Table 2
export options used: hosta hostb others

/home –root=hosta,access=hosta root+rw — —
/home –root=hosta,access=hosta:hostb root+rw rw —
/home –root=hosta root+rw rw rw
/home –root=hosta,rw=hosta:hostb root+rw rw ro
/home –root=hosta,rw=hosta root+rw ro ro
/home -root=hosta,rw=hosta,access=hosta:hostb root+rw ro —
/home –root=hosta,access=hosta root+rw — —

Module 9
Configuring NFS
Syntax of /etc/exports
A more formal description of the /etc/exports follows below. Export options in
/etc/exports are preceded with a dash, and are separated by commas. Some export
options require a list of hostnames as arguments. Hostnames in these lists must be separated
by colons.
The export options are as follows:
ro Exports the directory read-only. This prevents hosts

from writing to the file system.
rw=hostname[:hostname] Exports the directory "read-mostly.” This limits read-

write capability to the specified hosts. Clients that are
not explicitly listed after the rw= can still mount the file
system, but will not be allowed to make changes. Up to
256 host names can be specified.
anon=uid If an NFS request comes from an unknown user, grant

that user the privileges normally associated with uid .
Remote root users (UID 0) are always treated as
anonymous users by the NFS server unless their
username is included in the -root= export list. If
rpc.pcnfsd is disabled, then users on Windows
clients will also be treated as "unknown" users, too. An
unknown user has the UID -2 by default, which maps to
username nobody in the /etc/passwd file.
nobody:*:-2:-2::/:
root=hostname[:hostname] Gives root (superuser) access only to root users from a

specified host name or hosts. By default, no hosts are
granted root access. Up to 256 hostnames can be
specified.
access=client[:client] Allows mount access to the specified client or clients. A

client can either be a host name or a netgroup. Each
client in the list is first checked in the /etc/netgroup
database.
async Increases the write performance on the NFS server by

causing asynchronous writes on the NFS server. The
async option can be specified anywhere on the
command line after the directory name.

Module 9
Configuring NFS
Explanation of the Examples

Were you able to guess which clients could mount each file system on the slide? Read the
explanations below if you need help.
1. /usr/share/man
Exports the man pages with read-write access to every client.
2. /home -access=oakland:la
Exports /home with read-write access for oakland and la. Other hosts will not be allowed
to mount the file system at all.
3. /opt/games -ro
Exports the games directory with read-only access for all hosts.
4. /opt/appl -access=oakland:la,ro
Exports with read-only access for oakland and la. No other clients will be allowed to
mount the file system.
5. /usr/local -rw=oakland
Exports with read-write access for oakland, and read-only access for all other hosts.
6. /etc/opt/appl -root=oakland,access=la
Grants root on oakland UID 0 access to the file system. Also allows read-write access
for host la. Other hosts will not be allowed to mount the file system at all.
CAUTION: Export directories and file systems on an as-needed basis only. Always use
export options to restrict access rights.
NOTE: You cannot export either a parent directory or a subdirectory of an exported

directory that resides within the same file system. It is not possible, for
instance, to export both /usr and /usr/local, if both directories reside in
the same file system.

Module 9
Configuring NFS
9–8. SLIDE: Export the Directories
Export the Directories
# exportfs -a 1.Keep UIDs and GIDs consistent.

/etc/exports /etc/xtab e. Export the directories.
/usr/share/man /usr/share/man 3. Configure the NFS client.
/opt/games -ro /opt/games -ro b. Edit the client’s configuration file.
# exportfs -a 4. Keep the time synchronized with all other nodes.
# exportfs
rpc.mountd Client
on server
Student Notes
Simply adding a file system or directory to /etc/exports does not immediately make that
file system available to clients. Any time the /etc/exports file is modified, the
administrator must notify the rpc.mountd daemon that a change has occurred by executing
the exportfs command:
# exportfs -a
The /sbin/init.d/nfs.server script executes this command automatically at boot time

to initially export all file systems.
Several other options on exportfs are also available:
# exportfs Lists all currently exported file systems.

# exportfs -i /home Exports a file system without adding it to /etc/exports.
# exportfs -u /home Unexports a file system.
# exportfs -a Exports all file systems listed in /etc/exports.
# exportfs -ua Unexports all file systems listed in /etc/exports.

Module 9
Configuring NFS
The superuser can execute the exportfs command at any time to alter the list or
characteristics of exported directories. It must be invoked every time /etc/exports is
modified.
If an NFS mounted directory is unexported via exportfs -u, clients that have already
mounted the file system will receive NFS file handle errors when they attempt to access the
unexported file systems. The client administrators can remove the "stale" file system from the
mount table via the umount command.
Internally, the exportfs command functions by simply adding and removing entries from a
file called /etc/xtab which the rpc.mountd daemon uses to determine which file systems
have been made available to which clients. Exporting a file system adds a line to
/etc/xtab, and unexporting a file system disables or removes an entry from the
/etc/xtab file. Executing exportfs without any options simply displays the contents of
the /etc/xtab file.
NOTE: The server must have the directory locally mounted before it can be exported.

Module 9
Configuring NFS
9–9. SLIDE: Check the Server Configuration
Check the Server Configuration
Are the NFS server daemons registered?

# rpcinfo -p [server]
program vers proto port service 1.Keep UIDs and GIDs consistent.
100003 2 tcp 2049 nfs a. Ensure the NFS subsystem is in the kernel.
100003 3 tcp 2049 nfs b. Edit the server’s configuration file.
What file systems have been exported to whom? e. Export the directories.
# showmount -e [server] 3. Configure the NFS client.
/usr/share/man (everyone) a. Ensure the NFS subsystem is in the kernel.
/opt/games (everyone) c. Start NFS client daemons.
What export options were specified? e. Mount the NFS file system.
# exportfs 4. Keep the time synchronized with all other nodes.
/usr/share/man
/opt/games -ro
Which clients currently have file systems mounted from the server?
# showmount -a [server]
client:/usr/share/man
client:/opt/games
Student Notes
After completing the NFS server configuration, check your work.
Are the NFS server daemons registered?

First, verify that the NFS daemons started properly and registered themselves with the
rpcbind/portmap daemon. Use the rpcinfo -p command to query your server's
portmap/rpcbind daemon for a list of registered RPC programs.
# rpcinfo -p [servername]
At a minimum, make sure that you see mountd and nfs in the resulting list. If either of these
programs is missing, you may need to restart the NFS server functionality:
Look in the second column of the output to determine which versions are supported. Does
your server's nfs program support NFS PV3? The third column indicates which transport
protocol(s) your nfs daemon supports. Does your system support NFS over TCP?

Module 9
Configuring NFS
What file systems have been exported to whom?

Next, determine which clients have access to your exported file systems. The
showmount -e command queries your rpc.mountd daemon to obtain this information:
# showmount -e
The command should list all exported file systems, and the clients that have access to each
file system. If file systems or clients are missing, you may need to re-execute the exportfs
command.
What export options were specified?

Although showmount lists the exported file systems, it does not indicate which clients get
read, write, and root access. Execute the exportfs command to verify your export options:
# exportfs
Which clients currently have file systems mounted from the server?
If you want to determine which clients are actually using your NFS file systems, execute the
showmount -a command:
# showmount -a
This command displays the contents of the /etc/rmtab (remote mount table) file in a
human-readable format. Every time a client mounts a file system, the rpc.mountd daemon
adds a line to the remote mount table in /etc/rmtab. Theoretically, the rpc.mountd
daemon then removes clients from rmtab as file systems are unmounted. However, if a client
crashes or loses connectivity to the NFS server, showmount -a may list clients that no
longer have your file systems mounted. You can purge all entries from the /etc/rmtab file
by executing:
# > /etc/rmtab

Module 9
Configuring NFS
9–10. SLIDE: Ensure That the NFS Subsystem Is in the Kernel
Ensure That the NFS Subsystem Is in the

Kernel
LANIC 1. Keep UIDs and GIDs consistent.

Network NFS b. Edit the server’s configuration file.
Subsystem Subsystem c. Start NFS server daemons.
Kernel f. Check the server configuration.
Client f. Check the client configuration.
If the NFS subsystem is not present,

add it into the kernel via SAM
Student Notes
NFS clients, like NFS servers, must have the LAN and NFS subsystems configured in the
kernel.
SAM provides the simplest mechanism for viewing and modifying the kernel:
# sam -> Kernel Configuration -> Subsystems
On HP-UX 10.x systems, you can use the following command to view the contents of the
kernel:
# grep -n -e nfs -e lan /stand/system
On HP-UX 11.x systems, use the following command:
# kmsystem | grep -e nfs -e lan
If either subsystem is missing, use SAM to reconfigure the kernel,

then reboot.

Module 9
Configuring NFS
9–11. SLIDE: Edit the Client's Configuration File
Edit the Client’s Configuration File

/sbin/init /etc/inittab b. Edit the server’s configuration file.
/sbin/rc
Start Scripts Configuration File f. Check the server configuration.
/sbin/rc2.d/* /etc/rc.config.d/nfsconf b. Edit the client’s configuration file.
/sbin/init.d/nfs.core 4. Keep the time synchronized with all other nodes.
/sbin/init.d/nfs.client
NFS_CLIENT=1 #Required!
NFS_SERVER=1
NUM_NFSD=16
NUM_NFSIOD=16 #Optional!
/sbin/rc3.d/*
PCNFS_SERVER=1
START_MOUNTD=1
/sbin/init.d/nfs.server NFS_TCP=1
NFS_TCP=1 #Optional!
Student Notes
After configuring NFS client functionality in the kernel, there are several variables in the
/etc/rc.config.d/nfsconf file that may need to be modified to enable and configure
your NFS client:
NFS_CLIENT=1 Set this variable to "1" to ensure that /sbin/init.d/nfs.client

executes during system startup.
NUM_NFSIOD=16 This variable determines the number of /usr/sbin/biod (Block I/O

Daemons) that are started during the boot process. biod daemons
enable NFS to provide buffer cache read-ahead and write-behind
access to NFS file systems. This number may need to be increased on
clients that use NFS heavily. Up through HP-UX 11.00, NUM_NFSIOD
defaults to "4". At 11i, the default value is "16".

Module 9
Configuring NFS
NFS_TCP=1 If you are running HP-UX 11.00 and have installed the NFS over TCP
patch, the TCP functionality must be enabled by setting NFS_TCP=1 in
/etc/rc.config.d/nfsconf (if the variable doesn't yet exist, add
it to the end of the file). After making this change, both the NFS server
and client daemons must be stopped and restarted. At HP-UX 11i, this
variable is no longer used; NFS over TCP is enabled by default.
NOTE: If your system requires client and server functionality, you must configure
both the client variables listed here and the server variables described earlier
in the chapter.

Module 9
Configuring NFS
9–12. SLIDE: Start NFS Client Daemons
Start NFS Client Daemons

NFS Server NFS Client
portmap (10.20)
biod 16 (optional) e. Mount the NFS file system.
rpcbind (11.x) f. Check the client configuration.
rpcbind (11.x) 4. Keep the time synchronized with all other nodes.
nfsd 16
portmap (10.20)
rpc.statd
rpc.mountd
rpc.lockd
rpc.statd
rpc.lockd
To start the client NFS daemons:

/sbin/init.d/nfs.client start
Student Notes
After modifying the /etc/rc.config.d/nfsconf file, you can either reboot or manually
execute the NFS client startup script to stop and restart the NFS client daemons:
The startup script starts the following daemons:
portmap This daemon, used in HP-UX 10.20 and earlier releases, converts RPC
program numbers into port numbers. When an RPC server program
starts, it registers the following information with portmap:
• The port on which it is listening.

• The RPC program numbers and versions it serves.
All RPC requests from clients are initially sent to the portmap daemon
on port number 111. portmap compares the "RPC Program Number"
in the incoming packet against the list of registered program numbers
to determine which port the RPC request should be forwarded to.

Module 9
Configuring NFS
portmap must be the first RPC program started, and the last to die. If
the portmap daemon dies at any point, then it, as well as all of the
registered RPC programs, must be restarted.
rpcbind This daemon is used in HP-UX 11.00 and beyond as a replacement for
portmap.
biod The asynchronous block I/O daemons are used by NFS clients to
handle buffer cache read-ahead and write-behind.
rpc.lockd When an application is processing a critical file, the application may

place a "lock" on the file to prevent other processes from modifying the
file for a period of time. NFS clients use the rpc.lockd daemon to
request locks on files in the NFS file system. However, locks requested
via rpc.lockd are not really enforced. rpc.lockd simply creates a
flag, or "semaphore,” indicating that a process has requested a lock on
the file. Other processes may choose to honor or ignore the lock flag.
See the rpc.lockd(1m) and lockf(2) man pages for details.
rpc.statd When an NFS client places a lock on a file via rpc.lockd, the server's
rpc.statd daemon is responsible for periodically verifying that the
client is still functioning by periodically attempting to contact the
client's rpc.statd daemon. If the client reboots unexpectedly, the
server's rpc.statd daemon automatically removes all locks placed
by the client to allow other processes to again access the client's
locked files.

Module 9
Configuring NFS
9–13. SLIDE: Create a New Entry in /etc/fstab
Create a New Entry in /etc/fstab

/ / d. Create the /etc/exports file.
usr home var usr home var f. Check the server configuration.
server client e. Mount the NFS file system.
4. Keep the time synchronized with all other
nodes.
client:/etc/fstab
server:/home /home nfs defaults 0 0
Server & Exported Mount File System Mount Backup fsck

File System Point Type Options Frequency Order
Student Notes
After enabling NFS client functionality, you must specify which NFS file systems you wish to
mount. You can manually mount and unmount NFS file systems via the mount and umount
commands, or you can ensure that your NFS file systems mount automatically at boot time
by adding them to the /etc/fstab file. This slide concentrates on /etc/fstab; the next
slide details some of the options available on the mount and umount commands.
NFS /etc/fstab entries are very similar to VxFS and HFS entries in the /etc/fstab file:
Server and Exported FS: Identifies the NFS server hostname and the pathname on the
server for the file system you wish to mount. The hostname
must be separated from the pathname by a colon (:).
If you wish, you can mount a portion of an exported file system

rather than the entire exported file system. For instance, if the
NFS server exported the /home file system, you could mount
/home and everything under it, or you could choose a single
subdirectory to mount (for example, /home/user1).

Module 9
Configuring NFS
Whatever you choose to mount, be sure to identify the file

system you choose via a full pathname!
Mount Point: Identifies the mount point that should be used on the NFS
client. The client's mount point need not match the pathname
used on the NFS server side. If any local files reside under the
specified mount point directory, the local files will be hidden as
long as the NFS file system is mounted. Ideally, the mount
point directory should be an empty directory. Be sure to use a
full pathname when specifying the mount point directory!
File System Type: Set to nfs for NFS file systems. During the system startup
process, the /sbin/init.d/nfs.client startup script
mounts all nfs type file systems that are listed in
/etc/fstab. Other startup scripts also use the fstab file,
too: /sbin/init.d/localmount mounts all hfs and vxfs
file system entries, and /sbin/init.d/swap_start enables
all of the swap type entries.
Mount Options: The mount command recognizes a variety of mount options

that determine how a file system may be accessed. The notes
accompanying the next slide describe NFS mount options in
detail. If you simply want to accept the default options, use the
keyword defaults in this field.
Backup Frequency: This field is unused currently in HP-UX, but requires a "0"
placeholder.
fsck Order: After an improper system shutdown, HP-UX automatically

executes the fsck command to identify and fix file system
corruption. The "fsck Order" field determines the order in
which fsck checks your file systems. Since fsck can only be
executed on local file systems, this field should be set to "0" for
NFS entries in /etc/fstab.

Module 9
Configuring NFS
9–14. SLIDE: Mount the NFS File System
Mount the NFS File System

/ /
usr home var usr home var
server client e. Mount the NFS file system.

Mount Examples Umount Examples

# mount server:/home /home # umount server:/home
# mount /home # umount /home
# mount -aF nfs # umount -aF nfs
# mount -a # umount -a
# mount -v
Student Notes
The same mount and umount commands that you have used in the past to mount and
unmount local file systems can also be used to mount and unmount NFS file systems.
Mount Examples
The slide shows the most common permutations of the mount command:
1. mount server:/home /home
Mounts /home from the designated server.
2. mount /home
Mounts /home using the associated entry in the /etc/fstab file.
3. mount -aF nfs
Mounts all NFS type file systems that are listed in the /etc/fstab file.

Module 9
Configuring NFS
4. mount -a
Mounts all file systems listed in the /etc/fstab file.
5. mount -v
Lists all file systems that are currently mounted.
Umount Examples
In order to unmount NFS file systems, use the umount command. The umount command
recognizes several options and arguments:
1. umount server:/home
Unmounts the specified NFS file system.
2. umount /home
Unmounts the NFS file system mounted under the directory /home.
3. umount -aF nfs
Unmounts all currently mounted NFS file systems.
4. umount -a
Unmounts all file systems, including NFS and locally mounted file systems.
The examples on the slide show the most common mount options and arguments, but NFS
also supports several other options. Some of the other NFS mount options are summarized in
the remaining sections below.
Mount Options Common to All File System Types

The options described in this section apply to all file system types, including NFS.
rw/ro Allow/deny users on this client the ability to make changes on the NFS
file system. The default is rw.
suid/nosuid Enable/disable "Set User ID" execution functionality in the NFS file
system. SUID functionality makes it possible for regular users to gain
temporary root privileges when executing programs that have the
SUID bit set. SUID executables have been known to cause security
problems in the past, so many NFS administrators choose to disable
this functionality wherever possible by mounting NFS file systems
nosuid. The default is suid.
quota/noquota Enable/disable quota checking. See the quota(5) man page for more
information. The default is quota.

Module 9
Configuring NFS
Mount Options Associated with NFS Stability and Recovery Issues

A non-responsive NFS server can cause severe problems for NFS clients. Several mount
options can be used to mitigate the effect that a downed server has on its clients.
There are two very distinct issues to consider when an NFS server crashes or loses
connectivity to its clients: (1) What happens to new clients that attempt to mount from the
downed server? (2) What happens to existing clients that attempt to access files and
directories in an already mounted file system? The table below summarizes the mount
options that determine the answers to these questions. Note that some mount options affect
mount request behavior, while others affect file access attempt behavior.
Mount Options Used Mount Requests Access Requests

fg,retry=5 Retry failed mount attempts N/A
5 times before quitting. The
mount command hangs
until either (1) the file
system successfully mounts,
or (2) all 5 mount attempts
timeout, which may take
several minutes.
bg,retry=1000 Initially attempts the mount N/A
request in the foreground. If
that attempt fails, retry the
mount 1000 times in the
background, and allow the
user to proceed on to other
tasks in the meantime.
hard,intr N/A Access requests hang
indefinitely until the server
responds. However, users
may interrupt hung access
requests by hitting ^C.
hard,nointr N/A Access requests hang
indefinitely until the server
responds. Users may not
interrupt hung access
attempts.
N/A Access attempts are
soft,retrans=5 retransmitted 5 times. After
5 failed attempts, the access
request fails.
By default, NFS file systems are mounted with the fg,retry=1,hard,intr options from
the table above.

Module 9
Configuring NFS
Mount Options Associated with NFS PV3 Functionality

vers=3/2 Determines whether the file system is mounted using NFS PV3 or NFS
PV2. NFS PV3 made it possible to access "large files" over 2 GB in size and
introduced some performance enhancements. PV2 was the only protocol
version supported prior to HP-UX 11.00. When PV3 was released with
11.00, it was backported to HP-UX 10.20 as a patch.
If the client supports NFS PV3, it will attempt to mount file systems using
the PV3 protocol. If a queried server does not support PV3, the client
mounts using NFS PV2. Most administrators allow the client and server to
automatically negotiate a mutually acceptable protocol version. However,
you may force a file system to mount using PV2 by specifying the vers=2
mount option if you know that your server does not support PV3.
proto=tcp/udp When NFS was originally released for HP-UX, it used the UDP protocol
and was supported only on local area networks, not WANs. HP-UX 11i
introduced support for NFS over TCP to enable WAN access to NFS file
systems. This functionality has been backported by patch to HP-UX 11.00.
You can determine if your NFS file systems are mounted using NFS over
TCP by executing the netstat -a | grep nfs command. If your file
systems are mounted via NFS over TCP, you should see an
ESTABLISHED TCP connection between the client and server.
By default, if NFS over TCP is enabled on a client, the client will attempt
to mount all NFS file systems via TCP. If the queried server does not
support NFS over TCP, the client automatically reverts to NFS over UDP.
You can force the client to use UDP by including the proto=udp mount
option. On a local area network, UDP may be slightly more efficient, but
most administrators simply accept the default TCP behavior on clients
that support NFS over TCP.
Default Mount Options

If you mount a file system without specifying any mount options, or if you use the defaults
entry in /etc/fstab, you get the following defaults at HP-UX 11i (the vers= and proto=
options used depend on the NFS version running on the client and server):
rw,suid,quota,fg,retry=1,hard,intr
Thus, the following three commands all have the same effect (assuming the /etc/fstab file
uses the defaults mount option):
# mount svrname:/xxxx /xxxx

# mount -o defaults svrname:/xxxx /xxxx
# mount -o rw,suid,quota,fg,retry=1,hard,intr svrname:/xxxx /xxxx

Module 9
Configuring NFS
9–15. SLIDE: Check the Client Configuration
Check the Client Configuration
Are the NFS client daemons running? 1.Keep UIDs and GIDs consistent.
# ps -e | grep -e rpc -e biod a. Ensure the NFS subsystem is in the kernel.
1000 ? 0:00 biod c. Start NFS server daemons.
1010 ? 0:00 rpcbind d. Create the /etc/exports file.
1020 ? 0:00 rpc.lockd f. Check the server configuration.
1030 ? 0:00 rpc.statd 3. Configure the NFS client.
What file systems are available from the server? c. Start NFS client daemons.
# showmount -e server e. Mount the NFS file system.
/usr/share/man (everyone) f. Check the client configuration.
/opt/games (everyone)
/home oakland,la
What file systems do I have mounted?

# mount -v
/dev/vg00/lvol1 on /stand type hfs defaults on Sat Jan 1 2000
/dev/vg00/lvol3 on / type vxfs defaults on Sat Jan 1 2000
server:/home on /home type nfs defaults,NFSv3 on Sat Jan 1 2000
Student Notes
Several commands are available for checking your NFS client configuration.
Are the NFS client daemons running?

Several daemons should be running on an NFS client. Use the ps command to view the
process table, and look for portmap/rpcbind, rpc.lockd, and rpc.statd:
# ps -e | grep -e rpc -e biod
If you set the NUM_NFSIOD variable to a value greater than zero, you should also see several
biod daemons running, too.
What file systems are available from the server?

Next, check to see which file systems your NFS server has made available to you by
executing the showmount -e command:
# showmount -e server

Module 9
Configuring NFS
What file systems do I have mounted?

Finally, verify that all the file systems that you added to your /etc/fstab file are mounted:
# mount -v

Module 9
Configuring NFS
9–16. SLIDE: Review: Configuring NFS Servers and Clients
Review: Configuring NFS Servers and

Clients

Student Notes
This slide is a review of all of the NFS configuration steps that we have already discussed.

Module 9
Configuring NFS
9–17. SLIDE: Common NFS Problems
Common NFS Problems

The /etc/exports file is missing, incomplete, or erroneous.
The /etc/exports file restricts file system access.
The /etc/exports file contains aliases rather than official host names.
A new entry in /etc/exports was not exported with exportfs.
The portmap/rpcbind daemon was accidentally killed.
The rpc.mountd daemon is not running on the server.
The NFS server is down.
The NFS server is heavily loaded.
Student Notes
NFS has proven to be a stable, reliable mechanism for sharing files between UNIX hosts for
over 15 years. However, most NFS administrators still inevitably need to do some NFS
troubleshooting at some point. This slide highlights some of the most common NFS problems
and misconfigurations.
• /etc/exports is missing, incomplete, or erroneous. Verify that the file system your
client is trying to mount is included in the /etc/exports file with appropriate export
options. Watch for invisible characters (control sequences) and invalid combinations of
export options. If possible, use only the tested combinations of export options that were
discussed in Tables 1 and 2 earlier in the chapter.
• /etc/exports restricts file system access. Try executing the showmount -e

command on the NFS server to determine which clients are allowed to mount your
server's file systems. If your client is not listed, you may need to modify the export
options in /etc/exports.

Module 9
Configuring NFS
• /etc/exports contains the alias of an NFS client instead of its official host name. NFS
uses reverse name resolution to resolve clients' IP addresses into hostnames, then looks
for the clients' hostnames in the export list. Be sure to use official hostnames in
/etc/exports, not hostname aliases!
• The administrator added a new entry to /etc/exports without activating it with

exportfs. Every time you modify /etc/exports, you must notify rpc.mountd that
the export list changed by executing exportfs -a.
• The portmap/rpcbind daemon was accidentally killed. NFS uses RPC calls, and RPC
calls are all handled initially by the portmap/rpcbind daemon. Without this daemon,
NFS will not function properly! Check the process table to verify that the daemon is
running. If the daemon is missing from the process table, you will have to stop and restart
the NFS server and client daemons with /sbin/init.d/nfs.server and
/sbin/init.d/nfs.client.
• The rpc.mountd daemon is not running on the server. Clients cannot mount file
systems if rpc.mountd is not running on the server. Try running the
/sbin/init.d/nfs.server program with the start argument to restart the daemon.
• The NFS server is down. Try to ping the remote system to check for network
connectivity. If you can ping the system, but you cannot mount, the remote system may
not have the proper daemons running. Try stopping and restarting NFS on the remote
system. If you cannot ping the remote system, turn back to the Troubleshooting Network
Connectivity chapter earlier in this book.
• The NFS server is heavily loaded. NFS performance will be degraded as the client/server
ratio increases. Eventually, the server's performance may be degraded so much that
client requests time out and fail. You can check this with the nfsstat command. There
are several possible solutions to this problem:
− Upgrade your NFS server.

− Create an additional server and balance the load.
− Increase the number of your NFS daemons (nfsd) on the server. It is recommended
that the number of NFS daemons increase with the number of NFS clients.

Module 9
Configuring NFS
9–18. SLIDE: Monitoring NFS Activity with nfsstat
Monitoring NFS Activity with nfsstat
# nfsstat -s
Server rpc:
Connection oriented:
calls badcalls nullrecv badlen xdrcall dupchecks dupreqs TCP
50505334 0 0 0 0 16826459 0
Connectionless oriented:
calls badcalls nullrecv badlen xdrcall dupchecks dupreqs UDP
11 0 0 0 0 0 0
Server nfs:
calls badcalls
38543 0
Version 2: (0 calls)
null getattr setattr root lookup readlink read
0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
wrcache write create remove rename link symlink PV2
0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
mkdir rmdir readdir statfs
0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Version 3: (50505345 calls)
null getattr setattr lookup access readlink read
4 0% 118 0% 2007 0% 33678605 66% 106 0% 0 0% 0 0%
write create mkdir symlink mknod remove rmdir PV3
49 0% 16822390 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 1921 0% 0 0%
rename link readdir readdir+ fsstat fsinfo pathconf
46 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 4 0% 0 0%
Student Notes
Over time, you may wish to monitor the volume and type of NFS/RPC traffic on your
network. This may help you troubleshoot performance problems and plan for future growth.
You can use the nfsstat command to view the contents of several NFS registers
maintained by the kernel. The -z option makes it possible to reinitialize these registers.
-c Displays client RPC requests only.
-s Displays server information.
-n Displays NFS information, but excludes general RPC statistics from the
report.
-m Displays statistics for each NFS mounted file system. This includes the server
name and address, mount flags, current read and write sizes, the
retransmission count, and the timers used for dynamic retransmission.
-r Displays RPC information, but excludes NFS specific statistics.

Module 9
Configuring NFS
-z Prints the current statistics, then reinitializes them (resets them to zero).
Combine -z with any of the options to reinitialize particular sets of statistics
after printing them. The user must have write permission on /dev/kmem for
this option to work.
The packet traffic via NFS is cumulatively monitored. Look especially for non-zero entries in
the following fields. They indicate errors, called failures or timeouts:
badcalls
nullrecv
badlen
retrans
badxid
timeout
Many administrators configure a cron job to automatically execute nfsstat -z on a

weekly or monthly basis. nfsstat -z displays all of the current values and then zeroes out
the registers. Comparing these reports makes it possible to track your NFS usage over time.
If you notice uncommonly high values for "Server rpc" and "Server nfs,” your system may be
overloaded as the server.

Module 9
Configuring NFS
9–19. LAB: Configuring NFS
Directions
In this lab, you will work with a partner to experiment with some of the features of NFS. One
of you will function as an NFS server, and the other will function as an NFS client. You
should work together throughout the lab to ensure that you feel comfortable with both the
client and server functionalities of NFS. At this point, decide between yourselves who will be
the server and who will be the client.
Host name of server: ________________________
Host name of client: ________________________
Preliminary Steps
2. (client)
Install the lab files needed on your client:

# cd /labs
# tar -xvf nfs.client.tar
You should now have two new user accounts defined in your /etc/passwd file: "mickie"
and "minnie.” The passwords for the new accounts are "mickie" and "minnie" respectively.
Note that neither user has a home directory on your machine. You will mount their home
directories from your partner's NFS server.
3. (server)
Install the lab files needed on your server:

# cd /labs
# tar -xvf nfs.server.tar
This tarball creates several new files and directories, and two new user accounts in your
/etc/passwd file for users "mickie" and "minnie.” The passwords for the new accounts
are "mickie" and "minnie" respectively. The tarball also creates home directories for
mickie and minnie.

Module 9
Configuring NFS
Part 1: Basic NFS Configuration

1. (client and server)
In order for NFS to function properly, the InternetSrvcs and Networking products must
be installed on your machine. Check to ensure that both of these products have been
installed on your machine. Also, ensure that the NFS subsystem is configured in the
kernel.
# swlist -l product Networking InternetSrvcs NFS
# grep nfs /stand/system
Is your machine configured as an NFS server, client, or both?
What configuration file should you check to find out?
Make sure the appropriate functionality is configured.
3. (client)
What daemons should you see on an NFS client?
Use ps -e on the client to ensure that the necessary daemons are actually running.
4. (server)
What daemons should you see on an NFS server?
Use ps -e to ensure that the server has the necessary daemons running.

Module 9
Configuring NFS
Part 2: Exporting and Mounting NFS File Systems

1. (server)
Your clients need to access several files on your server machine. Export the following
with the export options set as noted. Make the file systems available to clients
immediately, but also ensure that they will be available after the next system boot by
adding them to /etc/exports.
/home rw for your partner's machine, no access for other hosts
/opt/phone rw for your partner's machine, read only for all others
/opt/fun read only for everyone on the LAN
2. (server)
What command can you use to see what file systems you have made available? Can you
tell which export options you used?
What command can you use to see what file systems other servers have made available?
Choose another machine in the classroom and see what it has exported. Can you tell
which export options were used?
3. (client)
Create mount points for the file systems your neighbor exported, and mount them:
/home/mickie
/home/minnie
/opt/fun
/opt/phone

Module 9
Configuring NFS
4. (client)
What file needs to be modified to ensure that these NFS file systems are automatically
mounted after every system boot? Make it so. (For now, use the "defaults" mount option.)
Syntax errors in the /etc/fstab file may cause the next system boot to fail. Do a
mount -a to ensure that you did not make any mistakes in fstab file.
Finally, use mount -v to ensure that all the NFS file systems actually mounted properly.
5. (server)
What command lists the remote machines that have your exported file systems mounted?

Module 9
Configuring NFS
Part 3: Using NFS File Systems

Some shops use NFS to export file systems containing application executables. This
offers a number of benefits. You only need to allocate disk space for the application on
the NFS server, not on every client. It also simplifies upgrades, since the application is
stored in just one place.
From your client, try executing some of the programs mounted from the NFS server to
verify that this is true:
client# /opt/fun/melt
client# /opt/fun/xroach -speed 1
Another benefit of NFS is that files created in an NFS file system instantly become
available to multiple client machines. Do the following experiment to verify that this is
true:
client# ls /home/mickie
server# touch /home/mickie/data
Does the client see the new file that was created on the server?

Though access to files shared via NFS should be more or less transparent to your users,
file access restrictions can mean that a user is able to access a file on some machines but
not others. Try the following commands while logged on as root:
client# cp /opt/fun/melt /opt/fun/drip
server# cp /opt/fun/melt /opt/fun/drip
Why did this command succeed when executed on the server, but not when executed on
the client? (hint: look at /etc/exports)

Module 9
Configuring NFS
3. (client)
Let's try a variation on the experiment you did back in Q#1 of this part of the lab.
client# touch /home/mickie/memo
Why did this fail?
Was the file system exported with "ro" permission?
Was the file system mounted with "ro" permission?
As root, shouldn't you be able to create /home/mickie/memo?
Do whatever is necessary to successfully execute the touch command on the client.

(You should not have to type anything on the server. Hint: Which user on the client
has write permission on mickie's home directory?)
We saw in the previous question that root on an NFS client does not (by default) have the
same file access as root on the NFS server. If a single administrator manages several
systems, however, it may be useful to allow root on NFS clients to have true root access
to exported file systems.
What would you have to do on the NFS server side to allow root on the client to have the
same full root access to the /home file system? Make it so.
Did this seem to work? While logged in as root on the client, try touching a file in mickie's
home directory. Did you have to do anything on the client side to recognize the change in
the server's exports file?

Module 9
Configuring NFS
Part 4: Unmounting NFS File Systems

1. (client)
Occasionally, it becomes necessary to unmount file systems to perform some
administrative tasks. Let's start with the easiest case: on the client machine, unmount
/home/mickie.
Use mount -v to see which file systems remain in the client's mount table. Also do an
ls of /home/mickie, and note that the memo and data files that were under
/home/mickie no longer appear since the file system has been unmounted.
2. (client)
Let's try a more complicated scenario. Can the client unmount an NFS file system if one
of the client's users is accessing that file system?
On the client machine, open two windows. In one of the windows, cd to the
/home/minnie directory. In the other window, issue the umount command to unmount
the minnie file system. Did this work?
The fuser command can tell you who is currently using a file system. Try the following
to see who is currently using /home/minnie.
client# fuser -cu /home/minnie
Try a fuser -cuk on /home/minnie, and see what happens. Then try unmounting the
file system again.
3. (server)
In Part 2, Question 5, we saw a command that the server administrator could use to
determine which of the exported file systems were actually mounted on client hosts. Now
try executing that command again. Was the NFS server notified when the client
unmounted mickie and minnie?

Module 9
Configuring NFS
4. (server and client)

We saw that the administrator can force users out of a mounted file system with the
fuser command. If fuser is executed on the NFS server, does it kill processes on the
NFS clients, or just on the server itself? Try it.
client# cd /opt/fun
server# fuser -cuk /opt
Unfortunately, there is no mechanism in NFS to kill client processes from the server.

We just discovered in the previous question that the NFS server has no way of killing
processes on client hosts. Local file systems cannot be unmounted until all processes
using them die. Does this mean that an NFS server administrator is unable to unmount
his/her exported file systems until the clients that have mounted those file systems
voluntarily unmount? Let's find out.
server# fuser -cuk /opt # kill any proc's on the svr using /opt
server# umount /opt # unmount the local /opt file system
Did you successfully unmount the file system? Any errors? What happened to the client
process that was using your exported /opt?
Try the following commands on the client and note the output.
client# pwd
client# ls
client# cd ..
client# cd /
client# umount /opt/fun
On the client, could you unmount /opt/fun, even after the server was unmounted?

Module 9
Configuring NFS

Summarizing what you saw in the previous question: If an NFS server unmounts an
exported file system that a client has mounted:
a. Can the client still access files in the affected file system?
b. What happens to client processes accessing the affected file system?
c. Can the client unmount the imported file system?

Remount all the server and client file systems on both the server and client.

Module 9
Configuring NFS
Part 5: (Optional) When Things Go Wrong

1. During the remainder of the lab, you will be asked to shutdown your LAN card several
times. Execute the following command to shutdown CDE before proceeding:

What happens if the NFS client loses LAN connectivity to the server? Do the following
and note the output from the commands. First, note the client's behavior when the server
is up. (It should be normal.)
client# cd /opt/fun
client# ls
Now take the server's LAN card down and note what happens to the client:
server# ifconfig lan0 down

client# ls #This will hang indefinitely
Move on to next step.
What happens when the client regains connectivity to the NFS server?
server# ifconfig lan0 up

client# ls

Module 9
Configuring NFS

So, what can the client administrator do while the NFS server is down? Can the client
administrator unmount the NFS file system? Try it.
client# cd /
client# umount /opt/fun # Be patient.
client# mount
What happens if the client tries to remount that file system again while the server is still
down? Try it.
client# mount /opt/fun # Be patient.

Hopefully you discovered that a client can always unmount an NFS file system, even if
the NFS server is down. Actually, since NFS is a "stateless" system, the server can always
unmount its local file systems, too, even if clients have them mounted. Of course doing so
will cause problems for the clients.
To summarize, when an NFS server goes down...
Are any of the processes on the client killed?
What happens when a process on the client tries to hit a file system on the downed server
(assuming the default mount options are used)? Do they hang indefinitely or time out?
What happens when a client tries to mount a file system from a downed server? (Again,
assume that the default mount options are used.)
Bring the server and client back to their original states:

server# mount -a
server# exportfs -a
client# mount -a

Module 9
Configuring NFS
Part 6: (Optional) Client Side Mounting Options

1. (server and client) intr and nointr mount options
By default, HP-UX mounts NFS file systems "hard,intr.” If the NFS server goes down with
these default mount options, we saw client attempts to access the NFS files and
directories hang indefinitely. Can the user abort a command if they get tired of waiting?
Try it.
client# ls /opt/fun # can the user abort the ls with ^C?
Alternatively, you can mount an NFS file system nointr. How would the nointr mount
option affect the experiment above? Try it.

client# mount -o nointr server:/opt/fun /opt/fun
When will the user get a prompt back?
2. (server and client) Soft versus Hard Mounts
The client can also override the hard option with mount -o soft. If a client has
mounted an NFS file system "soft" and the NFS server goes down, what happens to client
requests to the server? Try it.

client# mount -o soft server:/opt/fun /opt/fun
client# ls /opt/fun # be patient.

Module 9
Configuring NFS
Part 7: (Optional) Troubleshooting a Non-responsive NFS Server

You have seen the effect that a downed NFS server has on NFS clients. What can the
administrator on the client side do to determine what might be wrong on the server side?
Do an experiment to find out. Start by doing some experiments while both your server
and client are functioning properly. Bring the LAN cards on both machines to an "UP"
state:
client# ifconfig lan0 up
Now test connectivity from the client to your NFS server:
client# ping server
client# rpcinfo -p server

Now shut down NFS on your NFS server.
server# /sbin/init.d/nfs.server stop
From the client, try mounting /opt/fun.
client# mount /opt/fun # After you see the error, hit ^C.
3. (client)
From the client, try your connectivity test commands again:
client# ping server
Can you still ping the server?

Which RPC programs are no longer available on the server?
Will clients be able to mount NFS file systems now? Why?
Will clients be able to access already mounted NFS file systems? Why?

Module 9
Configuring NFS
Part 8: Cleanup
1. Before moving on to the next chapter, restore your network configuration to the state it
was in prior to this lab.

Module 9
Configuring NFS

Module 10  Configuring AutoFS
Objectives
• Describe the reasons for using AutoFS.
• Start and stop the AutoFS daemons.
• Configure the AutoFS master map.
• Configure the AutoFS –hosts special map.
• Configure the AutoFS direct map.
• Configure the AutoFS indirect maps.
• Describe the differences between AutoFS direct and indirect maps.
• Configure AutoFS to mount and unmount user home directories.
• Troubleshoot problems with AutoFS.
• Identify the limitations of AutoFS’s predecessor, the NFS Automounter.

Module 10
Configuring AutoFS
10–1. SLIDE: AutoFS Concepts
AutoFS Concepts
AutoFS is an NFS client-side service that

• Automatically mounts NFS file systems when needed
• Automatically unmounts NFS file systems that are no longer being accessed
• May be configured to provide load balancing across multiple NFS servers
I only want to NFS mount

users’ home directories
when they actually log in...
NFS Clients
NFS Server
Student Notes
The Limitations of NFS

You learned in the previous chapters that NFS provides a convenient mechanism for sharing
files and directories across a local area network. Many administrators use NFS to share
executables, data files, and even home directories among multiple hosts on their LANs.
However, administrators that use NFS extensively are likely to encounter a number of
limitations:
• In order to ensure that an NFS file system is available after every system boot, the file
system must be added to the /etc/fstab file. As more and more NFS file systems are
added to /etc/fstab, the file becomes unwieldy.
• Maintaining complex NFS mounts in the /etc/fstab files on multiple clients can
quickly become a support nightmare.

Module 10
Configuring AutoFS
• If an NFS server referenced in /etc/fstab is unavailable during an NFS client’s boot

process, the client hangs temporarily until the mount request times out. As more and
more NFS file systems are added to /etc/fstab, the chance of an NFS time-out
occurring during the boot process increases dramatically.
• Only root can mount NFS file systems. If a user needs to temporarily mount an NFS file
system on a client, the user must ask the administrator to mount and unmount the file
system for them.
The Advantages of AutoFS

AutoFS is an NFS client-side service designed to address all of the limitations mentioned
above – and more!
• AutoFS automatically mounts NFS file systems on an as-needed basis. File systems
managed by AutoFS can be removed from /etc/fstab, making the file much less
cumbersome.
• The AutoFS configuration files, known as the AutoFS “maps,” can be managed via NIS.
Instead of managing /etc/fstab files on hundreds of individual hosts, the
administrator can easily modify the NFS configuration from the central NIS server that
stores the NIS AutoFS maps.
• AutoFS only mounts NFS file systems on an as-needed basis. Thus, a downed NFS server
will only delay a client’s boot if the client references the downed server’s file systems
during the boot process.versusversus
• AutoFS may be configured to allow users to automatically mount available NFS file
systems without root’s assistance.
• By default, if an AutoFS file system is left unused for five minutes, AutoFS automatically
unmounts the file system.
• AutoFS provides some primitive load balancing across multiple replicated NFS servers. If
an NFS file system is available from several different servers, AutoFS will automatically
mount the file system from the server that provides the best response time.
AutoFS versus Automounter

Before HP-UX version 10.20, HP’s NFS implementation included Automounter rather than
AutoFS. Although both services provide similar functionality, AutoFS is more robust.
Versions 10.20 and 11.x include both services, but HP has stated that future releases of the
operating system will only support AutoFS. For more information on the differences between
the two services, see the slide at the end of this chapter.
NOTE: AutoFS simply generates NFS mount and unmount requests on behalf of an
NFS client. AutoFS can only mount file systems that have been exported by an
NFS server.

Module 10
Configuring AutoFS
10–2. SLIDE: AutoFS Maps
AutoFS Maps
Q: Which file systems are managed by AutoFS?

Q: Which servers should AutoFS query to mount those file systems?
Q: Are any NFS mount options required?
A: The AutoFS map files have the answers!
Student Notes
NFS file systems may be mounted via the mount command, or via AutoFS. When
/sbin/init.d/nfs.client executes the mount command during the boot process, it
immediately mounts all of the NFS file systems listed in /etc/fstab.
AutoFS, however, mounts NFS file systems on an as-needed basis. In order to do this, AutoFS
must be told:
• Which file systems to mount;

• Which NFS servers provide those file systems; and
• Which mount options should be used when mounting those file systems.
The AutoFS map files answer all three questions. The map files are ASCII configuration files
managed by the system administrator. You may use the ls command to view the AutoFS
maps (if there are any!) on your system:
# ls /etc/auto*

Module 10
Configuring AutoFS
Some AutoFS map files on your systems may be managed via NIS. These NIS-managed map
files won’t appear in the ls output.
AutoFS recognizes several different kinds of map files. Each of these maps will be discussed
in detail in the slides that follow.

Module 10
Configuring AutoFS
10–3. SLIDE: AutoFS Commands and Daemons
AutoFS Commands and Daemons
AutoFS map files
users NFS
/net Server
and
/drawings
processes
/home
mount/umount
file access
requests
automount
requests
Kernel
mount table:
autofs mount requests
/stand HFS
/net AutoFS automountd
/drawings AutoFS
/home AutoFS autofs_proc umount requests
Student Notes
AutoFS requires several different daemons and commands:
1. The first step required to configure AutoFS is to create the AutoFS map files. The next
few slides discuss the configuration of these files in detail.
2. Anytime you modify the AutoFS map files, you must execute the automount command.
This command reads the AutoFS maps, then adds and removes AutoFS entries in the
/etc/mnttab mount table accordingly. Note that automount doesn’t actually mount
any file systems; it is simply responsible for ensuring that the AutoFS entries in the mount
table match the AutoFS maps.
3. When processes attempt to access the AutoFS file systems recorded in the mount table,
AutoFS contacts the automountd daemon.
4. When AutoFS notifies the automountd daemon that an NFS file system is required,
automountd sends an NFS mount request to the appropriate NFS server.
5. Once automountd mounts the needed file system, the requesting process can access the
file system as it would any other NFS file system.

Module 10
Configuring AutoFS
6. The autofs_proc kernel daemon monitors all NFS file systems mounted by AutoFS. If
an NFS file system managed by AutoFS is idle for 5 minutes, autofs_proc notifies
automountd, which then unmounts the idle file system. The allowed idle time is
configurable. This prevents unnecessary NFS file systems from cluttering the mount
table.

Module 10
Configuring AutoFS
10–4. SLIDE: Starting and Stopping AutoFS
Starting and Stopping AutoFS
# /etc/rc.config.d/nfsconf
NFS_CLIENT=1
AUTOMOUNT=1
AUTOFS=1
AUTOMOUNT_OPTIONS=""
AUTOMOUNTD_OPTIONS=""
# ps -ef | grep automountd

# ps -ef | grep autofs_proc
# mount -v
Student Notes
AutoFS is an NFS client-side service. No additional server-side configuration is required,
beyond enabling the nfsd and rpc.mountd daemons, and exporting the desired file
systems.
Enabling AutoFS Functionality

In order to run AutoFS on an NFS client, several variables must be set in
/etc/rc.config.d/nfsconf. First, verify that basic NFS client functionality is enabled:
NFS_CLIENT=1
Next, verify that the AUTOMOUNT variable is set to "1". Although the AUTOMOUNT variable was
traditionally used to enable the old automount daemon, it is still required if you wish the
newer AutoFS daemons to start during the system boot process.

Module 10
Configuring AutoFS
To specify that you wish to use AutoFS rather than the traditional Automounter, scroll to the
bottom of the file and set the AUTOFS variable, too.
AUTOMOUNT=1
AUTOFS=1
The last couple of variables may be used to define additional options for the AutoFS
daemons:
AUTOMOUNT_OPTIONS=””
AUTOMOUNTD_OPTIONS=””
A table describing some of the commonly used options available for these variables is
included below. For more information, see the automount(1m) and automountd(1m)
man pages.
AUTOMOUNT_OPTIONS=”-t 600” By default, AutoFS automatically unmounts file

systems that have been idle for 300 seconds (5
minutes). You may increase the allowed idle time
via the AUTOMOUNT_OPTIONS variable.
AUTOMOUNT_OPTIONS=”-v” Verbose. Displays a message to stdout when the
AutoFS configuration changes.
AUTOMOUNTD_OPTIONS=”-v -T” Enable verbose logging of all AutoFS mount and
umount requests in /var/adm/automount.log.
Starting AutoFS
If the AUTOFS variable is set to “1” in /etc/rc.config.d/nfsconf, then AutoFS is
normally started automatically by the /sbin/init.d/nfs.client script at run level 2 of
the system startup process. You may re-execute this script at any time:
Running the script with the start argument mounts all NFS file systems in /etc/fstab
and starts the AutoFS daemons.
Although AutoFS is usually started by the /sbin/init.d/nfs.client script, you can

manually start the service by issuing two commands:
# /usr/lib/netsvc/fs/autofs/automountd
# /usr/sbin/automount
The first command starts the automountd daemon that generates mount requests to the
NFS server. The second command copies the AutoFS map information into /etc/mnttab so
automountd knows which file systems it is responsible for mounting.
NOTE: AutoFS and Automounter cannot run concurrently on an NFS client. If you are
currently using Automounter, modify the /etc/rc.config.d/nfsconf
configuration file as shown on the slide, then reboot to stop the currently
running Automounter daemon and start AutoFS.

Module 10
Configuring AutoFS
Stopping AutoFS
Usually, AutoFS is terminated by /sbin/init.d/nfs.client during system shutdown:
Alternately, you can manually shutdown AutoFS with the following commands:
# ps –e | grep automountd
# kill 1234 Use the automountd daemon’s PID here!
# /usr/sbin/umountall –F nfs
# /usr/sbin/umountall –F autofs
If a file system mounted by AutoFS is still in use when the stop script is executed, that file
system remains mounted and must be manually unmounted later by issuing the umountall
commands shown above.
NOTE: Never kill the automountd daemon with the –9 signal! This will leave AutoFS
in an inconsistent state, and may eventually require a reboot.
Checking AutoFS
If AutoFS is functioning properly, two daemons should appear in your process table:
automountd and autofs_proc:
# ps –e | grep automountd
# ps –e | grep autofs_proc
Also, check the mount table via the mount –v command. There should be an entry for each
of the file systems managed by AutoFS. If not, check your map files! The sample mount –v
output below was taken from a host that uses AutoFS extensively. Note: Local file systems
and mount timestamps have been truncated to save space.
# mount –v
-hosts on /net type autofs ignore,indirect,nosuid,soft
/etc/auto.direct on /usr/contrib/games type autofs ignore,direct
/etc/auto.direct on /opt/tools type autofs ignore,direct
/etc/auto.direct on /var/mail type autofs ignore,direct
/etc/auto.drawings on /drawings type autofs ignore,indirect
/etc/auto.home on /home type autofs ignore,indirect
If AutoFS appears to be misbehaving, enable AutoFS logging in

/etc/rc.config.d/nfsconf, stop and restart the service, and check the
/var/adm/automount.log log file for errors.

Module 10
Configuring AutoFS
10–5. SLIDE: Configuring the AutoFS Master Map
Configuring the AutoFS Master Map
/etc/auto_master /
/net -hosts -soft,nosuid
drawings autofs
/drawings /etc/auto.drawings
/home /etc/auto.home home autofs
/- /etc/auto.direct
net autofs
opt
Which maps should

AutoFS consult?
The master map tells AutoFS

Which mount point directories where to find all other AutoFS maps!
are managed by AutoFS?
Student Notes
The AutoFS maps determine which file systems AutoFS should mount from which NFS
servers. /etc/auto_master is a special map: it contains a catalog of mount point
directories, followed by the names of the maps AutoFS should consult to determine what
should be mounted under those directories.
The sample /etc/auto_master file on the slide references several other AutoFS maps:
• Attempts to access anything under /net will be handled by the special –hosts map.
• Attempts to access anything under /drawings will be handled by the

/etc/auto.drawings map.
• Attempts to access anything under /home will be handled by the /etc/auto.home map.
• The /- entry at the end of /etc/auto_master refers AutoFS to the “direct map” in
/etc/auto.direct.
Each of these referenced maps will be discussed in detail in the slides that follow.

Module 10
Configuring AutoFS
If /etc/auto_master doesn’t exist when AutoFS is started, a minimal

/etc/auto_master file is created automatically with just one map entry: “/net –hosts
–nosuid,soft”.
NOTE: Be sure to execute the /usr/sbin/automount command anytime you make

changes to the master map!

Module 10
Configuring AutoFS
10–6. SLIDE: Configuring the AutoFS –hosts Map
Configuring the AutoFS -hosts Map
# ll /net/svr1
AutoFS mounts all NFS file systems from svr1!
svr1
/etc/auto_master
Configuring the -hosts map allows
/net -hosts -soft,nosuid users to automatically mount
file systems from any NFS server
just by accessing /net/servername!
No need to issue a mount command!

No need to modify /etc/fstab!
Student Notes
One of the most useful maps recognized by AutoFS is the –hosts special map. If
/etc/auto_master is configured as shown on the slide, then accessing
/net/any_NFS_server causes AutoFS to automatically mount all NFS file systems
available to the client from the specified server. This makes it possible to mount all available
NFS file systems from any NFS server without explicitly executing the mount command or
modifying /etc/fstab!
Example
If the –hosts special map is configured as shown on the slide, you would see the following
entry in your client’s mount table initially (note that local file systems and the mount time
stamps have been omitted for the sake of clarity).
# mount –v
-hosts on /net type autofs ignore,indirect,soft,nosuid

Module 10
Configuring AutoFS
At this point, if a user does an ll of the /net directory, nothing appears:
# ll /net
total 0
See what happens, though, if a user accesses a specific host name within /net:
# ll /net/svr1
dr-xr-xr-x 3 root sys 1024 Mar 28 08:50 home
dr-xr-xr-x 44 bin bin 1024 Mar 29 13:54 opt
dr-xr-xr-x 18 bin bin 1024 Mar 24 12:17 var
The output suggests that host svr1 has exported three NFS file systems: /home, /opt, and
/var. Look what appears in the mount table as a result (again, the mount –v output has
been truncated for the sake of clarity):
# mount –v
-hosts on /net type autofs ignore,indirect,soft,nosuid
svr1:/home on /net/svr1/home type nfs nosuid,soft,size=32768,NFSv3
svr1:/opt on /net/svr1/opt type nfs nosuid,soft,rsize=32768,NFSv3
svr1:/var on /net/svr1/var type nfs nosuid,soft,rsize=32768,NFSv3
Configuring the –hosts Special Map

In order to make the –hosts functionality available on your NFS client, verify that the
following line is included in /etc/auto_master, then execute the
/usr/sbin/automount command to force AutoFS to reread the maps.
# vi /etc/auto_master
/net –hosts –soft,nosuid
The –soft NFS mount option prevents users' access attempts from hanging if the client is
the NFS server is unreachable. The nosuid mount option is a security feature that disables
the SUID bit execution for programs accessed from the NFS server.
NOTE: Be sure to execute the /usr/sbin/automount command after you add or

remove the –hosts entry in /etc/auto_master.
Disadvantages of the –hosts Special Map

The –hosts map has just three disadvantages that you should be aware of.
• When a user accesses /net/any_NFS_server, AutoFS mounts all of the NFS file
systems available from the specified server. If frequent access to a single file system is
required, it is more efficient to access the file system with a map entry that is tailored to
mount just the file system of interest. The direct and indirect maps discussed on the next
couple slides do just that.
• If a user attempts to use /net to access an unreachable NFS server, or an NFS server
that hasn’t exported any NFS file systems, AutoFS generates a “not found” error
condition, which may confuse your users.

Module 10
Configuring AutoFS
• Because the -hosts map allows NFS access to any reachable system, a user may
inadvertently cause an NFS mount over a WAN link, or through a slow router or gateway.
NFS mounts over slow links may cause excessive retransmissions and degrade
performance for all users on the network.

Module 10
Configuring AutoFS
10–7. SLIDE: Configuring the AutoFS Direct Map
Configuring the AutoFS Direct Map
Use the direct map to automatically

mount NFS file systems on
multiple unrelated mount points.
/etc/auto_master
/- /etc/auto.direct
/etc/auto.direct
/usr/contrib/games -ro gamesvr:/usr/contrib/games
/opt/tools -ro toolsvr:/opt/tools
/var/mail -rw mailsvr:/var/mail
Client-side mount points Mount options NFS server sources
Student Notes
A direct map may be used to automatically mount file systems on any number of unrelated
mount points.
The sample /etc/auto.direct file shown on the slide:
• Mounts /usr/contrib/games, read-only, from the gamesvr NFS server.

• Mounts /opt/tools, read-only, from the toolsvr NFS server.
• Mounts /var/mail, read-write, from the mailsvr NFS server.
Example
If the /etc/auto_master and /etc/auto.direct are configured as shown on the
slide, you would see the following entry in your client’s mount table initially (note that local
file systems and the mount time stamps have been omitted for the sake of clarity).
# mount –v

Module 10
Configuring AutoFS
At this point, games, tools, and mail haven’t been mounted yet. However, AutoFS does
display the mount points for these file systems:
# ll –d /usr/contrib/games /opt/tools /var/mail

dr-xr-xr-x 3 root sys 1024 Mar 28 08:50 /usr/contrib/games
dr-xr-xr-x 3 root sys 1024 Mar 28 08:50 /opt/tools
dr-xr-xr-x 3 root sys 1024 Mar 28 08:50 /var/mail
The first time a user accesses one of the directories managed by the direct map, AutoFS
automatically mounts the file system associated with that directory:
# ll /usr/contrib/games
-r-xr-xr-x 3 root sys 1024 Mar 28 08:50 tetris
-r-xr-xr-x 44 root sys 1024 Mar 29 13:54 xpilot
-r-xr-xr-x 18 root sys 1024 Mar 24 12:17 chess
# mount –v
gamesvr:/usr/contrib/games on /usr/contrib/games type nfs
ro,rsize=32768,wsize=32768,NFSv3
Configuring the AutoFS Direct Map

In order to configure a direct map, verify that /etc/auto_master contains a direct map
entry. The first field of the direct map entry in /etc/auto_master must be “/-“. The
second field specifies the full pathname for the direct map file itself. You may change the
direct map filename if you wish.
/- /etc/auto.direct
Next, create the /etc/auto.direct file. Each entry in the direct map has three fields:
• The first field identifies the full pathname of a mount point directory that AutoFS should
monitor.
• The second field lists the mount options AutoFS should use when mounting the file
system. This field is optional.
• The third field identifies the file system to mount on the mount point identified in the first
field.
In order to mount /usr/contrib/games, /opt/tools, and /var/mail via AutoFS, the
following entries would be required in /etc/auto.direct:
# vi /etc/auto.direct

Module 10
Configuring AutoFS
Finally, execute /usr/sbin/automount to make the changes take effect:
NOTE: Be sure to execute /usr/sbin/automount to update the mount table

anytime you update the direct map file.

Module 10
Configuring AutoFS
10–8. SLIDE: Configuring AutoFS Indirect Maps
Configuring the AutoFS Indirect Maps
Use indirect maps to automatically

mount multiple file systems under a
common parent directory.
/etc/auto_master
/etc/auto.drawings
gizmos -ro gizmosvr:/drawings/gizmos
gadgets -ro gadgetsvr:/drawings/gadgets
widgets -ro widgetsvr:/drawings/widgets
Parent Directory Mount points Mount options NFS server sources
Student Notes
An indirect map proves useful when you want AutoFS to mount several NFS file systems
under a common parent directory.
The sample /etc/auto.drawings file on the slide automatically:
• Mounts /drawings/gizmos, read-only, from the gizmosvr

• Mounts /drawings/gadgets, read-only, from the gadgetsvr
• Mounts /drawings/widgets, read-only, from the widgetsvr
Example
If the /etc/auto_master and /etc/auto.drawings are configured as shown on the
slide, you would see the following entry in your client’s mount table initially. (Note that local
file systems and the mount time stamps have been omitted for the sake of clarity.)
# mount –v

Module 10
Configuring AutoFS
At this point, none of the drawing file systems have been mounted yet. In fact, the mount
points have not even been created yet! Users that list the contents of the /drawings
directory may be somewhat perplexed by the fact that the directory appears to be empty!
# ll /drawings
total 0
The first time a user accesses one of the directories managed by the indirect map, AutoFS
creates the necessary mount point directory and mounts the associated file system.
# ll /drawings/gizmos
-r-xr-xr-x 3 root sys 1023 Mar 30 08:50 gizmo1
# mount –v
gizmosvr:/drawings/gizmos on /drawings/gizmos type nfs
ro,rsize=32768,wsize=32768,NFSv3
The other file systems under /drawings will only be mounted as needed.
Configuring the AutoFS Indirect Map

In order to configure an indirect map, you must first add an entry to /etc/auto_master.
The first field in the indirect map /etc/auto_master entry identifies the full pathname for
the parent directory under which AutoFS will mount the indirect map’s file systems. The
second field specifies the full pathname for the indirect map file. If your system uses multiple
indirect maps, you may have multiple indirect map entries in /etc/auto_master.
As always, you must execute /usr/sbin/automount anytime you modify

/etc/auto_master:
Next, create the indirect map /etc/auto.drawings file. Each entry in the indirect map
has three fields:
• The first field identifies the relative pathname of a mount point directory that AutoFS
should monitor.
• The second field lists the mount options AutoFS should use when mounting the file
system. This field is optional.
• The third field identifies the file system to mount on the mount point identified in the first
field.

Module 10
Configuring AutoFS
In order to mount /drawings/gizmos, /drawings/gadgets, and

/drawings/widgets via AutoFS, the following entries would be required in
/etc/auto.drawings:
# vi /etc/auto.drawings
NOTE: You must execute /usr/sbin/automount anytime you change an indirect

map entry in /etc/auto_master. However, it is not necessary to execute
the automount command if the contents of the indirect maps themselves
change.

Module 10
Configuring AutoFS
10–9. SLIDE: Comparing Direct versus Indirect Maps
Comparing Direct versus Indirect Maps
Direct mounted file system mount points are always visible to users
Direct mounted and local file systems may co-exist in the same parent directory
Large direct maps quickly lead to cluttered mount tables
The automount command must be executed every time the direct map changes
Indirect mounted file systems only become visible after being accessed
Indirect mounted and local file systems may not coexist in the same parent directory
Each indirect map yields just one entry in the mount table
AutoFS automatically recognizes indirect map changes
Student Notes
Determining when to use direct versus indirect maps is one of the most confusing issues
faced by AutoFS administrators. The slide above and table below compare and contrast these
two different AutoFS map types. The table references the sample direct and indirect maps
shown below:
# cat /etc/auto_master
/hosts -hosts –soft,nosuid
/- /etc/auto.direct
# cat /etc/auto.direct
# cat /etc/auto.drawings

Module 10
Configuring AutoFS
Direct Maps Indirect Maps

Advantage: Direct mounted file systems are Disadvantage: Indirect mounted file systems
always visible to users. If a system were only become visible after being accessed. If a
configured with the sample direct map system were configured with the indirect
shown above, users could view the contents map shown above, the /drawings directory
of /usr/contrib or would appear empty unless the user
/usr/contrib/games at any time. explicitly accessed a subdirectory within
/drawings.
Advantage: Direct mounted AutoFS file Disadvantage: Indirect mounted and local file
systems and local file systems may coexist in systems may not co-exist in the same parent
the same parent directory. For example, the directory. For example, files stored locally
/usr/contrib directory on the sample under the /drawings directory on the
system above contains both locally stored sample system above would be hidden by the
directories (such as /usr/contrib/bin) /etc/auto.drawings indirect map.
and an AutoFS direct map file system
(/usr/contrib/games).
Disadvantage: Large direct maps quickly lead Advantage: Each indirect map yields just one
to cluttered mount tables. Each entry added entry in the mount table. The sample indirect
to the direct map adds an entry to the mount map shown above would create one mount
table, too. Thus, the sample system shown table entry for /drawings.
above would have three AutoFS entries in the
mount table as a result of the direct map.
Disadvantage: The automount command Advantage: AutoFS automatically recognizes
must be executed every time the direct map indirect map changes. If you modify a
changes. directory’s entry in an indirect map, AutoFS
will see the changes the next time it mounts
the directory; there is no need to execute the
automount command.

Module 10
Configuring AutoFS
10–10. SLIDE: Mounting Home Directories with AutoFS
Mounting Home Directories with AutoFS
/home/sales /home/accts
user1 user2 user3 user4
sales accts
/etc/passwd
user1:x:101:101::/home/sales/user1:/usr/bin/sh
user3:x:103:101::/home/accts/user3:/usr/bin/sh
/etc/auto_master /etc/auto.home
/home /etc/auto.home sales sales:/home/sales
accts accts:/home/accts
Student Notes
User home directories are among the most commonly exported directories in NFS
environments. If all of your home directories are on a single NFS server, then it might make
sense for clients to mount /home from the server via an entry in /etc/fstab. NFS
mounting home directories via /etc/fstab becomes more complicated, however, if your
home directories are stored on multiple NFS servers across your local area network. If your
home directories are scattered across multiple NFS servers, use AutoFS!
Consider the example on the slide. This organization has two NFS home directory servers.
The “sales” server stores home directories for all members of the “sales” department, and the
“accts” server stores home directories for all members of the “accts” department. The
following configuration greatly simplifies home directory management in this type of
environment. Better yet, it guarantees that any user may log onto any AutoFS client and have
access to their home directory!
1. On each NFS server, create a subdirectory under /home that matches the server’s host
name. On host “sales” create a directory called /home/sales. On host “accts,” create a
directory called /home/accts.

Module 10
Configuring AutoFS
If you are migrating existing systems to NFS mounted home directories, you may need to
move users’ home directories from the clients’ local disks to the new NFS servers.
sales# mkdir /home/sales

accts# mkdir /home/accts
2. Create a home directory for each user on the appropriate server.
sales# mkdir /home/sales/user1

sales# mkdir /home/sales/user2
accts# mkdir /home/accts/user3
accts# mkdir /home/accts/user4
3. Export the /home file system on both servers.
sales# exportfs –i /home

accts# exportfs –i /home
4. Create an indirect map entry in /etc/auto_master to handle all attempts to access

directories under /home. For the sake of clarity, name the map /etc/auto.home:
clients# vi /etc/auto_master
/home /etc/auto.home
5. Create the /etc/auto.home map. Create one entry in the map for each server that
exports home directories. For instance, the “sales” home directories should be mounted
from sales:/home/sales. The “accts” home directories should be mounted from
accts:/home/accts.
clients# vi /etc/auto.home
sales sales:/home/sales
6. Update the home directory pathnames in the clients’ /etc/passwd files. The home
directory pathnames must be updated to reflect the new
/home/servername/username directory naming convention. Note that all of the
clients’ /etc/passwd files must be updated.
clients# usermod –d /home/sales/user1 user1

clients# usermod –d /home/sales/user2 user2
clients# usermod –d /home/accts/user3 user3
clients# usermod –d /home/accts/user4 user4

Module 10
Configuring AutoFS
Questions
1. What type of map is being used in the example on the slide to automatically mount user
home directories?
2. Why is this type of map preferable to its alternative? (Hint: What must be done each time
a client’s direct map file changes?)

Module 10
Configuring AutoFS
10–11. SLIDE: Mounting Home Directories with AutoFS Key

Substitution
Mounting Home Directories with AutoFS

Key Substitution
/home/sales /home/accts
user1 user2 user3 user4
sales accts
/etc/passwd
/etc/auto_master /etc/auto.home
/home /etc/auto.home * &:/home/&
Student Notes
The previous slide showed how AutoFS indirect maps can be used to automatically mount
user home directories. The example on the slide showed a simple /etc/auto_home file that
included references to just two NFS home directory servers:
clients# cat /etc/auto.home

With just two NFS servers, the /etc/auto.home file is easy to manage. Larger
organizations, however, oftentimes have complex /etc/auto.home files that reference
four, eight, sixteen, or even more NFS servers. Worse yet, changes made to
/etc/auto.home must be propagated out to every one of your NFS clients!
Fortunately, AutoFS key substitution can simplify the administrator’s life considerably in
large NFS environments by replacing references to specific servers and file systems with two
special wild card characters.

Module 10
Configuring AutoFS
The first of these special characters is the ampersand (&). Consider the improved
/etc/auto.home file below:

sales &:/home/&
accts &:/home/&
Each & in the map will automatically be replaced by the key value shown in the first field of
the AutoFS map entry. Thus, the ampersands in the first line will be replaced by “sales,”
and the ampersands in the second line will be replaced by “accts.” This abbreviated map
saves the NFS client administrator a few keystrokes, while still providing the same
functionality as the /etc/auto.home map on the previous slide.
The map file may be further condensed to a single line by replacing the key field in
/etc/auto.home with an “*” wildcard. Assuming that /etc/auto.home is an AutoFS
map mounted on /home, then any attempt to access anything under /home matches the “*”
entry.

* &:/home/&
Consider the following example: user1 types cd /home/sales/user1. Since the

/etc/auto.home map is mounted on /home, AutoFS intercepts the access attempt. AutoFS
searches the /etc/auto.home map for a matching entry. Although the map never explicitly
states which server should be used to mount the sales subdirectory, AutoFS does find the
“*” wildcard entry, which matches the key, sales. Using sales as the key value, AutoFS
substitutes the ampersands on the right side of the map entry and mounts
sales:/home/sales.
This simple, single-line map allows AutoFS to mount home directories from any NFS home
directory server on the network. Furthermore, the administrator can add additional home
directory servers to the environment without modifying AutoFS maps on the NFS clients.

Module 10
Configuring AutoFS
10–12. SLIDE: Configuring AutoFS to Access Replicated Servers
Configuring AutoFS to Access

Replicated Servers
Replicated servers
provide load
balancing and toolsvr1 toolsvr2 toolsvr3
high availability
for read-only
file systems! I'll poll all three
servers and mount
/opt/tools from
/etc/auto_master
the first server
/- /etc/auto.direct that responds!
/etc/auto.direct
/opt/tools -ro toolsvr1:/opt/tools \
toolsvr2:/opt/tools \
toolsvr3:/opt/tools
Student Notes
All of the map files discussed in the chapter so far have listed exactly one NFS server for
each AutoFS mount point. However, it turns out that the AutoFS direct and indirect maps can
actually list two, three, or even more NFS servers for each AutoFS mount point. This
Replicated Server functionality can dramatically improve performance for AutoFS clients
that mount executables and other read-only file systems via AutoFS.
The example on the slide shows three NFS servers: toolsvr1, toolsvr2, and toolsvr3. All three
servers have identical copies of the /opt/tools application directory, which is made
available to clients via NFS.
Note that the direct map file responsible for mounting /opt/tools is a bit different than the
maps discussed up to this point: instead of listing one server as a source for mounting
/opt/tools, the map lists all three servers!
/opt/tools -ro toolsvr1:/opt/tools \
toolsvr2:/opt/tools \
toolsvr3:/opt/tools

Module 10
Configuring AutoFS
This could also be written as follows:
/opt/tools -ro toolsvr1,toolsvr2,toolsvr3:/opt/tools
When a user accesses the/opt/tools directory, automountd polls all three servers and
mounts the file system from the server that responds first. This functionality provides several
advantages:
• Minimized network traffic. Since servers on the local network segment can respond more
quickly to AutoFS client polls than servers on other segments, clients are more likely to
choose a replicated server on the local network. This minimizes NFS traffic across your
routers and gateways.
• Load balancing. Since heavily-loaded servers can’t respond to client polls as quickly as
lightly-loaded servers, new clients will likely choose to mount replicated file systems
from the lightly-loaded servers.
• Reliability. Even if one of the NFS servers is down at the time of the request, the client
will still be able to mount the file system from one of the other replicated servers. Note,
however, that once AutoFS chooses a server, the selection is static. If a server becomes
unavailable after a client has mounted a file system, automountd will not dynamically
switch to one of the remaining servers.
CAUTION: To ensure data consistency regardless of the NFS server chosen by the
AutoFS client, the replicated server functionality should only be used
for read-only file systems.
The configuration on the slide shows a very simple replicated server configuration. In more
complex NFS environments, you can choose to assign weights to each replicated server. The
lower a server’s weight value, the more likely it is that that server will be chosen by AutoFS.
Servers without an explicitly assigned weight value have a weight value of 0. In the example
shown below, toolsvr1 takes precedence of toolsvr2, and toolsvr2 takes precedence over
toolsvr3.
/opt/tools –ro toolsvr1(1):/opt/tools \
toolsvr2(2):/opt/tools \
toolsvr3(3):/opt/tools
Server proximity is more important than the weights you assign. A server on the same
segment as the client is more likely to be selected than a server on the other side of a
gateway, regardless of the assigned weights.

Module 10
Configuring AutoFS
10–13. SLIDE: Troubleshooting AutoFS
Troubleshooting AutoFS
Verify that /etc/rc.config.d/nfsconf is configured properly.

Verify that the AutoFS daemons are running.
Verify that the AutoFS maps are configured properly.
Verify that DNS resolves the NFS server's hostname properly.
Verify that you have network connectivity to the NFS server.
Verify that the NFS server daemons are running.
Verify that the NFS server has exported the file systems in question.
Consider stopping and restarting AutoFS.
Consider enabling AutoFS logging.
Determine if the NFS server is overloaded.
Student Notes
If AutoFS appears to be misbehaving, try the following:
Verify that /etc/rc.config.d/nfsconf is Configured Properly

Check the nfsconf file to verify that the following variables are defined properly:
# cat /etc/rc.config.d/nfsconf
NFS_CLIENT=1
AUTOMOUNT=1
AUTOFS=1
Verify that the AutoFS Daemons are Running

The AutoFS daemons must be running in order for AutoFS to function properly. Verify that
this is the case by executing the ps command. If the daemons aren't running, re-run the
nfs.client start script.
# ps –e | grep –e autofs_proc –e automountd

Module 10
Configuring AutoFS
Verify that the AutoFS Maps are Configured Properly

Do all of the AutoFS maps appear in the mount table? If so, consult the map files themselves
to check the mount options and NFS server names.
# mount –v | grep "type autofs"

# cat /etc/auto*
Verify that DNS Resolves the NFS Server's Host Name Properly
Since AutoFS maps reference NFS servers by host name, DNS problems can cause problems
for AutoFS. Use nsquery to verify that your client is able to resolve each of the NFS server
names to IP addresses.
# nsquery hosts server
Verify that you have Network Connectivity to the NFS Server

Are you able to ping the server? If you can't ping the server, AutoFS won't be able to send
mount requests to the server. Check your IP address, your routing table, and your
connectivity to other hosts on the network.
# ping server
Verify that the NFS Server Daemons are Running

Verify that rpc.mountd and nfsd are both registered with the NFS server's rpcbind
daemon. If the server's NFS daemons aren't listed, ask the server administrator to re-run
/sbin/init.d/nfs.server start.
# rpcinfo –u server mountd

# rpcinfo –u server nfs
Verify that the NFS Server has Exported the File Systems in Question
AutoFS can only mount file systems that have been exported by the NFS server. Use the
showmount command to verify that the file systems you need have been properly exported.
# showmount –e server
Consider Stopping and Restarting AutoFS

If all else fails, consider stopping and restarting AutoFS.
Does the startup script generate any error messages?

Can you start the service manually?
# /usr/lib/netsvc/fs/autofs/automountd

Module 10
Configuring AutoFS
Consider Enabling AutoFS Logging

You might also consider enabling verbose AutoFS tracing and logging. With this functionality
enabled, you will be able to determine exactly which mount requests are generated by
AutoFS.
AUTOMOUNT_OPTIONS="-v"
AUTOMOUNTD_OPTIONS="-v -T"
# more /var/adm/automount.log
Determine if the NFS Server is Overloaded

As far as NFS is concerned, a slow server is equivalent to a downed server. If your server is
overloaded, your mount requests may timeout, and cause problems for AutoFS. Run glance
or sar on the NFS server to determine if the server might be the problem.

Module 10
Configuring AutoFS
10–14. SLIDE: Comparing AutoFS with Automounter
Comparing AutoFS with Automounter
Automounter is the predecessor to AutoFS

Automounter is still available on 10.20 and 11.x
Automounter's purpose and maps are identical to AutoFS
Automounter is inferior to AutoFS in several ways:
Automounter will not be supported in future HP-UX releases
Automounter doesn't support NFSv3
Automounter direct maps may cause "mount storms"
Automounter mounts file systems in /tmp_mnt
Automounter must be restarted when the master or direct maps change
Student Notes
AutoFS has only been supported in HP-UX since 1998. Prior to the release of AutoFS, HP-UX
provided similar functionality via the Automounter service. Automounter is still supported in
HP-UX 10.20 and 11.x, but is quickly being supplanted by AutoFS for several reasons:
• Automounter will not be supported in future releases of HP-UX. Although both
Automounter and AutoFS are supported in 10.20 and 11.x, HP has announced that future
releases of the OS will not support the older Automounter service.
• Automounter doesn't support NFS Protocol Version 3. Protocol Version 3 introduced

support for large files over 2 GB, and numerous performance enhancements. None of this
new functionality is available to clients mounting file systems via the traditional
Automounter and NFS Protocol Version 2.
• Automounter direct maps may cause "mount storms.” If an Automounter direct map
referenced several file mount points under a common parent directory, doing an ll on
the parent directory caused all of the file systems below that directory to mount
immediately – whether they were needed or not! This placed an unnecessary burden on
the NFS servers. AutoFS direct maps don't cause mount storms.

Module 10
Configuring AutoFS
• Automounter mounts file systems under /tmp_mnt. The traditional Automounter always
mounted file systems under the /tmp_mnt directory, then used a complex web of
symbolic links to make it appear as if the file systems were mounted in the normal /usr,
/opt, /home, etc. file systems. This oftentimes confused users and administrators alike.
• Automounter must be stopped and restarted whenever /etc/auto_master or

/etc/auto.direct change. There is no way to dynamically modify the master or direct
maps when using the traditional Automounter service. In order to change these maps, the
administrator must stop and restart the Automounter daemon. Unfortunately, in order to
restart the Automounter daemon properly, you must first kill any processes using file
systems mounted by the previous instance of the daemon. This oftentimes required a
reboot any time the master or direct map changed. In today's 24x7 environments, these
frequent reboots are unacceptable. After changing an AutoFS master or direct map, you
can dynamically execute the automount command to make the changes take effect
immediately.
AutoFS first became available in 10.20 as part of an Additional Core Enhancement (ACE)
release in 1998. AutoFS was first released for 11.00 as part of a Software Extension Pack the
same year. To determine if AutoFS is installed on your system, simply check for the existence
of the /usr/lib/netsvc/autofs/automountd executable.
Automount and AutoFS can – and usually do -- coexist on a system simultaneously, but may
not be running concurrently on the same system. To determine which daemon you are
running, check the /etc/rc.config.d/nfsconf file. If the AUTOFS variable is set to "1",
you are running AutoFS rather than the traditional Automounter.
Fortunately, transitioning from the traditional Automounter to the newer AutoFS is a simple
procedure. See HP's Installing and Administering NFS Services with 10.20 ACE and HWE
manual for details.

Module 10
Configuring AutoFS
10–15. LAB: Configuring AutoFS
Preliminary
Portions of this lab may disable your lan0 interface card. If you are using remote lab
This lab assumes that the classroom has been configured with the 128.1.*.* IP addresses
configured earlier in the course. The instructor station must be assigned IP address 128.1.0.1.
Execute the following preliminary setup steps on both the student and instructor
workstations in preparation for the lab:
# /labs/autofs.lab.setup.sh
These scripts added several entries to the /etc/passwd and /etc/hosts files on both the
instructor and student workstations. When executed on the instructor station, the script also
configures several additional IP addresses via IP multiplexing, and creates and exports
several directories.
Part 1: Enabling and Starting AutoFS

Before you can configure the AutoFS maps, you must verify that NFS is installed, and the
AutoFS daemons are running. That's the goal of this first portion of the lab!
1. Verify that the NFS product is installed on your system, and that the NFS client
functionality is configured in /etc/rc.config.d/nfsconf.
2. AutoFS was not included in the NFS product that was initially shipped with 10.20 and
11.00. Verify that AutoFS is included in the version of the NFS product installed on your
system by checking for the existence of the /usr/lib/netsvc/fs/autofs directory.
3. HP-UX 10.20 and 11.x support both AutoFS and the older Automounter. Is either of these
services configured on your machine? Which one, if any?

Module 10
Configuring AutoFS
4. Enable AutoFS in /etc/rc.config.d/nfsconf, but don't try to start the daemon yet.
5. Automount and AutoFS should never run concurrently on a system. Technically, you
should be able to switch from one service to the other by tweaking the control variables
in /etc/rc.config.d/nfsconf. Realistically speaking, however, it is often difficult to
shut down automounter without rebooting since the daemon won't die until all of the
automounted file systems are unmounted. The cleanest solution is to reboot. Make it so!
# shutdown –ry 0
6. When your system comes back up again, verify that the AutoFS daemons are running.

Module 10
Configuring AutoFS
Part 2: Configuring the AutoFS –hosts Map

The –hosts map provides a convenient mechanism for automatically mounting NFS file
systems from any NFS server without modifying /etc/fstab or issuing the mount
command. This portion of the lab walks you through the steps required to configure the
–hosts map.
1. The –hosts entry is included in /etc/auto_master by default in HP-UX. Verify that
the map has already been configured in your system's /etc/auto_master file.
2. Does the mount table reflect the fact that AutoFS is managing the /net mount point?
3. Test your –hosts map! What happens when you access /net/corp? Try it!
# ls /net/corp
4. What changed in the mount table?
5. Will AutoFS recognize a host referenced by IP address rather than name? Try it!
# ls /net/128.1.0.1
# mount -v
6. What happens if you attempt to access a non-existent host? Try it!
# ls /net/10.1.1.1

Module 10
Configuring AutoFS
Part 3: Configuring the AutoFS Direct Map

This part of the lab exercise gives you an opportunity to supplement your –hosts special
map with a direct map file, too.
1. Add a direct map entry to /etc/auto_master. Name your direct map

/etc/auto.direct.
2. Configure your direct map to automatically mount the /usr/contrib/games directory

from the corp NFS server. Use the read-only mount option.
3. What must be done to make this change take effect? Make it so!
4. What appears in the mount table to indicate that AutoFS has recognized the new direct
map?
5. Does the games mount point appear when you list the contents of /usr/contrib? Does
listing the /usr/contrib directory cause AutoFS to mount the games file system from
the NFS server?
# ls /usr/contrib
# mount –v.

Module 10
Configuring AutoFS
6. cd to /usr/contrib/games, and list the contents. There should be an executable

under games called /usr/contrib/games/oneko/bin/X11/oneko. Run the oneko
executable, then check the mount table to see what changed.
# cd /usr/contrib/games
# ls
# /usr/contrib/games/oneko/bin/X11/oneko &
# mount –v.
7. Add another entry to your direct map to mount the /data/contacts directory from the
corp NFS server. Users will need both read and write access to this file system. Don't
execute the automount command yet.
8. What happens at this point if you attempt to do an ls of /data/contacts?
9. Do whatever is necessary to make the /data/contacts directory available on the

client. Verify that your fix works.

Module 10
Configuring AutoFS
Part 4: Configuring an AutoFS Indirect Map

Your organization has three departments, with home directories on three different NFS
servers. Members of the finance department have their home directories on a server called
"finance,” members of the business department have their home directories on a server called
"business", and members of sales have their home directories on a server called "sales". Your
goal in this portion of the lab exercise is to configure an indirect map that will mount and
unmount these home directories on an as-needed basis.
1. The indirect map used in this portion of the lab will be mounted under /home. This will
not work if the logical volume containing your current users home directories is also
mounted on /home. For the remainder of this lab, unmount the logical volume containing
your users' home directories.
# umount /home
2. Add an indirect map entry for /home to /etc/auto_master. This map entry should
reference the /etc/auto.home map file.
3. What must be done anytime the master map changes? Make it so!
4. Now create the /etc/auto.home map file. The map file should configured such that:
/home/finance is mounted from finance:/home/finance

/home/business is mounted from business:/home/business
/home/sales is mounted from sales:/home/sales
Is it necessary to re-issue the automount command after creating/changing the indirect

map file?

Module 10
Configuring AutoFS
5. Check the mount table. How many mount table entries were created as a result of the
new indirect map? How many entries would have been created in the mount table if this
had been configured as a direct map?
6. Do an ls of /home. Can you explain the result? Did AutoFS mount any file systems?
7. Now access a specific user's home directory and see what happens to the mount table:
# ls /home/finance/user1
# mount –v
8. Will this configuration automatically mount a user's home directory at login time? Try it!
Try logging in as user "user3.” Then check the mount table to verify that the user's home
directory was in fact mounted from the proper location.
# su – user3
$ pwd
$ ls -a
$ exit
# mount -v
9. Can you shorten the /etc/auto.home file to a single line? How? Make it so! Then test
your solution:
# vi /etc/auto.home
# ls /home/sales/user5
# mount -v

Module 10
Configuring AutoFS
Part 5: Cleanup
Before moving on to the next chapter, run the netfiles.sh cleanup script:
# mount -a

Module 10
Configuring AutoFS

Objectives
• Describe the purpose of Network Information Service (NIS).
• List the standard NIS maps.
• Configure an NIS master server.
• Configure an NIS slave server.
• Configure an NIS client.
• Change a password stored in the password map.
• Update other NIS maps on the master server.
• Propagate new maps to a slave server.
• Restrict user access to the master server.
• Describe the differences between NIS and NIS+.

Module 11
Configuring NIS
11–1. SLIDE: Why Use NIS?
Why Use NIS?
• NIS provides for single point administration of system configuration files.

• NIS ensures consistency of files across the LAN.
• Files maintained by NIS include:
/etc/hosts
/etc/passwd
Clients
/etc/group
.
.
.
others
All clients share a common
Server set of configuration files.
Student Notes
Every UNIX-based node on a network requires a certain amount of maintenance in order to
stay current and up-to-date. For example, if a new node is added to the network, every UNIX-
based system should have its /etc/hosts file updated to contain the name of the new node.
Or, if a new user is added, and the user requires potential access to all nodes, every system
will need its /etc/passwd file updated. With a few systems to update, this may seem
reasonable. As the number of nodes increases however, the administration for these types of
updates becomes time consuming and tedious.
Rather than manage the host names and user accounts on each individual system, a software
tool called Network Information Service (NIS) was developed by Sun Microsystems to allow
these files to be maintained on a single system (an NIS server) and referenced by other
systems configured as NIS clients. With NIS, when a new host is added to the network, a
single system's files are updated and these changes are propagated out to the other nodes on
the network.
Another major advantage of NIS (besides central administration), is consistency across all
nodes on the network. Because all systems reference the same set of files (referred to an NIS
database files), users do not have to worry about which systems have which login accounts
setup, or if they will be able to reference a new node by its host name on all machines.

Module 11
Configuring NIS
Preserving consistency means that if the information is available on one machine, it is

available (with the exact same definition) on all machines on the network (using NIS).
In HP-UX, the NIS software is bundled with the NFS product and the default operating
system.
NIS was formerly known as the Yellow Pages. However, this name is a registered trademark
of British Telecommunications in the United Kingdom, so the name of the service was
changed.

Module 11
Configuring NIS
11–2. SLIDE: NIS Maps
NIS Maps
chris:101:…
/etc/passwd scott:102:…
abby:103:…
passwd.byname MAP passwd.byuid MAP

Indexed abby abby:103:… Indexed 101 chris:101:…
by chris chris:101:… by 102 scott:102:…
Name scott scott:102:… UID 103 abby:103:…
• NIS maps are indexed databases created by NIS.

• NIS creates one or more indexed maps per ASCII configuration file.
• Additional, customized maps can be created if desired.
Student Notes
The ASCII files that NIS uses are converted into databases files (also known as NIS map files)
when NIS is configured. Each NIS map file is sorted based on common fields used to index
into the file. For example, the /etc/passwd file is translated into NIS maps which index
based on login names (passwd.byname), and based on UIDs (passwd.byuid).
There is one NIS map called ypservers that is not built from an ASCII source file. It is
created automatically during NIS configuration. It contains a list of the master and slave
servers for the NIS domain.
Each of the maps is appended with two suffixes when created: .pag and .dir. For example:
passwd.byname.dir
passwd.byname.pag
passwd.byuid.dir
passwd.byuid.pag

Module 11
Configuring NIS
If your file system only supports short file names, a file name can only have 14 characters.
This means map names can only be 10 characters in length because the .dir and .pag
suffixes are added to map names. NIS will then create short map names:
passw.byna.dir
passw.byna.pag
passw.byui.dir
passw.byui.pag
NOTE: An NIS map is synonymous with an NIS database file.

Module 11
Configuring NIS
11–3. SLIDE: NIS Domains
NIS Domains
• Each node can belong to a maximum of one domain.

• Nodes in a domain share a common set of maps.
• Domains can span multiple networks.
Server
NIS Maps
Client
NIS Domain
Student Notes
An NIS domain is a logical grouping of nodes using the same NIS maps. There can be more
than one NIS domain within a physical network. Nodes that have the same domain name
belong to the same NIS domain.
NIS domain-related files are stored under a subdirectory beneath /var/yp on the NIS
servers. The subdirectory name corresponds to the name of the NIS domain which that
system serves. For example, maps in the research domain would be stored in directory
/var/yp/research. NIS domain names are case-sensitive. The NIS standard for systems
supporting long file names is a domain name of up to 64 characters.
The /etc/rc.config.d/namesvrs file on each system has an NIS_DOMAIN variable,

which is used to set the domain name for a system during boot configuration. The domain
name may be changed interactively by the superuser by executing the
/usr/bin/domainname command. Users can determine the default domain name on the
local system by executing domainname with no parameters.
NOTE: There is no relationship between NIS maps and DNS maps.

Module 11
Configuring NIS
11–4. SLIDE: NIS Roles
NIS Roles
NIS Domain
NIS Maps ASCII Files
Master Server
Clients
NIS Maps
Slave Server
Student Notes
The major components of a NIS domain include the master server, the slave servers, and the
clients.
The master server is the system on which the original ASCII files are kept and modified.
These files are translated into maps on the master server.
Slave servers have copies of the maps and, along with the master, serve the information
over the network to the clients. Slave servers are optional.
Clients do not have maps or copies of the server's ASCII files (though having their own local
ASCII files as backups is desirable). They look up entries across the network from either the
master or slave servers.
NIS servers and clients are different from NFS servers and clients.
• NIS servers provide access to information in NIS maps to NIS clients.

• NFS servers provide access to the server's file systems to NFS clients.
• While some systems may perform multiple NIS and NFS roles, there is no requirement
that the systems be the same.

Module 11
Configuring NIS
11–5. SLIDE: NIS Startup Files
NIS Startup Files
/sbin/init /etc/inittab
/sbin/rc
Start Scripts
Configuration File
/sbin/rc2.d/* /etc/rc.config.d/namesvrs
Run Scripts Sample File

/sbin/init.d/nis.server
/etc/rc.config.d/namesvrs
/sbin/init.d/nis.client NIS_MASTER_SERVER=1 nis_master
NIS_SLAVE_SERVER=0 nis.slave
NIS_CLIENT=1 nis_client
defaults
NIS_DOMAIN= nis domain
YPBIND_OPTIONS=“” ypbind.options
.
.
.
YPSET_ADDR=“” address of nis server
Student Notes
When the system starts to run level 2 or higher, the start scripts (linked scripts) in
/sbin/rc2.d will be executed to start NIS server and NIS client functionality.
The start scripts are linked to the run scripts that reside in /sbin/init.d. These scripts
fetch the configurable parameters from the configuration file
/etc/rc.config.d/namesvrs, but the daemons will only be invoked if the appropriate
variables are set to the correct values.
Master and slave servers use the same technique to access the NIS maps like clients;
therefore, both run scripts are executed when a NIS server system boots.
NIS run scripts are invoked before NFS client and server functionality is started.
The process init controls run levels of an HP-UX system. Its configuration file is
/etc/inittab. The first entry in this file defines the default run level of a system.

Module 11
Configuring NIS
The following table shows you which daemons and commands are invoked by the run scripts:
Table 1
Run Script Daemons Started Comments

nfs.core portmap Only started if not already
running
HP-UX 10.20 and prior releases)
rpcbind
(HP-UX 10.30 and later releases)
nis.server ypserv NIS Server daemon
rpc.yppasswdd Controls password file
ypxfrd Transfers NIS maps
rpc.updated For updating maps
keyserv For secure RPCs
nis.client ypbind For binding to a server
keyserv For secure RPCs

Module 11
Configuring NIS
11–6. SLIDE: NIS Daemons
NIS Daemons
NIS Server NIS Slave NIS Client

ASCII Files
NIS Maps NIS Maps
portmap (HP-UX 10.20 and earlier) portmap (HP-UX 10.20 and earlier) portmap/rpcbind
rpcbind (HP-UX 10.30 and beyond) rpcbind (HP-UX 10.30 and beyond) ypbind
ypserv ypserv keyserv
ypxfrd ypxfrd
rpc.yppasswdd keyserv
rpc.ypupdated ypbind
keyserv
ypbind
Student Notes
Several daemons associated with NIS follow.
NIS Master Server Only

rpc.yppasswdd The NIS passwd daemon (/usr/lib/netsvc/yp/rpc.yppasswdd)
handles all password change requests from the yppasswd and
passwd user commands. It changes passwords in the source file
associated with the password map, rebuilds the map, and transfers it
to all slave servers automatically.
rpc.ypupdated The rpc.ypupdated daemon provides a secure mechanism via

secure RPCs, for updating an NIS map's source file on the NIS master,
and regenerating the appropriate maps. This daemon is part of the
secure RPC programming enhancement.

Module 11
Configuring NIS
NIS Master Server and Slave Servers Only

ypserv The NIS database lookup server (/usr/lib/netsvc/yp/ypserv)
looks up information in the local collection of maps in response to
requests from clients.
ypxfrd A new daemon with HP-UX 10.0, ypxfrd, provides faster transfer of
maps between master and slave servers.
All NIS Servers and All Clients

ypbind The NIS binder (/usr/lib/netsvc/ypbind) remembers
information that lets client processes on the local machine
communicate with ypserv processes.
keyserv keyserv stores the private encryption keys of all users logged into the
system. This daemon is part of the secure RPC programming
enhancement, and is not needed to access NIS maps.
NOTE: portmapper was replaced with rpcbind in release HP-UX 10.30.

Module 11
Configuring NIS
11–7. SLIDE: Configuring NIS Servers and Clients
Configuring NIS Servers and Clients
1.Create an NIS master server.

a. domainname [domain]
b. ypinit -m
(Answer questions.)
c. vi /etc/rc.config.d/namesvrs
(Edit appropriate NIS variables.)
d. shutdown -r
2.Create an NIS slave server (optional).

a. domainname [domain]
b. ypinit -s [master_server]
c. vi /etc/rc.config.d/namesvrs
(Edit appropriate NIS variables.)
d. shutdown -r
3.Create the NIS clients.

a. vi /etc/rc.config.d/namesvrs
b. shutdown -r
Student Notes
Now that you understand the major concepts surrounding NIS, we will show you how to
configure NIS. The major steps are shown on the slide. We will discuss each step individually.
NOTE: When you are creating a slave server, the maps are copied from the master
server. Therefore, you must create the master server first.
Configuring an NIS Master Server

Below are the steps to configure an NIS master server:
1. Add the /var/yp directory to root's PATH variable. It contains the ypmake command to
update maps.
2. Collect the ASCII source files, which are used to build the maps. They should be up to
date.
3. Manually set the domain name.

# domainname research

Module 11
Configuring NIS
4. Build and install databases.

# ypinit -m
---- supply slave server names interactively –---
5. Edit /etc/rc.config.d/namesvrs.
NIS_MASTER_SERVER=1
NIS_CLIENT=1
NIS_DOMAIN=research
6. Reboot.
# shutdown -ry 0
Configuring an NIS Slave Server

After the master server is configured, you can begin configuring the slave server:
1. Manually set the domain name.
# domainname research
2. Copy databases from the master.
# /usr/sbin/ypinit -s master_server
NIS_SLAVE_SERVER=1
NIS_CLIENT=1
NIS_DOMAIN=research
4. Reboot.
shutdown -ry 0
Configuring an NIS Client

The following are the steps to configure an NIS client:
NIS_CLIENT=1
NIS_DOMAIN=research
2. Ensure that at least one server is booted, then reboot your system.
shutdown -ry 0
After configuring the NIS master server, clients and slaves can be configured in any order.

Module 11
Configuring NIS
11–8. SLIDE: Testing NIS
Testing NIS
• Are the server’s daemons running?

# rpcinfo -p servername
• Are the server’s map files configured properly?

# yppoll -h servername -d domain passwd.byname
• What domain am I a member of?

# domainname
• Which server am I bound to?

# ypwhich
• Which users are listed in the passwd map?

# ypcat -k passwd.byname
• Is user1 included in the passwd map?

# ypmatch user1 passwd.byname
Student Notes
After configuring NIS, there are several tools you can use to test your new configuration.
rpcinfo -p servername
First, use the rpcinfo command to verify that your NIS server is running the appropriate
daemons. NIS uses remote procedure calls, just like NFS. The rpcinfo command contacts
the server's portmap/rpcbind daemon and reports the server's registered RPCs. Master
servers should be running ypserv, ypxfrd, yppasswdd, and ypupdated. Slave servers
should be running ypserv and ypxfrd. If any of these daemons is missing, check your
server's configuration!
yppoll -h servername -d domain passwd.byname

Next, use the yppoll command to verify that the server's map files are configured properly.
Use the -h option to specify the hostname of the server you wish to query and the -d option
to identify the domain in which you are interested. If the server daemons are running, and the
server has the map you are searching for, it will return the map's "order number.”

Module 11
Configuring NIS
Each NIS map has an "order number" associated with it. Each time the master server rebuilds
a map, that map's order number is incremented. NIS slave servers use these order numbers to
determine if their local copies of the map files are up to date. If NIS is functioning properly,
the order numbers on the slaves' maps should always match the order numbers on the
master's maps.
domainname
If rpcinfo and yppoll both suggest that your server is functioning properly, you can begin
checking your client configuration. The domainname command will tell you to which
domain your client currently belongs.
ypwhich
The ypwhich command queries the local ypbind daemon to determine to which NIS server
you are currently bound.
ypcat -k passwd.byname
The ypcat command allows a client to dump the contents of an NIS server's maps. The -k
option prepends the key value for each map entry on the beginning of each line.
ypmatch user1 passwd.byname

If you simply want to verify a single entry in an NIS map file, use ypmatch. The first
ypmatch argument specifies the key value for which to search, and the second identifies the
map you wish to search.

Module 11
Configuring NIS
11–9. SLIDE: Changing Passwords on an NIS Node
Changing Passwords on an NIS Node
3 2 1
passwd.byname /etc/passwd
NIS Maps passwd
passwd.byuid
NIS Maps Client
Master Server
$ passwd
1. An NIS user issues the passwd command
Changing passwd for jim
to change his or her password.
Old NIS password: *****
2. The /etc/passwd file on the NIS master New Password: ******
server is updated to reflect the new Retype new password: ******
password.
3. The corresponding NIS maps are regenerated
to reflect the new password.
Student Notes
If a user uses the /usr/bin/passwd command to change passwords, the login ID, old
password, and new password are passed to the rpc.yppasswdd daemon of the NIS master
server. After the old password is verified, rpc.yppasswdd updates the ASCII file and
rebuilds the NIS maps (with ypmake passwd). Finally, the NIS slave servers receive a new
copy of these maps, and the change is complete.
If a user is not administered by NIS (there is a complete local entry without escape character
for this user), his or her password will be changed in the local /etc/passwd.
Prior to HP-UX 10.0, the user had to use the yppasswd command to change his or her
password in an NIS environment. This command is still available, but you no longer need to
use it.

Module 11
Configuring NIS
Resetting Users’ NIS Passwords

Occasionally, users forget their passwords. In a non-NIS environment, the system
administrator can reset users’ forgotten passwords by simply typing the passwd command
with the user’s username as an argument. Resetting user passwords in an NIS environment is
a bit more complicated. The administrator must log in as root on the NIS master server,
change the user’s password in the master’s /etc/passwd file, and update the NIS password
map:
# passwd –r files username

# /var/yp/ypmake passwd

Module 11
Configuring NIS
11–10. SLIDE: Updating and Propagating Maps on the Master

Server
Updating and Propagating Maps on the

Master Server
4 3 2 1 vi /etc/hosts
# /var/yp/ypmake hosts
ypmake hosts
hosts.byname
NIS Maps
hosts.byaddr
/etc/hosts
NIS Maps
Master Server
Slave
1. The system administrator adds a new host # vi /etc/hosts

to the /etc/hosts file. [Modify contents and save]
2. The ypmake hosts command is executed
on the NIS master server. # /var/yp/ypmake hosts
3. The corresponding NIS maps are regenerated

to reflect the new entries.
4. The NIS maps are automatically pushed to

any slave servers (if they exist).
Student Notes
In order to update an NIS map, you must:
1. Modify the ASCII source file on the master server.
2. Rebuild the affected maps on the master server.
3. Push the updated maps out to the slaves.

There are several ways to update maps on the master server. The most straightforward way is
to use the ypmake command. This command will take a source file, create a new map from
it, and then "push" the new map to the slave servers. (It calls yppush to do this. We will talk
about yppush in a moment.)

Module 11
Configuring NIS
Example
# vi /etc/hosts
# /var/yp/ypmake hosts
For NIS domain research:
Building the hosts map(s)... hosts build complete.

Pushing the hosts map(s): hosts.byaddr hosts.byname
ypmake complete: no errors encountered.
Another Example
# vi /etc/hosts
# /var/yp/ypmake
For NIS domain research:
The passwd map(s) are up-to-date.

The group map(s) are up-to-date.
Building the hosts map(s)... hosts build complete.
Pushing the hosts map(s): hosts.byaddr hosts.byname
The networks map(s) are up-to-date.
:
ypmake complete: no errors encountered.
ypmake Syntax
/var/yp/ypmake [DIR=path_to_source] \
[DOM=NIS_domain] \
[NOPUSH=num] \
[PWFILE=passwd_file] [mapname]
The default path_to_source is /etc.
The DOM option lets you specify an NIS domain other than the host's default domain.
When not NULL, NOPUSH inhibits copying the new or updated databases to the slave NIS
servers. (By default, the databases are copied to the slaves.) If you don't push the map
(ypmake NOPUSH=1 mapname), you can do it later with the yppush command.
PWFILE allows the use of a password file other than /etc/passwd.
For more information, see ypmake(1m).

Module 11
Configuring NIS
11–11. SLIDE: Fetching Maps from the Master Server
Fetching Maps from the Master Server
NIS Slave NIS Master

ASCII Files
NIS Maps NIS Maps
• The ypxfr command

- copies an NIS map from the master server to a slave
- must be invoked on the slave server
- transfers the map only if the master copy is more recent than the local copy
• The ypxfr command can be executed

- interactively, running the command on the slave server
- periodically, running the command from cron on each slave server
- periodically, running the yppush command on the master server
(yppush on the master server calls ypxfr on the slave)
Student Notes
When you set up NIS, ypinit copies maps from the master server to the slave servers.
However, if you wish to keep the slave servers up-to-date, you should set up your system to
periodically propagate maps to the slaves. This can be done with ypxfr in one of the
following ways:
1. Periodically run ypxfr via cron on each slave server.
2. Interactively invoke ypxfr on a slave server.

# ypxfr passwd.byuid
ypxfr: map passwd.byuid at psd1 is not more recent than local
3. Periodically invoke yppush from the master server.
The ypxfr command uses the ypxfrd daemon to transfer the maps quickly. If ypxfrd
daemon is not available, the transfer of the maps is done as in previous HP-UX releases.

Module 11
Configuring NIS
Syntax
/usr/sbin/ypxfr [-h server] [-f] [-d domain] mapname
• Running ypxfr via cron allows you to execute ypxfr at different rates for different
maps. For example, you could choose to update the passwd map once an hour and the
protocols map once a day.
The NIS service provides some scripts in the /var/yp directory that help you decide
which maps should be updated hourly or daily. These scripts are called
ypxfr_1perhour Fetches the maps
passwd.byname,passwd.byuid
ypxfr_1perday Fetches the maps
group.bygid, group.byname, networks.byaddr

networks.byname, protocols.byname
protocols.bynumber, rpc.bynumber,
services.byname ypservers, vhe_list
ypxfr_2perday Fetches the maps
ethers.byaddr, hosts.byaddr, hosts.byname

mail.aliases, netgroup
netgroup.byhost, netgroup.byuser
You can use these scripts in conjunction with cron to update your maps. Your crontab
entries could look something like the following:
# At 11:30 am and 11:30 pm daily, transfer ethers, hosts,

# mail.aliases and netgroup maps.
30 11,23 * * * /var/yp/ypxfr_2perday
#
# At 45 minutes past the hour, transfer the passwd maps.
45 * * * * /var/yp/ypxfr_1perhour
• You should only execute ypxfr interactively in exceptional situations. Testing a server
and trying to solve a critical map inconsistency are good reasons. The following are the
most frequently used options:
-h server Allows you to get maps from servers other than the master
server. This may come in handy if you are temporarily using
another system as master or for testing.
-d domain Allows you to copy a map from the domain specified (rather
than the domain returned by domainname).
-f Forces the map to be copied even if its order number at the

remote NIS server is not more recent than the order number of
the local map.

Module 11
Configuring NIS
• You can also update NIS maps by executing yppush on the master server. yppush sends
a transfer map request to each of the slave servers. In turn, ypserv on the server
executes ypxfr -C. The ypserv daemon then passes ypxfr the information needed to
identify and transfer the map. The syntax for yppush is
/usr/sbin/yppush [-d domain] [-v] mapname
For example,
# yppush passwd.byname
For more information, see yppush(1m) and ypxfr(1m).

Module 11
Configuring NIS
11–12. SLIDE: Restricting Access to NIS Clients and Slave

Servers
Restricting Access to NIS Clients and

Slave Servers
/etc/nsswitch.conf /etc/passwd
passwd: files nis root:... Who can log in?
group: files nis user1:...
user2:...
• all users in local passwd file
• all users in NIS passwd map
/etc/nsswitch.conf /etc/passwd
passwd: compat root:... Who can log in?
group: compat user1:...
user2:...
+hubert • all users in local passwd file
+cleo • cleo and hubert from NIS
map
Student Notes
By default, when a user lookup is required, the system initially searches for the username in
the local /etc/passwd file. If the username isn't found in /etc/passwd and NIS is
configured, the system then consults the NIS passwd map. Using this approach, all the users
both in the local password file and in the NIS map have access to all nodes in the NIS
domain.
Many shops prefer to limit access to a given node to a more limited list of users. The
/etc/nsswitch.conf file makes it possible to more narrowly define the concept of if, and
how, a client uses the NIS maps. Each line in /etc/nsswitch.conf contains a type of
lookup often performed by the system (for instance: passwd, group, hosts, and so forth),
followed by a list of sources the system should consult when performing those lookups.
If a host should only use the local password and group files, and ignore the NIS passwd and
group map, you should include the following lines in /etc/nsswitch.conf:
passwd: files
group: files

Module 11
Configuring NIS
If, however, the host should allow all users defined either locally or in the NIS map to login,
include the following two lines in /etc/nsswitch.conf. (Or, simply leave the
nsswitch.conf file empty, as this is the default behavior anyway!)
passwd: files nis

group: files nis
If you want to allow all locally defined users, but only selected users from the NIS map to
access a host, add the following two lines to /etc/nsswitch.conf:
passwd: compat
group: compat
After adding the compat entries, you will need to add escape entries to your /etc/passwd
and /etc/group files to identify which NIS users should have access to the system.
The example below allows all locally defined users to access the system, as well as users
hubert and cleo as defined in the NIS map. Other users defined in the NIS map will not
have access to this system. Note the escape entries identified by the + signs. Allowing
additional NIS users to access the system would simply require the addition of more escape
entries.
root:ms0RtUNJemVSI:0:3::/:/sbin/sh
daemon:*:1:5::/:/sbin/sh
bin:*:2:2::/usr/bin:/sbin/sh
sys:*:3:3::/:
adm:*:4:4::/var/adm:/sbin/sh
uucp:*:5:3::/var/spool/uucppublic:/usr/lbin/uucp/uucico
lp:*:9:7::/var/spool/lp:/sbin/sh
nuucp:*:11:11::/var/spool/uucppublic:/usr/lbin/uucp/uucico
hpdb:*:27:1:ALLBASE:/:/sbin/sh
nobody:*:-2:60001::/:
+hubert
+cleo
Using escape entries in this manner allows the administrator to carefully control which users
are allowed to login to each host in an NIS domain. Your database servers' /etc/passwd
files, for instance, may only contain escape entries for the database administrators. Your
accounting department workstations' /etc/passwd files may only contain escape entries
for the users in the accounting department. Each administrator should carefully consider
which users in the NIS map need access to each machine.
NOTE: The compat entry is mutually exclusive of any other value in the passwd field
of the /etc/nsswitch.conf file.

Module 11
Configuring NIS
We've only discussed the most common nsswitch.conf file possibilities here. The
nsswitch.conf man page discusses the file format in detail. Several sample nsswitch
files may be found in the /etc directory. Type ls /etc/nsswitch.* and copy the version
of the file that best meets your needs to /etc/nsswitch.conf, or simply leave the file
empty or nonexistent if you want to allow all NIS users to log into your NIS client.

Module 11
Configuring NIS
11–13. SLIDE: Restricting Access to the Master Server
Restricting Access to the Master Server
Use an alternate password file as the source for the password

maps and reduce /etc/passwd on the master server.
1. Create an alternate password file as the source for the maps.

2. Reduce the /etc/passwd file and add escape entries.
3. Add passwd:compat and group: compat to
/etc/nsswitch.conf.
4. Modify YPPASSWDD_OPTIONS in /etc/rc.config.d/namesvrs.
5. Stop and start NIS server functionality.
6. Modify the PWFILE variable in /var/yp/ypmake.
7. Modify the PWFILE variable in /var/yp/Makefile.
8. Rebuild and propagate the new password maps.
Student Notes
By default, the master server uses /etc/passwd as the map source file. If all home
directories are available on the master server, all users can log into the master server. If you
want to restrict access to a smaller set of users than defined by the complete /etc/passwd,
perform the following steps on the master server:
1. Create an alternate password file as source for the maps.
# cp /etc/passwd /etc/passwd.nis
2. Reduce /etc/passwd (remove users) and add escape entries.

# vipw
3. NIS will not recognize your escape entries in the /etc/passwd file unless you add the
following lines to your /etc/nsswitch.conf file:
passwd: compat
group: compat

Module 11
Configuring NIS
4. Edit /etc/rc.config.d/namesvrs and modify YPPASSWDD_OPTIONS.

Change
YPPASSWDD_OPTIONS="/etc/passwd -m passwd PWFILE=/etc/passwd"
to
YPPASSWDD_OPTIONS="/etc/passwd.nis -m passwd PWFILE=/etc/passwd.nis"
This tells the yppasswdd daemon to manage /etc/passwd.nis instead of

/etc/passwd. This change becomes active when yppasswdd is restarted.
5. Stop and activate NIS server functionality:

# /sbin/init.d/nis.server stop
# /sbin/init.d/nis.server start
6. Edit /var/yp/ypmake and modify PWFILE. Change the line

PWFILE=${PWFILE:-$DIR/passwd}
to
PWFILE=${PWFILE:-$DIR/passwd.nis}
7. Edit the /var/yp/Makefile and modify PWFILE. Change

PWFILE=$(DIR)/passwd
to
PWFILE=$(DIR)/passwd.nis
8. Rebuild and propagate the new passwd maps.

# /var/yp/ypmake passwd

Module 11
Configuring NIS
11–14. LAB: Configuring NIS
Directions
In this lab exercise, you will work with a team of two to four classmates to configure and test
NIS servers and clients in your own NIS domain. Working with the teammates assigned by
your instructor, decide on a name for your NIS domain.
Domain Name: _________________
Within your domain, you should configure one master server, a slave server, and one or more
clients. Decide among yourselves which machine will be your master server, which will be
the slave, and which will be the client(s):
Master server: _________________
Slave server: _________________
Client(s): _________________
Note that the examples referenced in the instructions that follow refer to a domain called
"california" containing three hosts. Within this sample domain, "sanfran" is the master server,
"oakland" is the slave server, and "la" is a client.
Preliminary Step
Part 1: Configuring an NIS Master Server

The following steps should only be performed on the NIS master server. Do not start
configuring the slave or clients until the master configuration is complete.
1. Ensure that your ASCII source files (/etc/passwd, /etc/group, etc.) are up-to-date.
Although the ASCII files may be changed after configuring NIS, it is much easier to make
changes now. For the sake of this lab exercise, you may assume that your ASCII source
files are already up-to-date.

Module 11
Configuring NIS
2. The script used to configure the NIS master server must know ahead of time the name of
the domain. Do this by setting your server's NIS domain name with the domainname
command:
# domainname california # set your domain name
# domainname # check your domain name
3. Next, run the ypinit -m command to build all the maps for your domain. When asked if
you wish to "quit on non-fatal errors,” answer "n.” ypinit prompts for a list of slave
servers for the domain, then builds all the necessary maps.
# ypinit -m
4. Next, modify the NIS startup configuration file, /etc/rc.config.d/namesvrs.

Enable your machine as an NIS_MASTER_SERVER and define your NIS_DOMAIN. To
ensure consistency across the domain, the master should also be configured as a client.
Enable NIS_CLIENT functionality as well.
5. Reboot to start NIS on the master.
6. When your machine comes back up again, check to see which processes are running.
What NIS-related processes would you expect to see on an NIS master server?

Module 11
Configuring NIS
Part 2: Configuring an NIS Slave Server

Every NIS domain should have at least one NIS slave server to provide service to the clients if
the master becomes unavailable. In subnetted networks, each subnet usually has a separate
NIS slave server.
Do not begin this portion of the lab until the master server is fully configured.
1. Start by setting your domain name as you did on the master.
2. Run the ypinit -s masterserver command, where masterserver is the host

name of your master server. This downloads the NIS maps from the master. When asked
if you wish to quit on non-fatal errors, answer "n."
# ypinit -s sanfran
3. Watch the ypinit messages. What does the ypinit do to configure the slave server?
(Note: disregard the ethers, bootparams, and netmasks errors generated by ypinit.
These maps are not used in HP-UX, but the ypinit utility still attempts to download
them.)
4. ypinit should have copied the NIS maps from the master server, and stored them
under the slave server's /var/yp directory. Do an ls of /var/yp, and find the
subdirectory for your domain. What do you see in your domain’s /var/yp subdirectory?

Module 11
Configuring NIS

Enable your machine as an NIS_SLAVE_SERVER and NIS_CLIENT and define your
DOMAINNAME.
6. Remove all of your users' entries from your local password file, since NIS will now be
providing central administration of your user account information. However, be sure to
leave all accounts with userids below 100 in /etc/passwd. Why might it be important to
leave these userids (especially root.) in place?
7. Reboot.

Module 11
Configuring NIS
Part 3: Configuring NIS Clients

Do not continue on to this step until at least one of your NIS servers has finished booting.
Now configure the remaining hosts in your team as NIS clients.
1. Enable NIS client functionality and define your domain name in the
/etc/rc.config.d/namesvrs config file.
2. As you did with your slave server, remove all user entries from /etc/passwd.
3. Reboot.

Module 11
Configuring NIS
Part 4: Using NIS Maps

After the system finishes booting, try a few tests to see if your NIS configuration was
successful. Since all of your machines in the domain are clients, even the master and slave
can try these exercises.
1. The ypwhich command tells you which server you are bound to. Which server are you
currently bound to?
2. The ypcat command displays the contents of NIS maps. Adding the -k option also
shows the key value associated with each entry in the map files. View the contents your
hosts map by typing:
client# ypcat -k hosts.byname

client# ypcat -k hosts.byaddr
client# ypcat hosts
"hosts" is just an abbreviation for hosts.byaddr. To list the other nicknames

recognized by ypcat, try:
client# ypcat -x
3. You can check the value associated with any key in an NIS map by using the ypmatch
command:
client# ypmatch user1 passwd.byname

client# ypmatch 0 passwd.byuid

Module 11
Configuring NIS
4. Do the standard UNIX utilities use the NIS? To find out, try logging in as user1. Note that
user1 no longer exists in the slave or clients' local password files. Why does this login
succeed?
5. Try another system utility. Use nslookup to determine which IP address is associated
with your neighbor's host name. Does nslookup appear to use NIS? How can you tell?

Module 11
Configuring NIS
Part 5: Updating NIS Maps

1. Start with an easy NIS update. Log in as user1 on the client and type passwd to change
user1's password.
2. Is the password change reflected in the password map on the master, the slave, or both?
Use the yppoll command to check the order number on the master and the slave
servers:
# yppoll -h slave passwd.byname

# yppoll -h master passwd.byname
# yppoll -h slave passwd.byuid
# yppoll -h master passwd.byuid
Are the order numbers the same?
3. Try another change on the client. Create a user account in the /etc/passwd file on the
client, then ypcat the passwd map again. Does ypcat show the new account? Explain.
client# useradd donald

client# ypcat passwd
4. What happens if you make your changes to /etc/passwd on the master server instead
of the client? Try it. Add user donald to the master server's passwd file. Then ypcat
the passwd map and explain the result.
master# useradd donald

master# ypcat passwd

Module 11
Configuring NIS
5. On the master, do whatever is necessary to rebuild the passwd map and propagate the
updates to the slave server. Use ypcat to ensure this worked properly.
6. What happens if an NIS slave is down when the master attempts to push an update? Try it
and find out.
− Stop CDE.
− Shutdown the LAN card on the slave.
− Add user pluto to the master's /etc/passwd file.
− ypmake the passwd map on the master. (Be patient.)
Did ypmake warn you that the slave was down?
7. Bring the slave's LAN card back up again, then do whatever is necessary on the slave to
update the maps. Note: ypxfr does not recognize the NIS nicknames.
8. Is any harm done if you ypxfr a map that is already up-to-date? Try it. From the slave,
try another ypxfr on passwd. What happens? Why might this behavior be
advantageous?

Module 11
Configuring NIS
Part 6: Securing Clients and Slave Servers with Password/Group

Escape Entries
Currently, anyone listed in the NIS passwd map can log onto your NIS client. Your goal in this
exercise is to modify your client configuration so only user1-user3 are allowed to log in (as
well as root, of course).
1. Start out by adding the escape entries to the client's /etc/passwd file that would allow
user1-user3, but no other NIS map users, to successfully log in.
2. Did your escape entry have the desired effect? Can your client su to user1's account? Can
your client su to user6's account? Why can user6 still log in?
3. Create a new /etc/nsswitch.conf file for yourself with the entries required to
recognize escape characters in /etc/passwd and /etc/group.
4. Try logging in with the user1 and user6 usernames again. What happens now?

Module 11
Configuring NIS
Part 7: (Optional) Securing the NIS Master Server

The escape entries you used in the previous part of the exercise provide a convenient
mechanism for restricting access to NIS clients and slaves. However, some special NIS
configuration changes are required if you wish to restrict access to the master server.
1. Why can't you restrict access to the master server by simply deleting all the user lines
from /etc/passwd, so only the root and basic system userids remain?
2. Follow the steps suggested in the notes to restrict access to the master server so only
root can log in.
3. Try logging into your master server as user3. This should fail.

Module 11
Configuring NIS
Part 8: (Optional) When Things Go Wrong . . .

2. What happens if the NIS master server is unreachable for a period? Take down the LAN
card on your master server.
3. Can clients still access the maps? From the client, ypcat passwd and explain the result.
(Be patient.)
4. Can changes be made to the maps while the server is down? Log in as user1 on the client
and try changing the password with passwd. What happens? (Be patient.)
5. Now take down the slave’s LAN card, too.

Module 11
Configuring NIS
6. Try a ypcat on passwd. What happens? (Be patient. Once you see a few error messages,
press return to get back to a prompt.)
7. Bring the LAN cards on both servers back up again.

Module 11
Configuring NIS
Part 9: (Optional) Troubleshooting NIS

You have seen what happens when a client is no longer able to communicate with the NIS
servers. What can you do to troubleshoot the problem?
1. What NIS-related process(es) must be running on the client? Do a ps -ef to ensure that
the necessary processes are actually running.
2. See if your client can still access the NIS maps. Try a ypcat passwd and see what
happens (be patient).
When an NIS server goes down, the client's first access may eventually time out and
generate an error. However, ypbind immediately attempts to bind to another NIS server
on the subnet. Try another ypcat passwd and see what happens. Did the ypcat
succeed this time?
3. There are a number of RPC daemons that must be running on an NIS server in order for
clients to be able to access the NIS maps. How can the client see if these RPCs are
registered and available?
Part 10: Cleanup

in before this lab.

Module 11
Configuring NIS

Objectives
• Compare and contrast the three approaches to host name resolution:
− /etc/hosts
− NIS
− DNS/BIND
• Configure a primary DNS server using the hosts_to_named command.
• Configure a secondary name server.
• Configure a cache-only name server.
• Configure a resolver-only host.
• Configure the /etc/nsswitch.conf file.
• Add or remove a host in the DNS database, using the hosts_to_named command.
• Troubleshoot DNS using nslookup and nsquery.
• Describe the purpose and format of the following configuration files:
− /etc/rc.config.d/namesvrs
− /etc/named.conf
− /etc/resolv.conf

Module 12
Configuring DNS
12–1. SLIDE: Resolving Host Names to IP Addresses
Resolving Host Names to IP Addresses
DNS/BIND
Name Resolution
Possibilities
/etc/hosts NIS/NIS+
Student Notes
Every packet that is sent across an IP network must contain a destination IP address.
However, users often prefer to identify destination hosts by hostname rather than IP address,
because IP addresses are difficult to remember. Most applications allow users to enter
destinations as hostnames, then automatically translate those hostnames to IP addresses
using the gethostbyname() resolver library function.
Many applications use a related function called gethostbyaddr() to translate IP addresses

back into hostnames. For instance, when the NFS mount daemon receives a mount request
from a client, the daemon must determine which client initiated the request. rpc.mountd
checks the source IP address included in the incoming packet, converts it to a hostname via
the gethostbyaddr() function and then verifies that the resulting hostname is included in
the export list for the requested file system.
The resolver routines may use several different mechanisms to resolve hostnames and IP
addresses. Each method is described briefly below.
/etc/hosts

Module 12
Configuring DNS
When the Internet was small, hostname resolution was handled exclusively via the
/etc/hosts file. Each entry in the /etc/hosts file has an IP address followed by the
hostname associated with that IP address. As networks grew larger and more geographically
disbursed, it became increasingly difficult to maintain consistent, updated hosts files across
all systems on the Internet. A more scalable solution was needed!
NIS
The Network Information Service simplifies host file maintenance by requiring all hosts on a
subnet to query a central NIS server for hostname lookups. Thus, using NIS, the
administrator needs only to manage one central hosts map instead of hundreds of
/etc/hosts files on individual hosts. Unfortunately, NIS does not scale well. The NIS hosts
map becomes increasingly unwieldy when it grows beyond a few hundred hostnames.
DNS/BIND
As the number of hosts on the Internet grew into the tens of thousands, a more flexible, more
scalable solution was required. The Domain Name Service (DNS) makes it possible to
manage millions of hostnames and IP addresses efficiently, and has become the primary
name resolution mechanism used on the Internet today.
There have been several implementations of DNS over the years. UNIX systems typically use
the Berkeley Internet Name Domain (BIND) implementation that was developed at UC
Berkeley. Microsoft systems use a different DNS implementation. Fortunately, both DNS
implementations use the same protocols for exchanging DNS information.
BIND has gone through many revisions over the years. Since many of these updates include
patches to security vulnerabilities, it is important to update BIND as new versions become
available. The BIND version number is included in the header information at the top of the
/usr/sbin/named executable. Use the what command to extract this version information:
# what /usr/sbin/named
The latest HP-supported version of BIND is usually available on the

http://software.hp.com website. The HP-supported version of BIND usually lags
slightly behind the most current version of BIND. You can download and compile the latest
version of BIND source code yourself from http://www.isc.org/.
The examples in this workbook were taken from a system running BIND 8.1.2.

Module 12
Configuring DNS
12–2. SLIDE: DNS Overview
DNS Overview
Hierarchical
Name Space
DNS
Components
Name
Servers Resolvers
Student Notes
There are several important components in the DNS/BIND architecture:
• DNS uses a "Hierarchical Name Space" to group related hosts together into DNS
"domains" in much the same way that UNIX uses a hierarchical file system structure to
group related files together into directories. Using a hierarchical name space makes it
possible to delegate responsibility for portions of the name space to other entities. For
instance, Hewlett Packard has been delegated responsibility for all hostnames ending in
hp.com .
• DNS name servers are specially configured hosts on the Internet that are able to resolve
hostnames to IP addresses for other client hosts. There are thousands of DNS name
servers on the Internet today, each of which is responsible for a small portion of the
overall DNS name space.

Module 12
Configuring DNS
• Hosts on the Internet use DNS "Resolver Libraries" to send hostname and IP lookup
queries to DNS name servers. Any time a user uses telnet, ftp, or another network
service to access other hosts by hostname, the application uses the gethostbyname()
and gethostbyaddr() resolver library routines to send a query to a hostname
resolution service. The HP-UX resolver routines are able to do lookups using the
/etc/hosts file, NIS, or DNS. You can choose which lookup service or services you
want your resolver to use for hostname resolution.
Each of these components will be discussed in detail later in the module.

Module 12
Configuring DNS
12–3. SLIDE: The DNS Hierarchical Name Space
The DNS Hierarchical Name Space
edu com gov
Domains
sun hp ibm
il ca ny
chicago sanfran nyc
Hosts peoria oakland albany
rockford la buffalo
Student Notes
The traditional /etc/hosts file name resolution mechanism used a "flat" name space; all
hostnames were defined in a single monolithic /etc/hosts file that had to be updated
anytime a hostname anywhere on the Internet changed.
DNS was designed to be a distributed name resolution service. Responsibility for resolving
hostnames is delegated among thousands of DNS name servers on the Internet. Each of these
name servers is granted authority over a small portion of the hostnames in the overall name
space. This distributed approach greatly simplifies hostname allocation and management.
The DNS hierarchical name space makes it possible to distribute responsibility for the name
space among thousands of name servers by forming logical groupings of hosts called DNS
domains. By checking a host's domain name, it is possible to determine which name server is
responsible for resolving that host's hostname to an associated IP address. For instance, the
name servers for the hp.com domain are responsible for resolving all hostnames ending in
hp.com. The name servers for the ibm.com domain are responsible for resolving all host
names ending in ibm.com.

Module 12
Configuring DNS
All hosts on the Internet ultimately belong to the root (.) level domain at the top of the
hierarchy. The root domain is subdivided into several hundred somewhat smaller domains.
Perhaps the best known of these "top-level" domains are com (for commercial entities), gov
(for U.S. government entities), edu (for educational institutions), and org (for
non-commercial organizations).
Each of these top-level domains is further subdivided into smaller domains. hp.com, for
instance, is a member of the com domain. Many of these domains are subdivided still further.
The example on the slide lists several theoretical regional subdomains under hp.com:
ca.hp.com (for California HP hosts), il.hp.com (for Illinois hosts), and ny.hp.com (for
New York HP hosts). Each organization may choose to subdivide their DNS domain
somewhat differently.
Hostnames in the overall DNS name space may be written in one of several different ways.
Oftentimes, we identify hosts via their relative, or unqualified, hostnames (for example,
sanfran, oakland, or la). In order to unambiguously identify a host on the Internet,
though, you should get in the habit of using absolute, or "Fully Qualified Domain Names"
(FQDNs) that specify a hostname and the DNS domain that the host belongs to (for example,
sanfran.ca.hp.com.). Officially, FQDNs always end with a dot representing the root
level domain.

Module 12
Configuring DNS
12–4. SLIDE: Public and Private Name Spaces
Public and Private Name Spaces
. .
edu com gov com
sun hp ibm hp
il ca ny il ca ny
chicago sanfran nyc chicago sanfran nyc

peoria oakland albany peoria oakland albany
rockford la buffalo rockford la buffalo
Public Name Space Private Name Space

• Domain Names registered with ICANN • No need to register a domain name
• ICANN administers top-level name servers • You administer all name servers
• Required for hosts connected to Internet • Only possible on isolated networks
Student Notes
There are two different types of DNS domains. The type of network to which your host is
connected will determine how you go about obtaining a domain name for your organization.
The Public Name Space

If your host has a direct connection to the Internet, your host will be part of the DNS Public
Name Space. In this case, you must officially register a unique domain name for your
organization through one of the accredited domain registrars that is licensed by the Internet
Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN). To search the list of accredited
registrars, follow the Accredited Registrar link on the http://www.icann.org web page,
or simply ask your ISP to obtain a DNS domain name for you.
When you register your domain, you will be required to provide the IP addresses of one or
more DNS name servers that will be authoritative for your domain. When other hosts on the
Internet wish to contact hosts in your domain, their hostname resolution requests will be
forwarded to one of your authoritative name servers.

Module 12
Configuring DNS
After your domain is registered, you can assign hostnames and create subdomains within
your domain as you wish. Since you are the delegate authority for your domain, changes
within your domain should be recorded on your authoritative name servers, but need not be
recorded with ICANN.
If your organization already has a registered DNS domain name, you should contact your IT
department to request a delegated subdomain or hostname.
Private Name Spaces

If you manage an isolated network that is not connected to the public Internet, then you may
choose to configure a "private" name space. On a private network, you can freely assign
hostnames and subdomains however you wish. To facilitate future connections to the public
Internet, it is better to apply for an official domain name and follow the DNS naming
conventions, even if you do not intend to join the public name space immediately.
In the private name space example on the slide, the private "." domain has only one
subdomain: com. The private com subdomain has only one subdomain: hp. The administrator
responsible for this network would have to configure a name server for both of these private,
upper-level domains, as well as the hp.com domain and its delegated subdomains. A single
name server could be configured to manage all three of these domains.

Module 12
Configuring DNS
12–5. SLIDE: in-addr.arpa Name Space
in-addr.arpa Name Space
arpa com
in-addr hp
1 128 254 ca
0 1 255 sanfran 128.1.1.1
oakland 128.1.1.2
0 1 255
la 128.1.1.3
1 2 3
sanfran oakland la
sanfran.ca.hp.com = 1.1.1.128.in-addr.arpa.
Student Notes
The primary purpose of the DNS name space is to map host names to IP addresses. However,
there are situations where applications may request a reverse lookup; given an IP address, a
name server may be asked to find the associated hostname. The in-addr.arpa portion of
the DNS name space makes this reverse resolution possible.
Every IP address may be represented as a leaf in the in-addr.arpa DNS domain. To

convert an IP address to its in-addr.arpa equivalent, simply reverse the order of the IP
octets, and append the in-addr.arpa domain name. The table below shows several
examples:
128.1.1.1 = 1.1.1.128.in-addr.arpa. (sanfran)

128.1.1.2 = 2.1.1.128.in-addr.arpa. (oakland)
128.1.1.3 = 3.1.1.128.in-addr.arpa. (la)

Module 12
Configuring DNS
Each DNS name server is responsible for a small portion of the in-addr.arpa domain. If,
for instance, all hosts in the ca.hp.com domain had IP addresses on the 128.1.1 subnet,
then the ca.hp.com name server would also be responsible for the
1.1.128.in-addr.arpa portion of the in-addr.arpa domain.
Name servers for domains that span multiple subnets may be responsible for multiple
subdomains under in-addr.arpa.

Module 12
Configuring DNS
12–6. SLIDE: DNS Name Servers
DNS Name Servers
I'm the authoritative ca.hp.com NS

source for all queries
ca.hp.com Resolver Records
about ca.hp.com!
sanfran.ca.hp.com = 1.1.1.128.in-addr.arpa
oakland.ca.hp.com = 2.1.1.128.in-addr.arpa
la.ca.hp.com = 3.1.1.128.in-addr.arpa
We send all of our

name resolution
requests to our local
name server!
sanfran oakland la
Student Notes
Hosts on the Internet, which have the ability to resolve DNS hostnames to IP addresses and
IP addresses to hostnames, are called DNS "Name Servers.” DNS clients send their hostname
and IP lookup requests to DNS name servers. In some cases, the name server may already
know the hostname or IP address that a client has requested in its DNS Resolver Record
database. In other cases, however, a name server may need to query other name servers to
find the information it needs to answer a client's query.
The BIND implementation of DNS uses a daemon called named to provide name service for
DNS clients.

Module 12
Configuring DNS
12–7. SLIDE: DNS Name Server Zones
DNS Name Server Zones
.
com. edu . gov .
hp.com Zone
hp.
corp. ca . az .il . ga .wa .

ny tx. nc . .
Delegated Subdomains
hp.com domain
Student Notes
Every DNS name server maintains a database of DNS "Resolver Records" that fully describes
a portion of the DNS name space. The portion of the name space for which a name server has
a full set of resolver records is known as the server's "Zone.”
In some cases, a name server's zone may include all of the hosts in a single domain. For
instance, if the hp.com domain had a single name server, then all hosts in the hp.com
domain would also be included in the hp.com zone of authority.
Oftentimes, though, a name server may delegate responsibility for a portion of its domain to
other name servers. In the example on the slide, the ca.hp.com is a delegated subdomain
with its own DNS name server. Since the hp.com name server has delegated responsibility
for California to another name server, the ca.hp.com subdomain is excluded from the
hp.com name server's zone of authority. il.hp.com, ga.hp.com, ny.hp.com, and
tx.hp.com are similarly excluded from the hp.com name server's zone of authority.
az.hp.com, wa.hp.com, and nc.hp.com are non-delegated subdomains that do not have
their own name servers. Instead, the hp.com name server includes these subdomains in its
zone of authority.

Module 12
Configuring DNS
In summary, each name server is able provide the following authoritative information:
• The name server's own hostname and IP address
• The hostnames and IP addresses of all hosts within the name server's zone of authority
• The IP addresses of the name server's delegated subdomain name servers

Module 12
Configuring DNS
12–8. SLIDE: Resolving Host Names in the Local Domain
Resolving Host Names in the Local

Domain
la.ca.hp.com?
la = 128.1.1.3
oakland.ca.hp.com ca.hp.com NS
# telnet la.ca.hp.com sanfran 128.1.1.1
oakland 128.1.1.2
la 128.1.1.3
Student Notes
Each time you invoke an application and specify a target host by name, the application uses
the gethostbyname() system to resolve that hostname to an IP address. The resolver must
perform several tasks for the application:
• First, the resolver must determine if the local node is using DNS, NIS, or /etc/hosts.
Our example here will assume that DNS is the client's preferred name resolution
mechanism. The /etc/nsswitch.conf file determines which lookup source the client
uses. It will be discussed later in this chapter.
• If DNS is the preferred hostname resolution mechanism, and the user provided an
unqualified hostname, the resolver builds a search list of possible fully qualified
hostnames that the user may be attempting to resolve. For instance, if the user types
"telnet la,” the resolver routine must guess which domain host la might be in. The
resolver builds a list of possible fully qualified hostnames using the domain search list
specified in the client's /etc/resolv.conf file.

Module 12
Configuring DNS
If the client's search list included ca.hp.com, il.hp.com, and hp.com, the resulting
list of possible fully qualified hostnames might look something like this:
la.ca.hp.com
la.il.hp.com
la.hp.com
If the user provides a fully qualified host name (with a dot “.” at the end), the resolver
routine simply attempts to resolve that hostname without consulting the domain search
list. /etc/resolv.conf is described in detail later in this chapter.
• Finally, the resolver queries the local name server to determine if any of the hostnames
generated in the previous step can be successfully resolved into an IP address. The
/etc/resolv.conf file may specify up to three name servers. If the first name server
fails to respond within 75 seconds, the resolver tries the second name server, and
eventually the third. If DNS is unconfigured, or if the name servers fail to respond, the
resolver may automatically resort to using NIS or the local /etc/hosts file, depending
on the "switch" mechanism defined in /etc/nsswitch.conf. This switch mechanism is
described in detail later in this chapter.

Module 12
Configuring DNS
12–9. SLIDE: Resolving Host Names in Other Domains
Resolving Host Names in Other Domains
atlanta.ga.hp.com?
go to com. NS! . NS
atlanta.ga.hp.com?
oakland ca.hp.com NS com. NS
go to hp.com. NS!
atlanta.ga.hp.com?
128.1.3.1
atlanta.ga.hp.com? hp.com. NS
go to ga.hp.com. NS!
atlanta.ga.hp.com?
atlanta = 128.1.3.1
oakland# telnet atlanta.ga.hp.com ga.hp.com. NS
Student Notes
When accessing hostnames in other domains, the DNS client still sends the lookup request to
the local DNS name server. If a name server receives a query regarding a hostname that is not
included in the name server's own local zone data, the name server automatically performs a
recursive search for the hostname in other domains.
The sequence of events that occur when performing the recursive search are described
below:
1. The root server is queried. It provides the best answer it can: the address of the name
server closest to the destination.
2. The local DNS server then queries the name server suggested by the root-level server,
which responds with a referral to another server. After following several such referrals,
the local name server will eventually reach the name server whose zone of authority
includes the requested hostname. The answer provided by this server is said to be an
authoritative answer. The local DNS name server caches the addresses of all the name
servers, as well as the final answer.

Module 12
Configuring DNS
3. If another client queries the local name server regarding the same hostname, the local
DNS server responds immediately with the cached data. Since this cached information
may be outdated, this is said to be a "non-authoritative" answer. Servers flush their
cached records on a regular (configurable) basis.
Notice a DNS name server initially knows only the hostnames and IP addresses of the hosts
within its own zone of authority, and the IP addresses of the root level name servers. A name
server does not initially know the addresses of its sibling name servers in other portions of
the domain. However, as the name server's cache builds over time, the name server will be
able to answer more and more queries non-recursively using information stored in cache.
Example on Slide
In the example on the slide, client oakland requests atlanta.ga.hp.com's IP address
from the ca.hp.com name server.
Since the local DNS name server for the ca.hp.com domain does not know atlanta's IP
address, it queries the root level name server (.). The root name server suggests a query to
the com name server, which suggests a query to the hp.com name server, which suggests a
query to the ga.hp.com name server. Finally, ga.hp.com responds with an authoritative
answer, which the ca.hp.com name server relays back to oakland.
In the meantime, the ca.hp.com name server caches all of this information for future
queries.

Module 12
Configuring DNS
12–10. SLIDE: Configuring a Master Server
Configuring a Master Server
1. Notify ICANN of your new subdomain.

2. Fully qualify host names in /etc/hosts.
3. Create a directory for the DNS database files.
4. Create a param file for hosts_to_named.
5. Create the DNS data and boot files with hosts_to_named.
6. Download a db.cache file.
7. Modify /etc/rc.config.d/namesvrs.
8. Start the named daemon.
9. Configure DNS client functionality on the master server.
I'm the master authoritative source for the domain.

Record all new hostnames with me!
db.* files
Student Notes
Every DNS zone must have one "Master Server" (also known as the "Primary Name Server").
The master server is the authoritative source for information about hosts in the zone. Any
hostnames that are added to the domain must be added to the master server's zone database
files, and any hosts that are removed from the domain must be removed from the master's
zone database files. The master server can also delegate responsibility for subdomains to
other name servers.
Configuring the Master Server

The step-by-step procedure for configuring a master server is shown below. The notes
assume that sanfran is being configured as a master server for the domain ca.hp.com.
1. Register your domain name. In order for others on the Internet to resolve the names of
hosts in your domain, you must officially register your domain name. Go to the
http://www.icann.org website for a list of officially accredited domain registrars. If
you are creating a subdomain in a domain already established by your company, you may
have to deal with your internal IT department instead. In either case, you will probably
need to provide a contact name for your subdomain, your subdomain name, and the name
and address of your master server.

Module 12
Configuring DNS
2. Fully qualify host names in /etc/hosts. The hosts_to_named utility provided with
HP-UX can create the DNS data files on your master server using the information already
in your /etc/hosts file. In order for this to work though, all of the entries in your
hosts file need to be converted to fully qualified host names. The old host names can be
used as aliases. If you wish, you can delete lines in the /etc/hosts file that refer to
domains for which your name server is not responsible. (Note, however, that the
localhost entry must remain.) The example below shows the changes that would be
required on sanfran:
# vi /etc/hosts
127.0.0.1 localhost
128.1.1.1 sanfran.ca.hp.com sanfran
128.1.1.2 oakland.ca.hp.com oakland
128.1.1.3 la.ca.hp.com la
3. Create a directory for the DNS database files. The hosts_to_named program will create
several DNS data files. These data files are typically stored in a directory called
/etc/named.data. Create the /etc/named.data directory manually with mkdir.
# mkdir /etc/named.data
# chmod 755 /etc/named.data
# cd /etc/named.data
4. Create a param file for hosts_to_named.
The hosts_to_named utility is a powerful tool for building DNS database.
hosts_to_named looks for a param file to determine which domains your name server
will serve.
− Include a -d entry for each domain for which this name server will be responsible.
Since some name servers serve multiple domains, you may have multiple -d entries.
− Include a -n entry for each (sub)net included in this domain. Since many domains
include hosts on several subnets, you may have multiple -n entries.
− The -b option determines where your DNS boot configuration file will be stored.
/etc/named.conf is the standard location.
− The next slide will discuss "Secondary Servers,” which serve as backups for the
master server. The secondary (or slave) servers will need to download a configuration
file containing the IP address of the master server and other information about the
domain. The -z option in the param file creates this configuration file for the slave
servers.
− Other options may be specified in this file as well. See the hosts_to_named man
page for details.
The param file for the sanfran name server looks like this:
# vi param
-d ca.hp.com # Use your domain name(s) here
-n 128.1.1 # Use your subnet address(es) here
-z 128.1.1.1 # Use your master server's IP here
-b /etc/named.conf

Module 12
Configuring DNS
5. Create the DNS data and boot files with hosts_to_named. The hosts_to_named
utility automatically creates all the DNS data files needed to resolve host names and IP
addresses in your domain using your /etc/hosts file, and the options defined in your
param file.
# hosts_to_named -f param
Translating /etc/hosts to lower case ...
Collecting network data ...
128.1
Creating list of multi-homed hosts ...
Creating "A" data (name to address mapping) for net 128.1.1 ...
Creating "PTR" data (address to name mapping) for net 128.1.1 ...
Creating "MX" (mail exchanger) data ...
Building default named.boot file ...
Building default db.cache file ...
WARNING: db.cache must be filled in with

the name(s) and address(es) of the
rootserver(s)
Building default boot.sec.save for secondary servers ...

Building default boot.sec for secondary servers ...
Building default boot.cacheonly for caching only servers ...
done
6. The hosts_to_named utility creates all of the necessary DNS database files except one.
You must manually populate the db.cache file with the addresses of the root-level name
servers. You can ftp a file containing the current root server list from
ftp://ftp.rs.internic.net/domain/root.zone. Since the list of root servers
changes from time to time, you will need to download updates on a monthly basis.
7. For the exercises that we do in class, we will download this file from the instructor
station, rather than the internic.
# ftp 128.1.0.1
> get /etc/named.data/db.cache
> quit
8. Modify /etc/rc.config.d/namesvrs. In order to ensure that the name server

daemon, named, starts during the boot process, set the NAMED variable in the
/etc/rc.config.d/namesvrs configuration file to "1".
# vi /etc/rc.config.d/namesvrs
NAMED=1
NAMED_ARGS=""
9. Start the named daemon. A reboot is not required.
# /sbin/init.d/named start
10. Configure DNS client functionality on the master server. Most DNS servers are also DNS
clients. DNS client configuration is covered later in this chapter.

Module 12
Configuring DNS
12–11. SLIDE: Configuring a Slave Server
Configuring a Slave Server
1. Create a directory for the DNS data files.

2. ftp copies the db.cache and db.127.0.0 files from the master.
3. Create the /etc/named.conf file.
6. Configure DNS client functionality on the slave server.
I regularly download all the domain database files

from the master so I can be an authoritative
source for the domain, too!
db.* files
Student Notes
Most domains have one or more slave servers (also called "secondary" name servers) in
addition to the domain master server. At boot time and at regular intervals thereafter, the
slave servers do a "zone transfer" to download copies of the zone database files from the
master server. Some slave servers store the zone data in data files on disk, while other simply
retain the downloaded data in memory.
Slave servers serve two purposes. First, slave servers provide a backup name server source if
the master server becomes unavailable. Second, slave servers reduce the load on the master
by handling some queries from clients' resolvers.
Configuring a Slave Server

To create a slave server perform the following steps: (the steps below would be used to
configure a slave server for the ca.hp.com domain, if sanfran.ca.hp.com is the master
server for the domain)
1. On the slave server, create a separate directory for the database and configuration files.
Most slave servers store local copies of the domain's DNS database files in the
/etc/named.data directory.

Module 12
Configuring DNS
2. ftp copies the db.cache and db.127.0.0 from the master. The slave server will copy
the remaining db.* files (if needed) over, when the named daemon is first initialized and
spawned.
# ftp 128.1.1.1
> get /etc/named.data/db.127.0.0
There are two different types of slave servers. Some slave servers store copies of the
master's database files on disk. Other slave servers simply copy the master's database
information directly into cache at boot time. The first approach allows the slave server to
answer clients' queries even if the master server is unreachable when the slave server
boots. The second approach saves some disk space.
3. Create the /etc/named.conf file. The named daemon determines where its DNS
database files are stored by consulting the /etc/named.conf file at startup. Running
hosts_to_named on the master server automatically creates a boot file for the slave
servers. ftp the boot file from the master server, then move it to its proper location on
the slave. You can download an appropriate file from the master server.
# ftp 128.1.1.1 # Use your master server's IP here

> get /etc/named.data/conf.sec.save
> quit
# mv /etc/named.data/conf.sec.save /etc/named.conf
If you do not want to maintain disk-based copies of the DNS database files on your slave
server, then download and install the /etc/named.data/conf.sec file instead.
NAMED=1
NAMED_ARGS=""
5. Start the named daemon. A reboot is not necessary.
6. Configure DNS client functionality on the slave server. Most DNS servers are also DNS
clients. DNS client configuration is covered later in this chapter.

Module 12
Configuring DNS
12–12. SLIDE: Configuring a Cache-Only Name Server
Configuring a Cache-Only Name Server
1. Create a directory for the DNS data files.

2. ftp copies of the db.cache and db.127.0.0 files from the master.
3. Create the /etc/named.conf file.
6. Configure DNS client functionality on the cache-only server.
I don't download anything from the master server. I just

do recursive queries for my clients and cache the results!
Student Notes
Master and slave servers both maintain authoritative database records for one or more
domains. A cache-only name server does not maintain authoritative information for any
domains (except 127.0.0.1). Any time a cache-only server receives a query regarding a new
hostname, it must do a recursive query to find the desired information. However, every
lookup on behalf of a client adds another entry to the server's cache. Over time, as the cache
grows, fewer and fewer client requests result in recursive queries.
Some administrators configure a cache-only server on each subnet to minimize network

traffic across firewalls and routers, yet without the hassle of managing dozens of full-fledged
slave servers.
Configuring a Cache-Only Server

To create a cache-only server, perform the following steps: (the steps below would be used to
configure a slave server for the ca.hp.com domain, if sanfran.ca.hp.com is the master
server for the domain)

Module 12
Configuring DNS
1. On the cache-only server, create a separate directory for the database and configuration
files. Most slave servers store local copies of the domain's DNS database files in the
/etc/named.data directory.
2. ftp copies of the db.cache and db.127.0.0 files from the master. The cache-only
server only needs to be able to resolve the loopback address and find the root-level
name servers. Cache-only servers do not need copies of all of the other db.* files

> quit
3. Create the /etc/named.conf file. The named daemon determines where its DNS
database files are stored by consulting the /etc/named.conf file at startup. Running
hosts_to_named on the master server automatically creates a boot file for the slave
servers. ftp the boot file from the master server, then move it to its proper location on
the slave. You can download an appropriate file from the master server.

> get /etc/named.data/conf.cacheonly
> quit
# mv /etc/named.data/conf.cacheonly /etc/named.conf
NAMED=1
NAMED_ARGS=""
6. Configure DNS client functionality on the cache-only server. Most DNS servers are also
DNS clients. DNS client configuration is covered later in this chapter.

Module 12
Configuring DNS
12–13. SLIDE: Testing Name Servers with nslookup
Testing Name Servers with nslookup
# nslookup
> server 128.1.1.1 # Choose a name server
> oakland.ca.hp.com # Resolve a hostname to an IP
> 128.1.1.2 # Resolve an IP to a hostname
> exit
Name Server: sanfran.ca.hp.com

Address: 128.1.1.1
Trying DNS
Name: oakland.ca.hp.com
Address: 128.1.1.2
Student Notes
You can ensure that your DNS name servers are functioning properly using the nslookup
command. If your host has already been configured with DNS client functionality, simply
type:
# nslookup corp.hp.com (simple host name lookup)

# nslookup 128.1.0.1 (simple IP address lookup)
nslookup uses your default name server as configured in /etc/resolv.conf and

responds back with the IP or host name you requested.
Alternately, if you haven't yet configured DNS client functionality, or if you wish to override
the default name server listed in /etc/resolv.conf, you may wish to run nslookup
interactively:
# nslookup
> server 128.1.1.1 (try some lookups using the master server)
> corp.hp.com
> 128.1.0.1
> server 128.1.1.2 (now test the slave server, too)
> corp.hp.com

Module 12
Configuring DNS
> 128.1.0.1
> exit
There are many other commands available within nslookup for troubleshooting your DNS
name servers. At the ">" prompt, you can enter a "?" for a list of available tools within
nslookup.
Question
You may notice that nslookup sometimes returns a "Non-authoritative answer.”
In fact, if you look up the same host name twice, you may notice that only the second
response from nslookup is marked as "Non-authoritative.” Can you guess why?

Module 12
Configuring DNS
12–14. SLIDE: Configuring DNS Clients
Configuring DNS Clients
1. Create /etc/resolv.conf
search ca.hp.com hp.com
nameserver 128.1.1.1
nameserver 128.1.1.2
2. Modify /etc/nsswitch.conf
hosts: dns nis files
3. Modify /etc/hosts
127.0.0.1 localhost
4. Modify ~/.rhosts, /etc/hosts.equiv, and other files

la user1
la.ca.hp.com user1
Student Notes
All hosts within a DNS domain, including the master and slave servers, should be configured
as DNS clients. Configuring a host as a DNS client ensures that the host's resolver routines
resolve host names and IPs using a designated DNS name server rather than the local hosts
file. The steps required to configure a host as a DNS client are described below.
1. Modify the resolver configuration file. The configuration file for the system host name
resolver routines is called /etc/resolv.conf. The resolv.conf file has two
important components:
a. Creating a resolv.conf "search" list
The search keyword in /etc/resolv.conf defines a list of domains the resolver

should search when resolving host names. At the very least, you should list your own
host's domain immediately after the keyword "search.” For added flexibility, you
should also list other domains.
Including other domains in the search list saves your users the hassle of fully
qualifying host names for machines in the listed domains. For example, since the
resolv.conf file shown below includes ca.hp.com in the search list, users could
telnet to sanfran by simply typing telnet sanfran. Accessing atlanta,

Module 12
Configuring DNS
however, would require a fully qualified host name, since ga.hp.com is not included
in the search list. Include your users' most frequently referenced domains in the
search list.
# vi /etc/resolv.conf
search ca.hp.com hp.com # replace ca.hp.com with your domain name
b. Adding "name server" entries to /etc/resolv.conf
Your local resolver must be told which name server to use when resolving host names
and IP addresses. You may configure up to three name server IP addresses in the
/etc/resolv.conf file; if the first name server listed fails to respond, the resolver
will automatically try the second name server.
Since the resolver will always access the DNS servers in the order in which they are
listed in resolv.conf, you can provide some measure of load balancing by
alternating the order in which the servers are listed. On some hosts, list the master
server first; on others list the slave server first.
search ca.hp.com hp.com # replace ca.hp.com with your domain name
nameserver 128.1.1.1 # replace 128.1.1.1 with your master's IP
nameserver 128.1.1.2 # replace 128.1.1.2 with your slave's IP
2. Modify /etc/nsswitch.conf.
HP-UX can resolve host names using the local hosts file, NIS, or DNS. The
/etc/nsswitch.conf file determines which source the resolver uses for name
resolution. If you do not have an /etc/nsswitch.conf file, DNS is the default name
resolution source anyway, and you can skip this step. If you have a hosts entry in your
/etc/nsswitch.conf file, ensure that DNS is the first source listed. A later slide in the
chapter will discuss /etc/nsswitch.conf in more detail.
# cat /etc/nsswitch.conf
...
hosts: dns files
...
Once /etc/resolv.conf and /etc/nsswitch.conf have been configured, the

resolver immediately begins to use DNS for name resolution.
3. Modify /etc/hosts.
Since most host names will now be resolved using the DNS server, you may choose to
remove many of the entries in /etc/hosts. However, you should retain some critical
entries in case the name servers become unavailable. At a minimum, retain the localhost
entry, and your own host name.

Module 12
Configuring DNS
On the master server, retain all the host entries for your name server's zone. They are
required by the hosts_to_named utility. Make sure that the host names that remain in
/etc/hosts are fully qualified. You may also wish to include the "non-qualified" host
names as aliases. On la.ca.hp.com, the modified hosts file might look like this:
# vi /etc/hosts
127.0.0.1 localhost
4. Modify .rhosts, /etc/hosts.equiv, etc.
Any utilities that do reverse resolution to convert the IPs of incoming packets to host
names must be updated with the DNS domain name appended to each host name. If the
following files exist, fully qualify each of the host names they contain:
~/.netrc
/etc/hosts.equiv
/var/adm/inetd.sec
For example, la's updated .rhosts file might be updated to contain:
# vi ~/.rhosts
oakland.ca.hp.com
sanfran.ca.hp.com
la.ca.hp.com

Module 12
Configuring DNS
12–15. SLIDE: Configuring the Name Service Switch
Configuring the Name Service Switch
Q: Where should I look up host names?

DNS? /etc/hosts? NIS?
A: Check /etc/nsswitch.conf!
hosts: files
or hosts: dns nis files
or hosts: dns [NOTFOUND=continue] files
or hosts: dns [NOTFOUND=return] files
Student Notes
Applications, utilities, and daemons on an HP-UX box frequently need to resolve IP addresses
to host names, UIDs to user names, and GIDs to group names. In fact, these are just a few of
the many types of names and addresses that need to be resolved in a UNIX environment.
HP-UX can resolve many of these addresses using a variety of "databases.” Host names, for
instance, may be resolved to IP addresses via the local /etc/hosts file, DNS, or NIS.
Somehow, the administrator needs to be able to specify if and when each of these resources
should be referenced. This is the purpose of the /etc/nsswitch.conf file.
A Simple /etc/nsswitch.conf Entry

Each line in /etc/nsswitch.conf begins with a keyword identifying the type of lookup
defined by that line. Some common values in this first field include: "hosts," "passwd," and
"group.” Our discussion here will concentrate on the "hosts" line in /etc/nsswitch.conf.
The "hosts" line determines how the system should resolve host names to IPs, and IPs to host
names.

Module 12
Configuring DNS
The remaining fields on the "hosts" line in /etc/nsswitch.conf determine which

sources should be used when resolving host names and IP addresses. In its simplest form, the
hosts line may take one of the following forms:
hosts: files (Consult only the local /etc/hosts file.)
or
hosts: dns (Consult only DNS - never consult /etc/hosts!)
On real systems, though, things become more complicated. Many administrators prefer to
define a "fallback" mechanism. If the DNS server is down, for instance, you may want your
machine to try to resolve host names via the local hosts file. /etc/nsswitch.conf makes
this possible.
Defining a Fallback Mechanism in /etc/nsswitch.conf

If you wish, you can list multiple sources for host name lookups. For instance, you can
choose to use the following:
hosts: dns files
This line says that the host name resolver routines should resolve host names first via DNS. If
the DNS nameserver finds the host name requested, the resolver need look no further. If,
however, the DNS nameserver is unavailable or does not recognize the requested host name,
the resolver automatically falls back on the local /etc/hosts file for host name lookups.
If you are also a member of an NIS domain, you may wish to use the following line, which
causes the resolver to try all three lookup sources until it finds the host name or IP address it
is looking for.
Understanding the /etc/nsswitch.conf Fallback Mechanism

You may wish to define more explicitly, what the resolver should do if a lookup via a
particular source fails. Sending a query to one of the lookup sources that you have may yield
any one of four different results:
SUCCESS Source found the requested entry.
NOTFOUND Source responded "no such entry.”
UNAVAIL Source is not configured.
TRYAGAIN Source is configured, but the server is not responding.

Module 12
Configuring DNS
When the resolver receives one of these responses, you can configure it to react in one of two
ways:
continue Try the next source in the list.
return Quit searching, do not consult other sources.
By default at version 11.x, if a "hosts" entry exists in /etc/nsswitch.conf, the resolver

will march through all of the sources listed in /etc/nsswitch.conf until the desired host
name is found. In other words, the default behavior looks like this:
SUCCESS=return
NOTFOUND=continue
UNAVAIL=continue
TRYAGAIN=continue
Consider the following simple example:
hosts: dns files
This says that the resolver should try DNS first. If DNS recognizes the requested host name,
then use the IP address returned by DNS. If DNS is unconfigured, or if the DNS server doesn't
respond in a timely manner, or if the DNS server simply doesn't recognize the requested host
name, then the resolver should fall back on the local /etc/hosts file.
More Explicitly Defining the Fallback Mechanism

If you wish, you may explicitly state the action the resolver should take if a source lookup
results in a "SUCCESS,” "NOTFOUND,” "UNAVAIL,” or "TRYAGAIN" condition. Consider the
following example:
hosts: dns [NOTFOUND=return] files
With this entry in your /etc/nsswitch.conf file, the resolver will attempt host name
lookups first via DNS. NOTFOUND=return means that if the DNS name server responds to a
query, but doesn't have any record of the host name in question, the resolver will quit rather
than fall back on /etc/hosts. Since the nsswitch.conf file does not explicitly state what
should occur if the DNS lookup results in a SUCCESS, UNAVAIL, or TRYAGAIN, the resolver
uses the default actions for these results:
SUCCESS=return (default)
NOTFOUND=return (as defined in /etc/nsswitch.conf)
UNAVAIL=continue (default)
TRYAGAIN=continue (default)
Thus, the UNAVAIL=continue and TRYAGAIN=continue lines ensure that if DNS is

unable to respond for one reason or another, the host can still do lookups via the local
/etc/hosts file.

Module 12
Configuring DNS
What if /etc/nsswitch.conf Does Not Exist at 11.x?

The discussion up to this point has assumed that some sort of "hosts" line exists in your
/etc/nsswitch.conf file. However, you may discover that your system either does not
have an /etc/nsswitch.conf file, or has an /etc/nsswitch.conf file without a "hosts"
line. If there is not a valid "hosts" line in the nsswitch.conf file at version 11.x, then the
system uses the following host lookup policy:
hosts: dns [NOTFOUND=return TRYAGAIN=return] nis [NOTFOUND=return] files
In other words, DNS is referenced first. NIS will only be consulted if DNS is unconfigured or
unresponsive. The local hosts file, then, will only be consulted if NIS, too, is unconfigured.
The full list of default actions used by HP-UX 11.x when /etc/nsswitch.conf does not
exist is shown below:
passwd: files nis
group: files nis
hosts: dns [NOTFOUND=return TRYAGAIN=return] nis [NOTFOUND=return] files
networks: nis [NOTFOUND=return] files
protocols: nis [NOTFOUND=return] files
rpc: nis [NOTFOUND=return] files
publickey: nis [NOTFOUND=return] files
netgroup: nis [NOTFOUND=return] files
automount: files nis
aliases: files nis
services: nis [NOTFOUND=return] files
What if /etc/nsswitch.conf Does Not Exist at 10.x?

The notes above describe the switch behavior at HP-UX 11.x. At version 10.x, the defaults for
the /etc/nsswitch.conf file were somewhat different.
If /etc/nsswitch.conf doesn't exist on a 10.x system, the following policies are used:

services: nis files
protocols: nis files
networks: nis files
rpc: nis files
netgroup: nis files
Furthermore, the default actions were somewhat different, too:
SUCCESS=return
NOTFOUND=return
UNAVAIL=continue
TRYAGAIN=return
See the 10.x switch(4) man page for more information.

Module 12
Configuring DNS
Creating a New /etc/nsswitch.conf File

If you don't currently have an /etc/nsswitch.conf file, you can either create the file
yourself using vi, or copy one of the sample nsswitch.conf files from the
/usr/newconfig/etc/ directory:
nsswitch.compat
nsswitch.files
nsswitch.hp_defaults
nsswitch.nis
nsswitch.nisplus
Note that the nsswitch.hp_defaults filename is a bit misleading—the policies shown in

this file are NOT the default policies used in HP-UX 11.x! This file should be moved into place
if you want your 11.x machine to use the same switch policy that was used by default at 10.x.

Module 12
Configuring DNS
12–16. SLIDE: Testing Resolvers with nsquery
Testing Resolvers with nsquery
# nsquery hosts sacramento
Using "dns [NOTFOUND=continue] hosts" for the hosts policy
Searching dns for sacramento.ca.hp.com

sacramento was NOTFOUND
Switch configuration: Allows fallback
Searching /etc/hosts for sacramento.ca.hp.com

Hostname: sacramento.ca.hp.com
Aliases:
Address: 128.1.1.4
Switch configuration: Terminates search
Student Notes
At HP-UX 11.x, you should use the nsquery command to test your resolver configuration:
# nsquery hosts sacramento.ca.hp.com

# nsquery hosts 128.1.1.4
The nsquery command first checks your /etc/nsswitch.conf file to determine which
switch policy you have chosen to use. If you have chosen /etc/hosts, then nsquery
simply searches the /etc/hosts file for the host name or IP address you have specified.
If you have chosen to use DNS as a lookup source, nsquery checks /etc/resolv.conf to
find the address of your default name server, and forwards the resolution request
accordingly. If the first name server times out, nsquery will try the second name server
listed in /etc/resolv.conf. If none of the name servers in /etc/resolv.conf respond,
nsquery displays a message indicating that the DNS lookup failed, then follows the
“fallback” policy defined in your switch file to choose another lookup service.

Module 12
Configuring DNS
nsquery reports the result of each lookup service consulted, so you can determine if your
switch policy behaves as expected.
CAUTION: At HP-UX 10.20, use the nslookup command to test your resolvers. At HP-UX
11.0, nslookup was unable to interpret the /etc/nsswitch.conf file
properly. The nsquery command is now the preferred command for testing
the fallback resolution method defined in the /etc/nsswitch.conf file.

Module 12
Configuring DNS
12–17. SLIDE: Introducing /etc/named.data
Introducing /etc/named.data
Default directory for all

/etc/named.data DNS database files
File containing resolver records for

db.ca
the ca.hp.com domain

db.127.0.0
the 0.0.127.in-addr.arpa domain

db.128.1.1
the 1.1.128.in-addr.arpa domain
db.cache Locations of root level name server,

to be loaded in cache at startup
Student Notes
DNS name servers store their zone configuration data in a series of files under the
/etc/named.data directory. This directory should contain one file for each of the domains
for which your name server is authoritative source. The master name server for the
ca.hp.com domain would have the following files in /etc/named.data:
db.ca Contains hostname to IP translation information for hosts in the

ca.hp.com domain. Servers that are responsible for multiple domains
have a separate db.domain file for each domain.
db.127.0.0 Contains IP to hostname translation information for the loopback address

in the 0.0.127.in-addr.arpa domain.
db.128.1.1 Contains IP to hostname translation information for the 128.1.1 subnet

addresses in the 1.1.128.in-addr.arpa domain. Servers for domains
that span multiple subnets have a separate db.x.x.x file for each subnet.

Module 12
Configuring DNS
db.cache Contains the addresses of the root level name servers, which are used for
recursive queries. Some administrators mistakenly believe that this file
may be modified to force non-root-server addresses into cache. Not so.
This file should only contain root-level server addresses.
db.root (Not shown on slide) This file replaces the db.cache file on root level
name servers.
All of these are ASCII files that can be viewed directly and modified. For more information
about the file contents, attend HP's DNS course (Course #H3540) or buy a copy of Cricket
Liu's DNS and BIND, Third Edition, from O'Reilly and Associates (ISBN 1-56592-512-2).
CAUTION: The hosts_to_named utility overwrites the /etc/named.data/db.* files.

If you modify any of the db.* files manually, do not run hosts_to_named!

Module 12
Configuring DNS
12–18. SLIDE: Introducing /etc/named.conf
Introducing /etc/named.conf
/etc/named.conf on the master ca.hp.com name server:

// Define the DNS data directory
options {
check-names response fail;
check-names slave warn
directory = "/etc/named.data";
}
// Define which domains this name server

// can serve, and which file contains the
// records for each of those domains. Note
// this name server is primary for all
// of the domains listed here.
zone "ca.hp.com" { type master; file "db.ca"; };

zone "0.0.127.IN-ADDR.ARPA" { type master; file "db.127.0.0"; };
zone "1.1.128.IN-ADDR.ARPA" { type master; file "db.128.1.1"; };
zone "." { type hint; file "db.cache"; };
Student Notes
When the named daemon is launched during system startup, it consults a file called
/etc/named.conf to determine which domains it is responsible for, and which db.* files
need to be loaded. The slide shows the /etc/named.conf file on sanfran, the master
name server for the ca.hp.com domain.
The options block at the top of the file defines some general parameters for the daemon. In
the example on the slide, the two check-names directives cause named to verify the format
hostnames that this server obtains via recursive queries to other servers. If a recursive query
yields a hostname that contains an underscore or other non-standard characters, named will
refuse to send the results back to the client that requested the lookup. This directive is
designed to prevent syntax errors in other servers' database files from filtering back to your
resolver clients.
The directory directive tells named in which directory the db.* files are stored.

Module 12
Configuring DNS
The remaining lines in the sample file tell named for which zones it is responsible. Each line
has several fields. The zone directive specifies a zone name. The type directive indicates
whether the server is a master or slave for the zone. The file directive specifies the name of
the database file containing the zone information. Slave servers have one more field with
each record: a master directive that specifies the IP address of the master server that the
slave should query for regular updates.
Many more options are available in the named.conf file. See the previously mentioned
O'Reilly DNS book, or read the named man page for more information.
Sample /etc/named.conf File on a Slave Server

The sample file below was taken from a slave server in the ca.hp.com domain. How does
this file differ from the master server sample file on the slide?
options { check-names response fail;

check-names slave warn;
directory “/etc/named.data”; };
zone "0.0.127.IN-ADDR.ARPA" { type master;

file "db.127.0.0"; };
zone "1.1.128.IN-ADDR.ARPA" { type slave;
file "db.128.1.1";
masters { 128.1.1.1; }; };
zone "ca.hp.com" { type slave;
file "db.ca";
masters { 128.1.1.1; }; };
zone "." { type hint;
file "db.cache"; };
Sample /etc/named.conf File on a Cache-Only Server

The sample file below was taken from a cache-only server in the ca.hp.com domain. How
does this file differ from the master server sample file on the slide?
options { check-names response fail;

check-names slave warn;
directory “/etc/named.data”; };
zone "0.0.127.in-addr.arpa" { type master;

file "db.127.0.0"; };
zone "." { type hint;
file "db.cache"; };

Module 12
Configuring DNS
12–19. SLIDE: Loading the DNS Data Files
Loading the DNS Data Files
Ready to resolve host names!
named loads db files in cache /etc/named.data/db.*
named decides which db files to load /etc/named.conf
named starts at run level 2 /etc/rc.config.d/namesvrs
System boot initiated
Student Notes
When the system boots to run level 2 or higher, the /sbin/init.d/named searches in the
/etc/rc.config.d/namesvrs file and starts the named daemon if the NAMED control
variable is set to 1.
The named daemon reads /etc/named.conf to determine the zones for which it is
responsible, then reads in the appropriate /etc/named.data/db.* files into memory.
Note that named reads only the DNS database files at startup. If you make any changes to the
db.* files, you must force named to re-read its database files as described on the next slide.
You can stop or start named by executing the startup script with the appropriate argument:
# /sbin/init.d/named stop
NOTE: named runs only on DNS servers, not on resolver-only clients.

Module 12
Configuring DNS
12–20. SLIDE: Updating the Master Server
Updating the Master Server
1. Update /etc/hosts on the master.

# vi /etc/hosts
2. Rebuild DNS data files with hosts_to_named.

3. Reload DNS data files in cache with sig_named restart.

# sig_named restart
Student Notes
Any time a hostname or IP address is added, removed, or changed in your DNS domain, the
name server data files must be updated accordingly. You could make these changes directly
with vi, but in smaller domains, it is often easier to update /etc/hosts, then rerun
hosts_to_named.
The example below adds a host named "sacramento" with IP address 128.1.1.4 to the
ca.hp.com domain.
1. Update /etc/hosts on the master server.
Add a new line to /etc/hosts for each new host name/IP pair. Be sure to use fully
qualified host names.
# vi /etc/hosts
127.0.0.1 localhost
128.1.1.1 sanfran.ca.hp.com. sanfran
128.1.1.2 oakland.ca.hp.com. oakland
128.1.1.3 la.ca.hp.com. la
128.1.1.4 sacramento.ca.hp.com. sacramento

Module 12
Configuring DNS
2. Rerun hosts_to_named on the master server.
This will rebuild the master server's DNS data files to reflect the changes made in
/etc/hosts.
3. Run sig_named on the master.
By default, named only reads the db files at startup. The sig_named command forces
the named daemon on the master to reload any updated database files.
# sig_named restart
Note that the slave servers will not be updated immediately. Turn to the next slide to learn
how the slave server data files are updated.
CAUTION: The hosts_to_named utility overwrites the /etc/named.data/db.* files.

If you modify any of the db.* files manually, do not run hosts_to_named!

Module 12
Configuring DNS
12–21. SLIDE: Updating the Secondary Server
Updating the Secondary Server
Q: How do I know if my DNS data files are up to date?

Q: When should I refresh my DNS data files?
Secondary Name Server

named Daemon
A: named consults a data file’s SOA record to determines if/when the file must be updated:
ca.hp.com. IN SOA sanfran.ca.hp.com root.sanfran.ca.hp.com (
1 ; Serial
10800 ; Refresh every 3 hours
3600 ; Retry every 1 hour
604800 ; Expire after 1 week
86400 ) ; Minimum TTL of 1 day
Student Notes
When hostname and IP address changes are required, the changes are made on the DNS
master server. Every slave server should be configured to periodically query the master
server to determine if an update is required.
Every DNS database file has a "Start of Authority" (SOA) record at the top of the file that
determines how frequently slave servers request updates from their master servers. Consider
the sample start of authority record on the slide.
The first line in the SOA identifies the domain name (ca.hp.com) and master server name
(sanfran.ca.hp.com), and the domain administrator's email address
(root.sanfran.ca.hp.com = [email protected]).

Module 12
Configuring DNS
The remaining fields determine how frequently the zone updates occur:
Serial Each zone has a serial number. Slave servers determine if their database files
are up-to-date by comparing their zone data file serial numbers against the
serial numbers on the master's data files. If the master's number is greater
than the slave's, the slave requests a zone transfer. The master server
administrator must remember to increment the serial number in the SOA any
time a db.* file is modified (hosts_to_named does this automatically).
Refresh This field determines how frequently slave servers should request updates
from the master. The interval is specified in seconds.
Retry If the master does not respond to a slave's update request, the Retry field
determines how long the slave should wait before trying again. This
parameter, too, is defined in seconds.
Expire If one week passes without a successful update from the master, the slave
shown on the slide expires the zone data and refuses to answer client queries
about the expired zone. This parameter, too, is defined in seconds.
TTL The "Time To Live" determines how long other name servers (not slave
servers) may retain this zone data in cache. This parameter, too, is defined in
seconds.
If you want to force an immediate zone transfer on your slave server, execute the
sig_named restart command. Note that there is no mechanism in DNS that allows the
master to "push" an immediate zone transfer to the slaves; slaves are expected to "pull"
updates at regular intervals.
NOTE: Slave servers update themselves automatically. An immediate update can be

performed at any time by manually executing sig_named restart on the
slave server.

Module 12
Configuring DNS
12–22. LAB: DNS
Introduction
In this exercise, you will configure a DNS master server, a slave server, and a DNS client. You
will also have a chance to update the DNS data on your name servers, and explore some of
the name server database files.
Your instructor will break the class into teams of 2 or 3 students each. Each team will be
assigned a DNS sub-domain under hp.com from the table below. You will then work with
your teammates to configure a master server, a slave server, and one or more DNS clients
within your assigned domain. The instructor's station will serve as a root level name server so
you can access other teams' domains as well.
octets should be set to.
Table 12-1.
Domain Name Role Host Name IP Address

. master corp ____.____.0.1
com master corp ____.____.0.1
hp.com master corp ____.____.0.1
ca.hp.com master sanfran ____.____.1.1
slave oakland ____.____.1.2
client la ____.____.1.3
il.hp.com master chicago ____.____.2.1
slave peoria ____.____.2.2
client rockford ____.____.2.3
ga.hp.com master atlanta ____.____.3.1
slave athens ____.____.3.2
client macon ____.____.3.3
ny.hp.com master nyc ____.____.4.1
slave albany ____.____.4.2
client buffalo ____.____.4.3
fr.hp.com master paris ____.____.5.1
slave lyon ____.____.5.2
client grenoble ____.____.5.3
uk.hp.com master london ____.____.6.1
slave leeds ____.____.6.2
client ipswich ____.____.6.3
de.hp.com master bonn ____.____.7.1
slave berlin ____.____.7.2
client hamburg ____.____.7.3
jp.hp.com master tokyo ____.____.8.1
slave kyoto ____.____.8.2
Client osaka ____.____.8.3

Module 12
Configuring DNS
Preliminary Steps
3. If you haven’t already changed your IP address and hostname to match the hostname
your instructor assigned to you, do so now. Use the /labs/netsetup.sh script to
make the change.
# /labs/netsetup.sh –ip (answer the prompts that follow)
Part 2: Configure Your Master Server

1. Ensure that all hosts in your domain are included in /etc/hosts and are fully qualified.
Add an alias for each host that identifies the non-qualified hostname. Delete all other
entries from the /etc/hosts file except the localhost entry and the hosts in your
domain (it’s even ok to delete corp!).
# vi /etc/hosts
127.0.0.1 localhost
w.x.y.z city.state.hp.com city
2. Create a directory for the DNS database files and cd to it.

3. Create a param file for your domain.

# vi param
-d state.hp.com # Use your domain name(s) here
-n w.x.y # Use your domain’s subnet address(es) here
-z w.x.y.z # Use your master server's IP here
-b /etc/named.conf

Module 12
Configuring DNS
4. Run hosts_to_named.
If hosts_to_named fails for any reason, check the syntax in /etc/hosts, remove
/etc/named.data/conf.*, /etc/named.data/boot.*,
/etc/named.data/db.*, and /etc/named.conf, and re-run hosts_to_named.
5. Copy the db.cache file from corp. Note that the FTP daemon on corp attempts to
resolve the source IP address of each incoming FTP request to a hostname. Since DNS
isn’t fully configured at this point, it may take a couple minutes for the resolver to
timeout. Be patient.
# ftp w.x.y.z # Use corp’s IP address here

> quit
6. Enable NAMED in the /etc/rc.config.d/namesvrs.

NAMED=1
NAMED_ARGS=""

Module 12
Configuring DNS
Part 3: Configure Your Slave server

1. Create a directory for the database and configuration files.
2. FTP a copy of the db.cache and db.127.0.0 from the master.
# ftp w.x.y.z # Use your master server's IP here

> quit
3. FTP a copy of conf.sec.save from the master server, and move it into place on the
slave server as /etc/named.conf.

> quit
4. Enable NAMED in /etc/rc.config.d/namesvrs.
NAMED=1
NAMED_ARGS=""

Module 12
Configuring DNS
Part 4: Configure All Hosts in Your Domain as DNS Clients

1. Modify the /etc/resolv.conf file. Include your domain and the hp.com domain in
your search list. Include both your master and your slave server in the nameserver
list.
search state.hp.com hp.com # use your domain name here
nameserver w.x.y.z # use your master's IP here
nameserver w.x.y.z # use your slave's IP here
2. If your /etc/nsswitch.conf exists, delete it. You can experiment with the default
behavior for now. You will have a chance to re-create the file later.
# rm /etc/nsswitch.conf
3. If you are the master server, you should have modified your /etc/hosts file back in
Part 2, so you can skip this step. Slaves and clients, however, still need to modify
/etc/hosts at this point. Fully qualify and create aliases for your host in your local
domain, and remove all other entries (except localhost).
# vi /etc/hosts
127.0.0.1 localhost
128.1.1.3 city.state.hp.com city # Keep your host’s entry

Module 12
Configuring DNS
Part 5: Test DNS

All hosts in your domain (clients and servers) can try the following exercises.
1. Run nslookup and identify your master server as the server to use.
• Can you resolve a host name in your own domain?

• Can you resolve an IP address in your own domain?
• Can you resolve a host name in another domain? (Try corp.hp.com.)
• Can you resolve an IP address in another domain? (Try corp’s IP)
Answer
2. Try the same tests that you did in the previous question, but use the slave name server
this time. Does your slave server seem to work?
Answer
3. Which name server does nslookup use by default if you simply type nslookup
corp.hp.com from the shell prompt? Try it. How can you permanently change the
default name server?
Answer
4. Try resolving a host name in your domain using the simple host name (eg: sanfran,
rather than sanfran.ca.hp.com). Try resolving a host in another domain using the
simple host name. Your first experiment should succeed, while the second should fail.
Why?
Answer

Module 12
Configuring DNS
Part 6: Updating Your DNS Name Servers

1. Choose a new host/IP for your domain, and add it to your master server's DNS data files
using vi and hosts_to_named. Do not run sig_named, yet. Note that you can add a
new host name/IP to DNS even if that host isn’t physically connected to the network.
Answer
2. Which two db.* files would you expect to be affected by the newly added host and IP?
Look at the SOA records for those two files. How can you tell that the files were updated?
Answer
3. Now that the db.* files have been updated, can you nslookup the new host using the
master server? Try it, and explain the results.
Answer
4. What do you need to do to ensure that your DNS clients can resolve the new host name?
Make it so.
Answer
5. By default, when will your slave name server recognize that a new host name and IP have
been added to the domain? How can you force the slave to do an immediate update? Do
it.
Answer

Module 12
Configuring DNS
6. Verify that the slave server update was successful.
# nslookup
> server w.x.y.z # Use your slave server's IP here.
> city.state.hp.com # Use your new hostname here
> exit
Part 7: Cleanup
1. Restore your pre-DNS configuration on all hosts in your domain by running
/labs/netfiles.sh:
master# /labs/netfiles.sh –r NEW

slave# /labs/netfiles.sh –r NEW
client# /labs/netfiles.sh –r NEW

Module 13 — Configuring the ARPA/Berkeley
Services
Objectives
• List the commonly used ARPA-Berkeley services.
• Describe the function of the Internet daemon, inetd.
• Describe the process used to request ftp/telnet service from inetd.
• Describe the Internet service configuration files.
• Enable or disable Internet services from the command line.
• Allow or prevent access to selected Internet services via the inetd.conf file.
• Allow/prevent access for selected clients via the inetd.sec file.
• Allow/prevent access for selected users via the passwd file.
• Log requests for ARPA/Berkeley services.
• Define host equivalency between hosts with the /etc/hosts.equiv file.
• Define user equivalency between hosts with the ~/.rhosts file.

Module 13
Configuring the ARPA/Berkeley Services
13–1. SLIDE: Internet Services Overview
Internet Services Overview
Capability ARPA Berkeley
Terminal access telnet rlogin

File transfer ftp, tftp rcp
Remote command execution remsh, rexec
Electronic mail SMTP sendmail (uses SMTP)
Interprocess communication Sockets
Network information finger rwho, ruptime
Dynamic routing gated
Name service BIND
Time synchronization NTP
Remote boot BOOTP
Remote printing printer (rlpdaemon)
Student Notes
The Internet Services are among the most frequently used network applications. The HP-UX
Internet Services product includes utilities for remotely logging into other hosts on the LAN,
transferring files across the LAN, delivering email, and many other basic services.
The Internet Services product includes two families of utilities: the ARPA services and
Berkeley services. The chart on the slide and the notes below overview some of the features
these services provide.

Module 13
ARPA Services
ARPA services are the de facto networking standards in the scientific and engineering
communities. For LANs and WANs, they define protocols for:
• terminal access (telnet)
• file transfer (ftp, the file transfer protocol, and tftp, the trivial file transfer protocol)
• electronic mail (SMTP, the simple mail transfer protocol)
• dynamic routing (gated supports several routing protocols)
• time synchronization (NTP, the network time protocol)
• remote booting (bootp), used by X stations and NFS diskless systems

ARPA services are available on different operating systems, such as HP-UX, other UNIX
systems, RTE-A, MPE/iX, MS-DOS, and VMS.
Berkeley Services
BSD UNIX 4.3 implements a de facto networking standard for the UNIX community.
For LANs and WANs, it defines protocols for

• terminal access (rlogin)
• file transfer (rcp)
• remote command execution (remsh, rexec)
• electronic mail (sendmail)
• interprocess communication (Berkeley Sockets API)
• getting network information (rwho, ruptime, finger)
• mapping host names to IP addresses (BIND DNS, the BIND Domain Name Service)
• remote printing (rlp daemon)

Module 13
The Internet Services can be put in the context of the OSI model as shown.
OSI Model ARPA Berkeley Product

Services Services Structure
7 Application ftp rcp

telnet rlogin
bootp remsh
tftp rexec
named rwho
gated ruptime
Services
xntpd sendmail
printer
6 Presentation SMTP
5 Session BSD IPC
4 Transport TCP TCP
3 Network IP IP
LAN Link
2 Data Link Ethernet Ethernet
1 Physical Ethernet/ Ethernet/

IEEE 802.3 IEEE 802.3
Figure 1
NOTE: The Internet Services software product requires the LAN/9000 Link, FDDI
9000/Link, Token Ring/9000 Link or X.25 Link product.
The sendmail utility, dynamic routing with gated, BIND, and time synchronization with NTP
will not be discussed in this module.

Module 13
13–2. SLIDE: Internet Service Clients and Servers
Internet Service Clients and Servers
roger gary
Clients use a Servers provide a

service. service.
# rlogin gary rlogind
Student Notes
The Internet Services are built on a client-server model.
A client uses services that a server provides. The term client/server is very often used with
systems and not with processes, but a server system can provide a service only when a server
process is running there. On the other side a client system can only use a service when its
client process is able to communicate with the appropriate server process on the server
system.
A system can be simultaneously a server and a client if server processes and as well client
processes are running there.
The slide shows a very simple example of a client/server relationship. A user executes the
rlogin command on node roger to get a virtual terminal on the remote node gary. The
rlogin program is the client process. The appropriate server process, rlogind, is then
invoked on node gary, and a network communication session is established between
rlogin and rlogind.

Module 13
The following table shows other client/server relationships within the Internet Services:
Table 1
Service Client Server

Terminal access telnet telnetd
rlogin rlogind
File transfer ftp ftpd
rcp remshd
Remote command remsh remshd
execution
rexec rexecd
Network information finger fingerd
rup, ruptime rwhod

Module 13
13–3. SLIDE: Starting Internet Services via /sbin/rc
Starting Internet Services via /sbin/rc
/sbin/init
/sbin/rc
/sbin/rc2.d/S*
Linked to
/sbin/init.d/*
Execution Scripts Configuration Files
gated /etc/rc.config.d/netconf
inetd /etc/rc.config.d/netdaemons
named /etc/rc.config.d/namesvrs
rwhod
/etc/rc.config.d/netdaemons
xntpd
sendmail /etc/rc.config.d/mailservs
Student Notes
Many of the Internet Services have server daemons that are started at run-level 2 during the
boot process, and run continuously on the system.
Internet services that have dedicated server daemons include:

• gated
• named
• rwhod
• xntpd
• sendmail
Each of these services has a startup/shutdown script in /sbin/init.d, and an associated

configuration script in the /etc/rc.config.d directory.
Some of these services may be disabled. Be sure to check the control variables in the
/etc/rc.config.d files (especially netdaemons), to determine which services are
enabled and which are disabled on your system.
Server processes for the remaining Internet services that are not included in the list above
are all managed by the inetd “superdaemon” which is introduced on the next slide.

Module 13
13–4. SLIDE: Starting Internet Services via inetd
Starting Internet Services via inetd
roger gary
/etc/inetd.conf
inetd inetd
/etc/services
$ telnet gary
/var/adm/inetd.sec
telnet telnetd
Student Notes
Although many of the internet services have daemons that run continuously on the system,
some internet service server processes are managed by the inetd "super-daemon.”
The inetd daemon starts at run-level 2 during the system boot process, and monitors the
server's ports for requests for a variety of internet services. When a client requests access to
one of the services provided by inetd, inetd starts whatever server process is necessary to
respond to the client's request. The server process handles all further communication with
the client so inetd can listen for additional service requests.
Internet services managed by the inetd super-daemon include:

• telnet
• ftp
• tftp
• bootp
• rlogin
• remsh
• And many others

Module 13
Starting server processes via inetd offers two major advantages. First, since server
processes are only started on an as-needed basis, the system load on the server is reduced.
Second, inetd makes it possible for the server to maintain connections to multiple clients
simultaneously. The inetd daemon simply starts an additional server process for each
additional client. Thus, if three clients telnet to your server, inetd will start three
telnetd server processes.
NOTE: The inetd daemon is only needed on the server side. You should be able to
telnet and ftp out to other hosts even if inetd is not running.
The inetd daemon starts at run-level 2 and runs continuously on the system until shutdown.
Unlike most other scripts executed during the boot process, /sbin/init.d/inetd does
not have a control variable. Thus, if you do not want to start inetd at boot, you must remove
the inetd start script from /sbin/rc2.d.
You can manually stop or start inetd by executing the inetd startup script:
# /sbin/init.d/inetd stop
# /sbin/init.d/inetd start
The inetd daemon references several configuration files that are described in the slides that
follow:
/etc/inetd.conf
/etc/services
/var/adm/inetd.sec

Module 13
13–5. SLIDE: Configuring /etc/inetd.conf
Configuring /etc/inetd.conf
inetd
Q: Should I provide FTP service?
Q: How do I start an ftp daemon?
/etc/inetd.conf has the answer!

:
ftp stream tcp nowait root /usr/lbin/ftpd ftpd -l
telnet stream tcp nowait root /usr/lbin/telnetd telnetd
# login stream tcp nowait root /usr/lbin/rlogind rlogind
shell stream tcp nowait root /usr/lbin/remshd remshd
:
# inetd -c
Student Notes
When inetd is invoked, it reads the /etc/inetd.conf configuration file and configures
itself to support whatever services are included in the file.
To disable an incoming service, you can use the comment sign # in /etc/inetd.conf.
NOTE: If you modify the /etc/inetd.conf file, you have to force inetd to reread
its configuration file. Use inetd -c.
The following are the fields in the /etc/inetd.conf file:
service name The name of a valid service in the file /etc/services or, if the
server is RPC-based (nfs), the service name should be in rpc.
socket type Either stream or dgram, depending on whether the server socket is a
stream or a datagram socket. Sockets will be discussed later in this
module.
protocol Must be a valid protocol as defined in /etc/protocols; for example,

tcp or udp.

Module 13
wait/nowait wait applies to datagram sockets only. All other sockets should
specify nowait. wait instructs inetd to execute only one
datagram server for the specified socket at any one time. It instructs
inetd to execute a datagram server for a specified socket whenever a
datagram arrives.
user The name of the user as whom the server should run.
server program The absolute path name of the program which inetd executes when it
finds a request on the server's socket.
arguments The arguments to the server program starting with argv[0], which is
the name of the program.
An Example /etc/inetd.conf File

:
:
##
#
# ARPA/Berkeley services
#
##
ftp stream tcp nowait root /usr/lbin/ftpd ftpd -l
telnet stream tcp nowait root /usr/lbin/telnetd telnetd
# Before uncommenting the "tftp" entry below, please make sure
# that you have a "tftp" user in /etc/passwd. If you don’t
# have one, please consult the tftpd(1M) manual entry for
# information about setting up this service.
tftp dgram udp wait root /usr/lbin/tftpd tftpd\

/usr/lib/sw/HP-UX.install
#bootps dgram udp wait root /usr/lbin/bootpd bootpd
#finger stream tcp nowait bin /usr/lbin/fingerd fingerd
login stream tcp nowait root /usr/lbin/rlogind rlogind
shell stream tcp nowait root /usr/lbin/remshd remshd
exec stream tcp nowait root /usr/lbin/rexecd rexecd
#uucp stream tcp nowait root /usr/sbin/uucpd uucpd
##
#
# Other HP-UX network services
#
##
printer stream tcp nowait root /usr/sbin/rlpdaemon rlpdaemon -i
:
:

Module 13
13–6. SLIDE: Configuring /etc/services
Configuring /etc/services
inetd
Q: Which port should I monitor for FTP requests?
/etc/services has the answer!
:
ftp 21/tcp # File Transfer Protocol (Control)
telnet 23/tcp # Virtual Terminal Protocol
login 513/tcp # remote login
shell 514/tcp # remote command, no passwd used
:
Student Notes
Recall that a packet's destination is determined by the packet's destination socket address.
The socket address is a concatenation of the destination host's IP address, and a port number
on the destination host. The socket address allows the system to deliver each packet to the
appropriate destination.
Each internet service has a "well-known" port number that is consistent across all hosts. The
/etc/services file associates these well-known port numbers with service names.
After reading /etc/inetd.conf to determine which services it should provide, inetd

consults /etc/services to determine which ports it should monitor for client requests for
those services.
Lines in /etc/services may be commented out with a "#" sign to prevent access to a
particular service. However, the more conventional approach to disabling a service is to
comment the service's line out of /etc/inetd.conf.

Module 13
Establishing a Connection
Let's take a closer look at what occurs when a client attempts to connect to a server. The
example considers the steps required to initiate a telnet connection between two hosts.
First, the inetd daemon is started automatically during system startup. After reading
/etc/inetd.conf and /etc/services, inetd determines that it should listen for
telnet requests on well-known port number 23. If other services are configured in
inetd.conf, inetd listens for connection requests on those services' well-known ports,
too.
Client Server
Port 23 inetd (LISTEN)
Figure 2
When a user on the client issues the telnet command, the telnet client process opens any
available port on the client and sends a connection request to the well-known telnet port
number 23 on the server. There is no need for the client telnet process to use a well-known
port number, since nobody is trying to find the client process. Server processes, however,
must use well-known port numbers so clients know which port to address their connection
requests to.
Client Server
Port 23 inetd (LISTEN)
telnet Port 50001
Figure 3

Module 13
The server's inetd daemon receives the request for service on port 23. Since port 23 is the
well-known port for telnet, inetd spawns a telnetd server process and establishes a
socket connection upon which the telnetd and telnet processes communicate directly
without intervention from inetd. inetd continues listening for new requests.
Client Server
inetd (LISTEN)
Port 23 telnetd (ESTABLISHED)
telent (ESTABLISHED) Port 50001
Figure 4
If additional clients request telnet service, the server's inetd daemon simply starts
additional telnetd processes on port 23 as necessary.
NOTE: Use netstat -a to see which ports are active.

Module 13
13–7. SLIDE: Configuring /var/adm/inetd.sec
Configuring /var/adm/inetd.sec
inetd
Q: Which clients are allowed FTP access?
/var/adm/inetd.sec has the answer!
:
ftp deny 128.1.1.1
telnet deny 128.1.*.*
shell allow 192.1.1.* 192.1.3.*
login allow 192.1.1-3.* host1 host2
:
Student Notes
If you want to allow selected clients access to one or more Internet services, configure
/var/adm/inetd.sec.
Each line in the file defines which clients may access a particular service managed by inetd.
The slide examples are explained below:
• The inetd daemon denies ftp service to the host at 128.1.1.1. All other hosts, however,
can ftp to the server.
• No hosts on the 128.1 network can telnet to the server.
• Only clients on the 192.1.1 or 192.1.3 networks can remsh to the server.
• Any host on the 192.1.1, 192.1.2, or 192.1.3 networks can rlogin to the server. The host
names host1 and host2, will also have rlogin access.
If inetd.sec does not exist, all configured services will be available to all clients. If the file
exists but does not have an entry for one or more inetd services, the unlisted services will
be available to all clients.

Module 13
The formal syntax for the inetd.sec file is described below:
service_name The name of a valid service in /etc/services.
allow|deny Determines if the list of remote hosts in the next field is allowed or
denied access to a service. The default is to allow access.
host_specifiers The IP address, network names, or host name that should be allowed
or denied access. A wild card character (*) and a range character (-)
are allowed. These characters can be present in any fields of the
address.
This file has to be owned by root. Its permissions are r--r--r--.
NOTE: You have to use the official service name as specified in the /etc/services
file. The service for rlogin is called login. The shell service is needed for
rcp and remsh.

Module 13
13–8. SLIDE: Configuring inetd Logging
Configuring inetd Logging
Which clients have

requested which internet
services from my server? inetd -l
syslogd
/var/adm/syslog/syslog.log has the answer!

Sep 5 15:51:10 host1 inetd[2234]: telnet/tcp: Connection from host1
Sep 5 15:51:27 host2 inetd[2251]: login/tcp: Connection from host2
/etc/rc.config.d/netdaemons
export
Edit INETD_ARGS= -l # Enable inetd logging at every boot by
# setting the INETD_ARGS variable here!
Student Notes
The inetd -l command toggles inetd logging. If connection logging is enabled, the
logging information is reported to the system logger (/usr/sbin/syslogd) and its log file
/var/adm/syslog/syslog.log. If you activate logging, inetd will log attempted
connections to the services. It will also log those connection attempts that fail the security
check. This can be useful when trying to determine if someone is trying to break into your
system. An example of the contents of the syslog file is shown below:
Jun 4 13:03:38 host2 inetd[994]: Reading configuration

Jun 4 13:03:38 host2 inetd[994]: ftp/tcp: Added service, server /usr/lbin/ftpd
Jun 4 13:03:38 host2 inetd[994]: telnet/tcp: Added service, server
/usr/lbin/telnetd
:
Jun 5 16:20:49 host2 inetd[994]: Connection logging enabled
:
Jun 5 16:21:00 host2 inetd[1383]: login/tcp: Connection from host (192.6.1.72)
at Sun Jun 5
16:21:00 1994
Jun 5 16:21:25 host2 inetd[1398]: ftp/tcp: Connection from host1 (192.6.1.72)
at Sun Jun 5
16:21:25 1994

Module 13
To enable inetd logging at system start up, configure the appropriate variable in the
/etc/rc.config.d/netdaemons file and restart the daemon:
# vi /etc/rc.config.d/netdaemons
export INETD_ARGS=-l
Note that inetd logging records host names that have requested internet services, but does
not record the usernames that requested those services. The /var/adm/wtmp and
/var/adm/btmp files log successful and unsuccessful login attempts. Use the following
commands to view these files:
# last (to view successful logins)

# lastb (to view unsuccessful logins)

Module 13
13–9. SLIDE: System and User Equivalency
System and User Equivalency
Without Equivalency: With Equivalency:
# rlogin gary # rlogin gary

Password: ****** Welcome to gary!
Welcome to gary!
System and user equivalency:

• allows some or all users password-free access to a host
• only apply to Berkeley services (rlogin, remsh, rcp)
• configured via: /etc/hosts.equiv and ~/.rhosts
Student Notes
System and user equivalency allows selected users to bypass password security when using
rlogin, remsh, and rcp to access hosts across the network.
System equivalency is configured via the /etc/hosts.equiv file, and user equivalency is
configured via ~/.rhosts. Both of these files will be discussed in detail in the slides that
follow.
Although these files allow your users conveniently and transparently to access their accounts
on multiple systems, they create a significant security risk. Be sure the permissions on both
files are set appropriately:
r--r--r-- /etc/hosts.equiv
rw------- ~/.rhosts

Module 13
13–10. SLIDE: Configuring /etc/hosts.equiv
Configuring /etc/hosts.equiv
host1 host2 host3
/etc/hosts.equiv /etc/hosts.equiv
login: leo host1 -sue host1 tom
host1
1 $ rlogin host2
2 $ rlogin host2 -l tom
3 $ remsh host3 ll
Which command
4 $ remsh host3 -l tom ll succeeds?
login: sue
5 rcp host2:.profile .
Student Notes
The /etc/hosts.equiv file associates remote hosts with a user's host. This association
identifies equivalent hosts that are frequently accessed by the same users. If a remote host is
listed in hosts.equiv, and the remote user's login name matches a login name on the local
host, the user is not prompted for a password. This equivalency does not apply to
superusers. If you are logged in as root and you attempt to access another system,
/etc/hosts.equiv is bypassed.
Typically, the system administrator creates the /etc/hosts.equiv file if she or he wishes
to use this feature.
/etc/hosts.equiv works only with the Berkeley Services remsh, rcp, and rlogin
NOTE: When you list a system in hosts.equiv, all users on that system with the
same user name as on your system, have access to your system except the
root user. Root user equivalency can be set up through .rhosts.

Module 13
Entries in /etc/hosts.equiv
A host name or user name can match the corresponding field in an entry in hosts.equiv in
many ways. Several of these are
Literal match A host in hosts.equiv may literally match the host name (not an alias) of
the remote host. A user name in hosts.equiv may literally match the
remote user name. If there is no user name in the hosts.equiv entry, the
remote user name must literally match the local user name.
-name If the host name in hosts.equiv is of this form, and if name literally
matches the remote host name or name with the local domain name
appended matches the remote host name, then access is denied regardless of
the user name. If the user name in hosts.equiv is of this form, and name
literally matches the remote user name, access is denied. Even if access is
denied in this way by hosts.equiv, access can still be allowed by
.rhosts.
+ Any remote host name matches the + host name in hosts.equiv. Any remote user
matches the + user name.
See hosts.equiv(4) for more information.
Examples
1. $ rlogin host2
leo wants to log in to system host2 as user leo. Equivalency is configured. No

password is required.
2. $ rlogin host2 -l tom
leo has to enter the password because equivalency between different users is not
possible with /etc/hosts.equiv.
3. remsh host3 ll
leo wants to access system host3 as user leo. This will fail because there is only
equivalency configured for user tom from host1.
4. remsh host3 -l tom ll
leo wants to access system host3 as user tom. This will fail because there is only
equivalency configured for user tom from host1.
5. rcp host2:.profile .
sue from host1 wants to access sue on system host2. rcp fails because sue is the
only user from system host1 who is excluded.

Module 13
13–11. SLIDE: Configuring ~/.rhosts
Configuring ~/.rhosts
host1 host2
~root/.rhosts
host1
login: leo
~sue/.rhosts
1 rlogin host2 -l root
host1 sue
2 remsh host2 ll host1 joe
3 remsh host2 -l sue ll
login: sue ~leo/.rhosts
4 rlogin host2 host1 -sue
host1 +
5 rcp leo@host2:.profile .
Question: Which command succeeds?
Student Notes
$HOME/.rhosts can be created and configured by any user to specify remote login names
that are equivalent to the local user's login name. $HOME/.rhosts must be owned by the
local user.
The local host allows a remote user with a login listed in the local $HOME/.rhosts file to
log into the local user's account without specifying a password. The remote user can also
copy files or execute commands on the local user's system.
The .rhosts file works only with the Berkeley Services remsh, rcp, and rlogin.
The characters + and - can also be used. Look at the examples shown on the slide.
NOTE: .rhosts can be used to allow service to a particular user whose system has
not been granted access in /etc/hosts.equiv. You must create .rhosts
for the home directory of the superuser account if you wish to use equivalent
login names for root.

Module 13
Examples
1. rlogin host2 -l root
A password is required. Root's /.rhosts is only configured for the user root from
system host1.
2. remsh host2 ll
leo wants to access user leo on system host2. This is successful because
/home/leo/.rhosts on system host2 has an entry for all users from system host1
except user sue.
3. remsh host2 -l sue ll
This fails because there is no entry for user leo from system host1 in sue's file.
4. rlogin host2
Now sue wants to log in to her account on system host2. There is no password required
because of the entry host1 sue is in /home/sue/.rhosts.
5. rcp leo@host2:.profile .
This fails. No user equivalency is configured for sue in the /home/leo/.rhosts file.
She is the only user from system host1 who is excluded.
Disabling Users' .rhosts Files

Users may not realize the security risk of an improperly configured .rhosts file. You can
prevent the Berkeley services from consulting users' .rhosts files by adding a -l to the
"shell" and "login" lines in inetd.conf:
# vi /etc/inetd.conf
login stream tcp nowait root /usr/lbin/rlogind rlogind –l
shell stream tcp nowait root /usr/lbin/remshd remshd -l
# inetd -c
Note that this does not affect root's .rhosts file. /etc/hosts.equiv will still be
consulted.

Module 13
13–12. SLIDE: FTP Configuration Issues
FTP Configuration Issues
Clients: Configuring FTP autologin

~/.netrc (rw-------)
machine host2 login user1 password abcde12
machine host3 login user1 password 12abcde
Servers: Using ftpusers to deny FTP access to selected users

/etc/ftpd/ftpusers (r--r--r--)
guest
orderentry
Servers: Configuring anonymous FTP access

/etc/passwd (r--r--r--)
ftp:*:500:10:Anon FTP:/home/ftp:/usr/bin/false
Student Notes
There are three different security issues related to the configuration of FTP.
Clients Configuring FTP Autologin

Creating a .netrc file allows a user to ftp to other hosts without manually entering a
username or password. Instead, ftp simply looks in the user's .netrc to determine the
username and password.
Note that .netrc poses a possible security risk since passwords are stored in cleartext.
Make sure the .netrc permissions are set to:
rw-------
The login will fail if the permissions on the file are not set properly.

Module 13
Servers Using /etc/ftpd/ftpusers to Deny FTP Access to Selected Users

The ftpd daemon will reject logins to local accounts that are named in
/etc/ftpd/ftpusers. Each account name must appear on a line by itself. The line cannot
contain any white space.
The ftpd daemon does not check the startup program field in /etc/passwd, so
accounts that have a restricted shell as the startup program should be listed in
/etc/ftpd/ftpusers. Other users who should not have ftp access may be included in
the file as well.
Servers Configuring Anonymous ftp Access
home
r-xr-xr-x ftp ftp chroot (/home/ftp)
usr etc dist pub
r-xr-xr-x rwxrwxrwx
bin passwd
group
ls logingroup
Figure 5
Anonymous ftp is a secure public user account. If this has been set up, users can access
the anonymous ftp account with the user name anonymous or ftp and any non-null
password (by convention, the client email address). ftpd does a chroot() to the home
directory of user ftp, thus limiting anonymous ftp users' access to the system. The
anonymous ftp account must be present in the password file (user ftp). The password field
should be an asterisk (*), the group membership should be guest, and the login shell should
be /usr/bin/false. For example, (assuming the guest group ID is 10)
ftp:*:500:10:Anonymous ftp user:/home/ftp:/usr/bin/false

Module 13
Since ftpd does a chroot() to /home/ftp, it must have the following subdirectories and
files:
~ftp/usr/bin This directory must be owned by root and must have the permissions 555
(not writable). It should contain a copy of /usr/bin/ls. This is needed
to support directory listing by ftpd. The command should have the
permissions 111 (executable only). If the ftp account is on the same file
system as /usr/bin, ~ftp/usr/bin/ls can be a hard link, but it
cannot be a symbolic link because of the chroot().
~ftp/etc This directory must be owned by root and must have the permissions 555
(not writable). It should contain versions of the files /etc/passwd,
/etc/group, and /etc/logingroup. These files must be owned by
root and must have the permissions 444 (readable only). These files are
needed to map user and group ids to names when using the built-in ls
command of ftp, and to support (optional) sublogins of anonymous
ftp.
~ftp/pub This directory (optional) is used by anonymous ftp users to deposit files
on the system. It should be owned by user ftp and should have the
permissions 1777 (readable and writable by all). If this directory is
created, disk quotas should be used to prevent anonymous users from
filling the file system.
~ftp/dist This directory (optional) is used to make files available to anonymous

ftp users. It should be owned by user ftp and must have the
permissions 555. Any files to be distributed should have the permissions
444 (readable only) so they cannot be modified or removed by
anonymous ftp users.
NOTE: The directory ~ftp/pub for depositing files must have the permissions 1777. To
prevent anonymous ftp users from filling the file system you should use disk
quotas.
If you only want to make files available, you do not need the directory ~ftp/pub.
When adding or removing users with SAM, the files in /home/ftp/etc are not
customized.
Anonymous ftp can be configured with SAM:
sam
|
V
Networking and Communications ->
|
V
Network Services
|
V
Anonymous ftp

Module 13
13–13. SLIDE: ARPA/Berkeley Services Review
ARPA/Berkeley Services Review
/etc/inetd.conf
/etc/services inetd syslog.log
/var/adm/inetd.sec
ftpd telnetd remshd & rlogind
/etc/passwd /etc/passwd /etc/passwd
/etc/ftpd/ftpusers /etc/hosts.equiv
~/.netrc ~/.rhosts
Student Notes
This slide reviews the important executables and configuration files that control access to
the Internet services. An explanation of the ARPA/Berkeley service configuration files
follows below:
/etc/inetd.conf Determines which services inetd should and should

not provide.
/etc/services Associates service names with well-known port

numbers.
/var/adm/inetd.sec Determines which clients have access to which inetd

services. (Optional)
/var/adm/syslog/syslog.log Records which clients have requested which inetd

services, and when (if logging is enabled).
/etc/passwd Defines valid accounts and passwords.

Module 13
/etc/ftpusers Defines which usernames are not valid for ftp logins
(optional)
~/.netrc Enables ftp autologon functionality (optional)
/etc/hosts.equiv Configures host equivalency (optional)
~/.rhosts Configures user equivalency (optional)

Module 13
13–14. LAB: Configuring and Securing ARPA/Berkeley Services

Directions
This lab offers an opportunity to configure, use, and troubleshoot the ARPA/Berkeley service
configuration on your machine. For a portion of the lab, you will need to work with a partner.
Choose a partner, and decide which machine will be the internet service "server" during the
experiments that follow, and which will be the "client".
Note that the "server" and "client" roles assigned in this lab are relatively arbitrary. Most
HP-UX machines are configured to provide both client and server functionality.
Server's host name: ____________________
Client's host name: ____________________
Preliminary Step
Part 1: Basic ARPA/Berkeley Service Configuration

The "InternetSrvcs" product must be installed on every machine that wishes to use or
provide ARPA/Berkeley services. Check to ensure that this product is installed on your
system.
2. (server)
The server's inetd daemon must be running in order for clients to have access to any of
the internet services. Use ps -e to check to ensure that the inetd daemon is running on
your server.

Module 13

Which script starts inetd during the boot process? At which run level does inetd start?
4. (server)
Look at /etc/inetd.conf and /etc/services to determine which internet services
are configured on your server, then complete the table below:
Service Enabled? Port#
------- -------- -----
telnet
ftp
login
tftp
bootps
5. Do you currently have server processes running for these services? Explain.
6. (server)
Ensure that the services in inetd.conf that appear to be enabled actually are enabled.
Use netstat -a to check the status of each of the enabled services and ports you listed
in the table above.

Module 13
Part 2: Securing the Internet Services

1. (server)
The inetd.conf file allows you to enable or disable an internet service for all clients. If,
however, you wish to allow/prevent specific client(s) access to a service, you must use
the /var/adm/inetd.sec file.
Configure your /var/adm/inetd.sec file such that only the hosts in your row
(including your partner) have telnet access. Add another line to ensure that all your
classmates except your partner can ftp to your machine.
2. (client)
See if your server's configurations so far have succeeded. What messages do you see
when you attempt to telnet or ftp to the server?
3. (server)
What do you have to do to enable inetd logging? Make it so.
4. (client)
See if the logging feature works. From the client, telnet to the server, do an ls, then
immediately exit. Then attempt to ftp to the server (this should fail). Move on to the
next question to see what was recorded in the inetd log.

Module 13
5. (server)
How much detail is recorded in the inetd log? On the server, do a more on the file
where ARPA/Berkeley service requests are logged.
• Does inetd log the name of the service requested?
• Does inetd log the host name of the requesting client?
• Does inetd log the username of the user making telnet requests?
• Does inetd log the commands executed during the telnet session?
• Does inetd log deny requests for Internet service?

Module 13
Part 3: Experimenting with ARPA/Berkeley Service Connections

The goal of this part of the lab is to determine what happens when a client process connects
to a server providing ARPA/Berkeley services. More specifically, we will be experimenting
with the telnet service.
First, check to see which daemons and processes are already running on the server and
client:
client# ps -e | grep telnet
server# ps -e | grep telnet

Establish a telnet session from the client to the server, and look at the process table to
determine which processes were started as a result.
client# telnet server
Which telnet related processes are running on the client now? Which telnet related
processes are running on the server now?

Can multiple clients telnet to the server simultaneously? Try it. On the client side, open
another window and initiate another telnet connection to the server. Check to see
which telnet related processes are running on the server and client:
How many telnetd server processes are running on the server? How many telnet
processes are running on the client? Explain.

Module 13

Take a look at the ports that are being used by your telnet processes:
client# netstat -a | grep telnet
server# netstat -a | grep telnet
How many telnet connections are ESTABLISHED? What process do you suppose is
monitoring the port in the LISTEN state? Do the client side telnet processes share a
port or use different ports? Which well-known port numbers are the telnetd daemons
on the server sharing?
5. (client)
Close your telnet connections to the server.

Module 13
Part 4: Experimenting with ARPA/Berkeley Services

1. (client)
What happens if the server's inetd daemon is down when a client attempts to connect?
Try it, then explain the result.
server# inetd –k # kill the server's inetd
client# telnet server # can the client still connect?
server# inetd # restart the server's inetd

What happens if the server's inetd daemon goes down AFTER a session has been
established -- does the existing connection remain, or are all client connections
immediately terminated? Try it, then explain the result.
client# telnet server # establish a connection to the
server
server# inetd –k # kill the server's inetd.
server# ps -e | grep telnetd # does the telnet daemon remain?

What happens if the server's telnetd server process is killed while a client is
connected? Try it.
server# ps -e | grep telnetd # find the server process's PID
server# kill _____ # kill telnetd's PID
Does the client telnet process exist after the server's telnetd daemon is killed?
Restart inetd on the server before proceeding to the next question.
# inetd

Module 13
4. (client)
Must the client be running inetd in order to establish connections to a server? Try it,
and explain the result.
client# inetd -k # kill the client's inetd

client# telnet server # can the client still telnet out?
client# inetd # restart the client's inetd

Module 13
Part 5: Experimenting with Host and User Equivalency

1. (server)
Configure host equivalency for all the hosts in your row, including your client.
2. (client)
While logged in as root, use rlogin to log into the server. What happens? Why?
Exit out of your rlogin session before proceeding to the next question.
3. (client)
Use the su command to switch your user ID to user1. Then try rlogin again. What
happens? Why?
4. (server)
What can you do on the server to enable root on the clients password free access to your
machine? Make it so.
5. (client)
Terminate the rlogin and su sessions you stated previously. Ensure that you are back
to the "root" userid. Then see if you can rlogin to the server without a password.

Module 13
6. (server)
Remove /etc/hosts.equiv and ~root/.rhosts.

Module 13
Part 6: (Optional) Troubleshooting Problems with the Internet

Services
In the exercise that follows, you will work with your partner to corrupt, then fix the internet
service configuration on the server machine that you chose at the beginning of this lab.
The list below suggests several different ways to corrupt the internet service configuration on
your "server" machine. Take turns being the "corrupter" and the "troubleshooter.”
The "corrupter" should perform any one of the corruption techniques from the list below on
the "server" machine. It is the duty of the "troubleshooter,” then to do whatever is necessary
on the server to enable the client to successfully telnet to the server.
Try the exercise several times, alternating roles as "corrupter" and "troubleshooter.”
Before starting the exercise, shutdown CDE:
/sbin/init.d/dtlogin.rc stop
Eight Ways to Corrupt an Internet Service Server

1. Kill the inetd daemon with inetd –k.
2. Comment out the telnet line in /etc/inetd.conf and restart inetd.
3. Comment out the telnet line in /etc/services and restart inetd.
4. Take down the server's LAN card with ifconfig lan0 down.
5. Change the server's IP address with ifconfig lan0 254.254.254.254.
6. Detach the LAN cable on the server.
7. Change the client's network entry in the server's routing table.
8. Deny the client telnet access via /var/adm/inetd.sec.
Part 7: Cleanup
in before this lab.

Module 13
13–15. REVIEW QUESTIONS: Configuring and Securing

ARPA/Berkeley Services
Directions
1. What is the difference between a daemon and a server process?
2. List some Internet Services daemons and server processes.
3. What does inetd do? What is the advantage in its functioning?
4. What is the name of the inetd configuration file?
5. What command do you use after modifying the configuration file?

Module 13
6. What is a port? What file associates port numbers with a service name?
7. List at least four security features of the Internet Services.
8. Which server processes use the /etc/hosts.equiv and $HOME/.rhosts files?
9. Are the /etc/hosts.equiv and $HOME/.rhosts files optional for using the Berkeley
Services? Explain your answer.
10. What is the name and what are the features of the security file that ftpd uses?
11. What is an anonymous ftp?

Module 13
12. What is the security feature of /var/adm/inetd.sec?
13. What is wrong in the following inetd.sec example?

rlogin allow 192.6.1
14. If inetd logging is enabled, which file contains the logging output?

Objectives
• Describe the purpose of bootp and tftp.
• Configure bootp and tftp services.
• Describe the purpose and contents of the bootptab file.
• Describe the purpose of a network-based printer.
• Configure a bootptab entry for a network printer using hppi.

Module 14
Configuring BOOTP/TFTP
14–1. SLIDE: What Are bootp and tftp?
BOOTP / TFTP Concept
BOOTP / TFTP make it possible to configure network settings

for network printers and other devices from a
central BOOTP/TFTP server
My MAC is 0x080009000001. What’s my IP?

BOOTP broadcast/response
Use IP = 128.1.1.1
GET hpnpl/myprinter.cfg
TFTP request/response
BOOTP/TFTP BOOTP/TFTP
hpnpl/myprinter.cfg
Client Server
Student Notes
The Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP) allows certain network client devices such as network
printers to obtain their TCP/IP configuration and boot information from another system on
the network.
After obtaining network parameters from a BOOTP server, some BOOTP clients download
additional configuration information from the BOOTP server via the Trivial File Transfer
Protocol (TFTP). TFTP supports get, put, and several other ftp-like commands.
In HP-UX, TFTP and BOOTP services are provided via the inetd daemon, and utilize the
UDP transport protocol. When inetd receives a BOOTP broadcast on port 67, it spawns a
/usr/lbin/bootpd server process to respond to the client. When inetd receives a TFTP
request on port 69, it spawns a /usr/lbin/tftpd server process to handle the request.
If you manage multiple network printers, BOOTP provides a convenient central point of
administration to manage the printers’ TCP/IP configuration information.

Module 14
14–2. SLIDE: Enabling bootp and tftp Services
Enabling bootp and tftp Services
1. Enable BOOTP and TFTP services:

# /usr/sbin/setup_bootp
# /usr/sbin/setup_tftp -h
2. Verify that the services are defined in /etc/services:
# cat /etc/services
bootps 67/udp
tftp 69/udp
3. Verify that the services are defined and enabled in /etc/inetd.conf:
# cat /etc/inetd.conf
bootps dgram udp wait root /usr/lbin/bootpd bootpd
tftp dgram udp wait root /usr/lbin/tftp tftp
4. Verify that the tftp account is defined in /etc/passwd:
# cat /etc/passwd
tftp:*:510:1:Trivial FTP User:/home/tftpdir:/usr/bin/false
5. Verify that /home/tftpdir exists:

# ll -d /home/tftpdir/
dr-xr-xr-x 2 tftp other 96 Aug 27 17:17 /home/tftpdir/
Student Notes
Several configuration files must be modified to support BOOTP/TFTP.
1. Enable BOOTP/TFTP service. Two undocumented programs in the /usr/sbin directory

automatically modify the files necessary to enable BOOTP/TFTP. The first command,
/usr/sbin/setup_bootp, doesn’t require any options or arguments. If you later
decide to disable BOOTP, run the command again with the –D option.
# setup_bootp
The /usr/sbin/setup_tftp –h command enables TFTP. The –h option adds a

TFTP entry to the /etc/passwd file and creates a /home/tftpdir home directory.
Optionally, you can specify additional directories as arguments on the end of the
command line. If your TFTP server will also be an Ignite-UX server, Ignite clients require
TFTP access to the /opt/ignite and /var/opt/ignite directories. TFTP users will
only be able to access files in the TFTP home directory, and directories specified as
arguments on the end of the setup_tftp command. Note that TFTP doesn’t prompt for
usernames or passwords, so you should restrict the list of directories that you make
available via this service. If you later decide to disable TFTP, run the setup_tftp

Module 14
command again with the –D option.
# setup_tftp –h [dirname]
2. Verify that the services are defined in /etc/services. BOOTP and TFTP should both
appear in the /etc/services file. The BOOTP server uses UDP port#67, and the TFTP
server uses UDP port#69. These entries are added to /etc/services as part of the
InternetSrvcs product that is loaded as a standard part of the OS, so no changes should be
required.
# cat /etc/services
bootps 67/udp
tftp 69/udp
3. Verify that the services are defined and enabled in /etc/inetd.conf. The bootps and
tftp lines in /etc/inetd.conf must be commented in. The setup_bootp and
setup_tftp programs mentioned above should do this automatically. If you specified
any directories that should be made available via TFTP in addition to /home/tftpdir,
those directories should be listed as arguments on the end of the tftp line.
# cat /etc/inetd.conf
bootps dgram udp wait root /usr/lbin/bootpd bootpd
tftp dgram udp wait root /usr/lbin/tftp tftp [dirname]
4. Verify that the TFTP account is defined in /etc/passwd. TFTP uses this /etc/passwd
file entry to determine which directory should be made available to TFTP users. The
setup_tftp command above should take care of this automatically. The account
should be disabled to ensure that TFTP users can’t login via telnet or any other
interactive shell login.
# cat /etc/passwd
tftp:*:510:1:Trivial FTP User:/home/tftpdir:/usr/bin/false
5. Verify that /home/tftpdir/ exists. TFTP users will be chroot’ed to this directory at
login, and all files under this directory will be accessible to TFTP users. setup_tftp
should create this directory for you.
# ll -d /home/tftpdir/
dr-xr-xr-x 2 tftp other 96 Aug 27 17:17 /home/tftpdir/

Module 14
14–3. SLIDE: Configuring /etc/bootptab
Configuring /etc/bootptab
The bootpd server process uses the /etc/bootptab file

to determine which IP address should be associated
with#each
vi MAC address. This file can be manually edited.
/etc/bootptab
myprinter:\
hn:\
ht=ether:\
ha=080009a752c3:\
ip=128.1.1.4:\
sm=255.255.0.0:\
gw=128.1.0.1:\
dn=ca.hp.com:\
ds=128.1.1.1:\
T144=“myprinter.cfg”:\
vm=rfc1048
Student Notes
The /etc/bootptab file tells the BOOTP daemon which network parameters are required
for each BOOTP client. When the /usr/lbin/bootpd daemon receives a BOOTP
broadcast, it compares the clients MAC address to the ha (hardware address) field in each
/etc/bootptab entry. When it finds a matching record, it returns the IP address, subnet
mask, and other information back to the client.

Module 14
The example on the slide is an /etc/bootptab entry for a network printer.
# cat /etc/bootptab
+----------------------------
|myprinter:\
| hn:\
| ht=ether:\
| ha=080009a752c3:\
| ip=128.1.1.4:\
| sm=255.255.0.0:\
| gw=128.1.0.1:\
| dn=ca.hp.com:\
| ds=128.1.1.1:\
| T144=“hpnp/myprinter.cfg”:\
| vm=rfc1048
+-----------------------------
The table below describes the fields in the example above. Read the extensive comments at
the top of the /etc/bootptab to learn about other supported fields.
Field Purpose
myprinter Indicates the device’s hostname
hn Indicates that the hostname should be included in the BOOTP response
ht Indicates the device’s interface card type
ip Indicates the IP address to include in the BOOTP response
sm Indicates the subnet mask to include in the BOOTP response
gw Indicates the default gateway to include in the BOOTP response
dn Indicates the DNS domain name to include in the BOOTP response
ds Indicates the DNS nameserver address to include in the BOOTP response
T144 Indicates the configuration file that the client should download via TFTP
vm Indicates the “vendor magic cookie”, (http://www.faqs.org/rfcs/rfc1048.html)
You can edit the /etc/bootptab file using any text editor, but many administrators prefer
to manage the file via automated utilities such as HP’s hppi utility, which is described on the
next page. Changes in the /etc/bootptab file take effect immediately.

Module 14
14–4. SLIDE: Configuring /etc/bootptab via hppi (1 of 2)
Configuring /etc/bootptab via hppi (1 of 2)
You can add entries to /etc/bootptab using any editor,

but for network printers it’s easier to use HP’s hppi utility.
1. Enable BOOTP and TFTP

# setup_bootp
# setup_tftp –h
2. Install the HP Network PrinterLibrary product

# swlist HPNPL
3. Add the printer’s hostname to DNS or /etc/hosts

# vi /etc/hosts
4. Run the HP Printer Installer

# hppi -> JetDirect Configuration
-> Create printer configuration in BOOTP/TFTP database
Student Notes
When adding BOOTP entries for network printers, it’s easiest to edit the /etc/bootptab
file via the hppi (HP Printer Installer) utility from HP.
Before you begin, you will need to know the new printer's:
• MAC address
• IP address
• Hostname
• Subnet mask
• Default gateway address (optional)
• DNS domain name (optional)
• DNS name server address (optional)
The IP address, hostname, netmask, gateway, and DNS address all may be obtained from
your network administrator. Print a test page on the printer to determine the printer's MAC
address.

Module 14
With this information in hand, you can begin configuring your printer!
1. Enable the BOOTP and TFTP services.
# setup_bootp
# setup_tftp –h
2. Install the HPNPL product (J4189-1101B). HP recommends using a menu-based utility
called hppi to configure BOOTP/TFTP service for network printers. hppi is part of the
HPNPL (HP Network Printer Library) product, which is available from the
http://www.hp.com website. Follow the instructions on the website to download and
install the HPNPL software.
# swlist HPNPL
3. Add the printer’s hostname to DNS or /etc/hosts
# vi /etc/hosts
4. Run the HP Printer Installer. The next slide explains the hppi menus in detail.
# hppi
-> JetDirect Configuration

Module 14
14–5. SLIDE: Configuring /etc/bootptab via hppi (2 of 2)
Configuring /etc/bootptab via hppi (2 of 2)
# hppi -> JetDirect Configuration

Enter the printer's LAN hardware address: 080009000003

Enter the network printer name (q - quit): myprinter
Enter IP address: 128.1.1.4
Add dprinter and 128.1.1.4 to /etc/hosts? (default=y): y
Other optional parameters:

-------------------------
1) Set printer location (uses tftp)
2) Set printer contact (uses tftp)
3) Set subnetmask
4) Set gateway
5) Set syslog (uses tftp)
6) Change idle timeout (uses tftp)
7) Create access list (up to 10 names) (uses tftp)
8) Other SNMP parameters (uses tftp)
9) set HP JetDirect lpd banner page
Select an item for change, or '0' to configure (quit): 0
Student Notes
hppi is an intuitive, menu drive utility that allows you to manage BOOTP/TFTP entries for
network printers and add HP Jetdirect-based network printers to your LP spooler
configuration.
The screen captures below demonstrate the complete process required to add a
BOOTP/TFTP entry via hppi.
# hppi
****************************************************************
*****] ****
**** ] **** JetDirect Printer Installer for UNIX
**** ]]]]] ]]]]] **** Version E.10.18
**** ] ] ] ] ****
**** ] ] ]]]]] **** M A I N M E N U
***** ] ****
****** ] **** User: (root) OS: (HP-UX B.11.11)
I N V E N T
****************************************************************

Module 14
1) Spooler Administration (super-user only)
2) JetDirect Configuration (super-user only)

- TCP/IP configurable parameters
3) Diagnostics:
- diagnose printing problems
?) Help q) Quit
Please enter a selection (q - quit): 2
****************************************************************
*****] ****
**** ] **** JetDirect Printer Installer for UNIX
**** ]]]]] ]]]]] **** Version E.10.18
**** ] ] ] ] ****
**** ] ] ]]]]] **** M A I N M E N U
***** ] ****
****** ] **** User: (root) OS: (HP-UX B.11.11)
I N V E N T
****************************************************************
Printer Network Interface:

1) Create printer configuration in BOOTP/TFTP database
2) Remove printer configuration from BOOTP/TFTP
3) Check Bootp and TFTP operation (super-user only)
- OR -
Telnet Configure JetDirect:

4) Set IP Address locally
(within your local subnet - router)
5) Open Telnet Session to JetDirect Card
?) Help Me Decide q) Quit
Please enter selection: 1
You will be asked a series of questions. After all of the questions

have been answered, the responses are used to create an
/etc/bootptab entry, and an optional configuration file. This
configuration file is retrieved by the network printer with TFTP
after it receives the BOOTP response.
These responses apply to all questions:

"q" - returns you to the next higher level menu
"?" - prints help text
<return> - skips optional parameters or selects the default value

Module 14
Enter the printer's LAN hardware address: 080009000001
Enter the network printer name (q - quit): myprinter
Following are optional parameters you may set for JetDirect. Select
any non-zero numbers to make the changes. The settings are used to
create a BOOTP/TFTP database when '0' is selected. To abort the
operation, press 'q'

-------------------------
3) Set subnetmask
4) Set gateway
7) Create access list (up to 10 names). (Default: all allowed).
Select an item for change, or '0' to configure (q - quit): 1
Enter the printer location (q - quit): print room

-------------------------
3) Set subnetmask
4) Set gateway
Enter printer contact (q - quit): darren

Module 14

-------------------------
3) Set subnetmask
4) Set gateway
Enter a subnet mask using dot notation (optional): 255.255.255.0

-------------------------
3) Set subnetmask
4) Set gateway
Enter default gateway name or address (optional): 128.1.0.1

-------------------------
3) Set subnetmask
4) Set gateway

Module 14
(configuring) ...
Completed creating BOOTP/TFTP configuration database for r816p1.
Tftp service is also used to boot up JetDirect. Make

sure /var/adm/inetd.sec allows JetDirect's IP to access
tftp service on this node.
Please wait...
(testing, please wait) ...
Testing BOOTP with 080009000000...:
RESULT: Passed BOOTP test 1 with 080009000000.
BOOTP/TFTP has been verified functional.
Configuration data is now in place. The next test is to ping the

printer for the IP name you just assigned it. To continue the test,
you MUST do the following so that the printer can configure itself
with the configuration data:
Power cycle the printer.

Wait until the printer finishes the self test.
(Note: It may take 20 sec to 1 min for a token ring HP
JetDirect interface to finish the configuration.)
Press the return key to continue the test.
If you are not ready for the next test (for example, the IP name
has not taken affect in your DNS server), press 'q' to return to
the configuration menu now.
Do you want to send test file(s) to this printer (y/n, default=n)? n
During the testing phase at the end of the process you may see an error message regarding a
port conflict with rbootd. rbootd is an old network service that supported diskless
devices prior to 10.x. The /etc/bootptab entry should be added despite the rbootd
warning; hppi simply warns you that it wasn’t able to verify the configuration as a result of a
port conflict with rbootd. If you disable rbootd in /etc/rc.config.d/netdaemons,
you won’t see the error message.

Module 14
The resulting bootptab entry should look something like this:
# tail /etc/bootptab
myprinter:\
:ht=ether:\
:ha=080009000001:\
:sm=255.255.0.0:\
:gw=128.1.0.1:\
:hn:\
:ip=128.1.0.2:\
:T144="hpnpl/myprinter.cfg":\
:vm=rfc1048:
If you specified any of the optional parameters, you should also find a configuration file in
the TFTP home directory containing those parameters.
# cat /home/tftpdir/hpnpl/myprinter.cfg
idle-timeout: 120
location: print room
contact: darren

Module 14
14–6. LAB: Managing a bootp/tftp Server
Part 1: Basic bootp/tftp Configuration

1. The bootp/tftp services are bundled in the InternetSrvcs product. Ensure the
InternetSrvcs product is installed on your machine.
Answer:
2. Run the config_bootp and config_tftp -h commands to enable BOOTP/TFTP.
Answer:
3. Verify that the bootps and tftp services are both enabled in /etc/inetd.conf and
the /etc/services file.
Answer:
4. Verify that the TFTP account exists in /etc/passwd and that a TFTP home directory was
created.
Answer:

Module 14
Part 2: Configuring a Network Printer in /etc/bootptab

1. Kill the rbootd daemon to avoid port conflicts with hppi.
# ps –ef |grep rbootd

# kill PID
2. Verify that the HPNPL bundle is installed on your system.
Answer:
3. Using hppi, create a bootptab entry for a network printer. Use the hardware address,
IP address, host name, subnet mask, and default router address provided by your
instructor. Use your classroom's room name or number as the printer location, and your
own name as the printer contact.
Answer:
4. Check the /etc/bootptab file for changes made by hppi. Name three pieces of
information defined in the printer's new entry in bootptab.
Answer
5. At this point your machine is ready to service bootp requests from the network printer
you configured.
6. Now remove the new printer bootp configuration from your machine using hppi.
# /opt/hpnpl/bin/hppi
-> (2) JetDirect Configuration
-> (2) Remove printer configuration from BOOTP/TFTP database

Objectives
• List three reasons for implementing network time synchronization.
• Describe the NTP stratum level concept.
• Define the following terms:
− NTP server
− NTP peer
− NTP broadcast client
− NTP polling client
• Configure an NTP server.
• Configure an NTP broadcast client.
• Configure an NTP direct-poll client.
• Monitor NTP using the ntpq command.

Module 15
Configuring NTP
15–1. SLIDE: Introduction to the Network Time Protocol (NTP)
Introduction to the Network Time Protocol

(NTP)
• Time synchronization determines consistency of:

- Time stamps used by incremental backup utilities
- Encryption key expiration times
- Programmer’s make files, and other applications
• HP-UX uses NTP to maintain time synchronization:
Without 9:02:15 9:03:02 9:01:52

NTP
9:02:15 9:02:15 9:02:15

With NTP
NTP Server NTP Client NTP Client
Student Notes
Many computer applications rely on the system clock to accurately determine the current
system time.
• System backup utilities use the system clock and file time stamps to determine which
files should be included in incremental backups.
• More and more security sensitive organizations are using Kerberos or other
authentication/encryption mechanisms to protect their data. These security tools often
use authentication keys that expire after a period of time. In order for this mechanism to
function properly, the system clock must be accurate!
• Programmers oftentimes use the make utility to compile and link programs. make
depends on the system clock and file time stamps to determine when source code files
have changed.
In large, networked environments where hosts share files and other resources, it is critical
that hosts maintain accurate, or at least consistent, time to avoid causing problems for the
time-sensitive applications listed above. Humans rarely notice a discrepancy of one or two
seconds between hosts, but time-sensitive applications might!

Module 15
Configuring NTP
Unfortunately, the built-in clocks in today's computers are not perfect. Even the best system
clocks may gain or lose a second or two per day. In order to ensure consistent time stamps
across their LANs, many administrators choose to synchronize their hosts' system clocks
using the Network Time Protocol, or NTP.
NTP was developed at the University of Delaware, and is bundled with HP-UX. The HP-UX
xntpd daemon is used to implement the NTP service in HP-UX.
NTP is configurable through the command line or through SAM.

Module 15
Configuring NTP
15–2. SLIDE: NTP Time Sources
NTP Time Sources
NTP time sources can include:
• Radio clocks using signals from GPS satellites

(~cost $1000, most accurate)
• Network time sources on the Internet

(free, but less accurate)
• Built-in system clocks

(free, but least accurate)
Student Notes
NTP can be used to synchronize system clocks using a variety of time sources:
• A radio clock can be attached to the serial port of an HP-UX system. A radio clock
determines the current time using signals from GPS (Global Positioning System) satellites
or other radio time sources. Radio clocks are among the most accurate time sources, but
cost several thousand dollars. A list of radio clock suppliers is available at
http://www.ece.udel.edu/~ntp. Before purchasing a clock, verify that the model
you choose is supported by HP.
• If you cannot afford a radio clock, a public NTP timeserver on the network can be used to
synchronize a system's clock. A list of public NTP timeservers on the public internet is
available from http://www.ece.udel.edu/~ntp.
• If you do not have a radio clock or an Internet connection, select one host on your local
network as your "authoritative" time source. Other nodes on the LAN, then, can
synchronize their system clocks to the selected "authoritative" source. This guarantees
that hosts on your LAN agree on a common system time, but does not guarantee that your
hosts are synchronized with other hosts outside your local network.

Module 15
Configuring NTP
15–3. SLIDE: NTP Stratum Levels
NTP Stratum Levels
Accuracy of a time source is defined by its stratum level:
• Stratum = 1 Most accurate

• Stratum = 15 Least accurate
S1
System with a locally attached radio clock
S2
System getting time from an S1 NTP server
S3
System getting time from an S2 NTP server
Student Notes
NTP Stratum Levels

In a large network, several hierarchically organized timeservers can be used to synchronize
the clocks of all systems on the network. Every network time source is assigned a "stratum
level,” which reflects the time source's accuracy.
Hosts with directly connected radio clocks are considered stratum 1 time sources.
Timeservers that obtain the system time by polling a stratum 1 server across the Internet are
typically considered stratum 2 servers. Servers that obtain the system time from stratum 2
servers are typically considered stratum 3 servers. Thus, servers with lower stratum levels
are likely to be more accurate time sources.
NTP Network Delay

Note, however, that a server's stratum level is not the only parameter that affects the quality
of a time source. Network delay is often a critical factor to consider when choosing a time
source. Collisions, routers, and heavy network traffic can all dramatically affect the quality of
time service available from an NTP server.

Module 15
Configuring NTP
Choosing an NTP Time Source

When choosing an NTP timeserver, start by consulting the University of Delaware web page
NTP server list. Then ping a few servers, and choose the server with the best round trip
ping travel time. Servers that yield ping values greater than 500ms should be avoided.
NTP Etiquette
Before you configure your xntpd daemon to access a public NTP timeserver, check the
University of Delaware web page to see if the server administrator requires some sort of
registration, or imposes any restrictions on NTP clients. Ideally, you should configure two or
three NTP servers on your local network to poll a stratum 1 or 2 server on the Internet, then
configure other hosts on your local network to poll these local NTP servers. This minimizes
the load on the public timeservers.

Module 15
Configuring NTP
15–4. SLIDE: NTP Roles
NTP Roles
server1a server1b server1c server1d server1e server1f
Stratum 1
Servers
server2a server2b server2c
Stratum 2
Server peers peers
Peers
Broadcast Clients Direct Polling Clients
Student Notes
When implementing NTP on a network, systems can play four possible roles:
NTP Servers An NTP server provides time service to other systems.
NTP Peers Many NTP servers form peer relationships with other same-
stratum servers. If a stratum 2 server loses connectivity to its
stratum 1 time source, it may temporarily use the time service
provided by a stratum 2 peer.
NTP Direct Polling Clients A direct polling client regularly polls one or more NTP servers,
compares the servers' responses, and synchronizes the system
clock to the most accurate time source.
NTP Broadcast Clients An NTP broadcast client passively listens for NTP broadcasts
from NTP servers on the local network. Broadcast clients
generate less network traffic than direct polling clients, but
provide less accuracy.
The example on the slide shows a typical NTP configuration. The servers at the top of the
slide are stratum 1 servers on the Internet with locally attached radio clocks.

Module 15
Configuring NTP
The second tier servers on the slide are stratum 2 servers that poll stratum 1 servers to obtain
the current system time. It is recommended that each stratum 2 NTP server consult three or
more stratum 1 servers to ensure reliability. The xntpd daemon will automatically poll both
stratum 1 servers and synchronize to the source that it deems most accurate. To further
improve reliability, each stratum 2 server should form a peer relationship with one or more
other stratum 2 servers.
Finally, the slide shows two broadcast clients that passively listen for NTP broadcasts, and
two direct polling clients that regularly poll their respective servers to obtain NTP service. If
you have several NTP servers on your local network, you may choose to have your clients
poll all of these servers to ensure reliability.

Module 15
Configuring NTP
15–5. SLIDE: Defining NTP Servers via /etc/ntp.conf
Defining NTP Servers via /etc/ntp.conf
# vi /etc/ntp.conf
/etc/ntp.conf for
server 127.127.26.1
server1a, with a locally
attached radio clock. peer server1b
peer server1c
# vi /etc/ntp.conf
/etc/ntp.conf for server server1a
server 2a, which polls server server1b
two stratum 1 servers, and peer server2b
provides broadcast service.
driftfile /etc/ntp.drift
broadcast 128.1.255.255
# vi /etc/ntp.conf
/etc/ntp.conf for
a stratum 10 server that uses
server 127.127.1.1
its own local system clock. fudge 127.127.1.1 stratum 10
broadcast 128.1.255.255
Student Notes
The /etc/ntp.conf file is used to define a system's NTP relationships with other systems
on the network. The file is read by the xntpd daemon during the system startup process.
Configuration for a Stratum–1 Server with a Radio Clock

To configure a stratum 1 server, add the following lines to the /etc/ntp.conf file (this
sample file might be used by server1a in the example on the previous slide):
# vi /etc/ntp.conf
server 127.127.26.1
peer server1b
peer server1c
Notes regarding the above entry:

• The 127.127.26.1 IP address is a pseudo IP address that xntpd uses to determine what
type of radio clock is attached to your system. This particular address indicates that the
system has an HP58503A GPS clock attached. Refer to the comment lines in
/etc/ntp.conf for the pseudo IP addresses used by other clocks.

Module 15
Configuring NTP
• Each radio clock server should peer with several other stratum-1 servers in case the local
radio clock becomes unavailable. This sample file defines peer relationships with
server1b and server1c.
Configuration for a Stratum–2 Server

Below is an example of NTP configured for stratum 2-server server2a from the previous
diagram.
# vi /etc/ntp.conf
server server1a
server server1b
peer server2b
broadcast 128.1.255.255

• The server entries determine which stratum 1 servers this server should poll to obtain
time service.
• The peer entry defines a peer relationship with another stratum 2 server, server2b.
• The driftfile entry specifies the name of a file to use to track long-term drift of the
local clock.
• The broadcast entry causes xntpd to regularly broadcast the official NTP time to
broadcast clients on the 128.1.0.0/16 network.
Configuration for a Local NTP Server Using its Internal Clock

To configure an NTP server to use its own system clock as an authoritative time source, add
the following lines to the server's /etc/ntp.conf file:
server 127.127.1.1 prefer

fudge 127.127.1.1 stratum 10
broadcast 128.1.255.255

• The IP address is a psuedo IP address that identifies the local system as a time source.
• The fudge entry defines a stratum level to be assigned to this clock. It is a good idea to
treat the internal system clock as a stratum 10 time source so clients that have access to
real NTP servers will synchronize to those servers.
• The broadcast entry causes the server to broadcast NTP information to broadcast
clients on the 128.1.255.255 network.
• This method of time synchronization should only be used on networks with no access to
an external time source.

Module 15
Configuring NTP
15–6. SLIDE: Defining NTP Clients via /etc/ntp.conf
Defining NTP Clients via /etc/ntp.conf
# vi /etc/ntp.conf
server server2a
/etc/ntp.conf for
server server2b
a direct polling client
# vi /etc/ntp.conf
/etc/ntp.conf for
broadcastclient yes
a broadcast client
Student Notes
Each NTP client should have an /etc/ntp.conf configuration file, too.
Configuration for a Client using Direct Server Polling

To configure a client to poll a specific NTP server, add the following line to the client's
/etc/ntp.conf file:
# vi /etc/ntp.conf
server server2a
server server2b

• The client will periodically poll server2a and server2b. The default polling interval starts
at 64 seconds, but may increase over time. Each client should poll multiple NTP servers
to ensure reliability.
• The driftfile is used to track differences between the client's time and the server's
time. As the driftfile stabilizes, the server will be polled less frequently.

Module 15
Configuring NTP
Configuration for a Client using Broadcast Polling

To configure a client to listen for time broadcasts, add the following line to the client's
/etc/ntp.conf file:
# vi /etc/ntp.conf
broadcastclient yes

• The client will passively listen for NTP broadcasts and adjust his clock appropriately.
• This method is recommended over direct server polling for large networks since it
significantly reduces NTP network traffic.
• Clients must be on the same subnet as the NTP broadcast server.

Module 15
Configuring NTP
15–7. SLIDE: How NTP Adjusts the System Clock
How NTP Adjusts the System Clock
/usr/sbin/ntpdate -b server server server

• Utility called once at system boot
• Polls one or more NTP servers
• "Steps" local clock immediately to match the most accurate server
/usr/sbin/xntpd
• Daemon started at system boot
• Polls one or more NTP servers at regular intervals
• "Slews" local clock gradually to match the most accurate server
/etc/ntp.drift
• File maintained and used by xntpd
• Tracks the local clock’s accuracy over time
Student Notes
NTP provides three different mechanisms for synchronizing your system clock with other
nodes on the network.
The ntpdate Command

The ntpdate command, when executed with the –b option, polls one or more NTP servers,
then immediately "steps" the system clock to synchronize with the most accurate NTP server.
This is the quickest way to get a client's clock in sync with the NTP server's time. However,
stepping the system clock forward (or backward!) can wreak havoc on running applications.
For this reason, most systems only execute ntpdate during system startup, before
applications are launched.
The xntpd Daemon

After ntpdate initially synchronizes the system clock at boot time, the xntpd daemon runs
continuously in the background, periodically polling the NTP servers defined in
/etc/ntp.conf, and "slewing" the system clock as necessary to maintain synchronization.
These small, gradual adjustments over time should be transparent to your applications. If the
local clock ever diverges from the NTP time sources by more than 1000 seconds, the xntpd
daemon assumes that the server has been corrupted, and dies.

Module 15
Configuring NTP
The /etc/ntp.drift File

A system's internal system clock will tend to be consistently fast, or slow, relative to the NTP
timeservers. Over time, the xntpd daemon computes the internal system clock's average
"drift,” compensates accordingly, and polls the NTP servers less frequently. This minimizes
NTP network traffic.
Configuring a driftfile entry in /etc/ntp.conf causes xntpd to record the internal

system clock's average drift in the /etc/ntp.drift file. The driftfile allows xntpd to
reestablish more quickly the system clock drift value after reboots.

Module 15
Configuring NTP
15–8. SLIDE: Configuring an NTP Server
Configuring an NTP Server
1. Modify the /etc/rc.config.d/netdaemons file.

export NTPDATE_SERVER=
export XNTPD=1
export XNTPD_ARGS=
2. Modify the /etc/TIMEZONE file as appropriate.
TZ=CST6CDT
export TZ
3. Modify /etc/ntp.conf as described previously.
4. Run the /sbin/init.d/xntpd startup script.
5. Wait for NTP to establish associations with servers and peers. Be patient!
6. Run ntpq -p to check associations.
Student Notes
Several steps are required to configure an NTP server:
1. Edit the /etc/rc.config.d/netdaemons file to configure the xntpd daemon to
startup every time the system boots. Set the XNTPD variable to equal 1.
export NTPDATE_SERVER=
export XNTPD=1
export XNTPD_ARGS=
If the server uses a radio clock, or the internal system clock, leave the NTPDATE_SERVER
variable null. If the server obtains its system time from other network timeservers, the
NTPDATE_SERVER variable should be set equal to a space-separated list of timeservers.
2. Edit the /etc/TIMEZONE file and specify the correct time zone for the system. Set the
TZ variable to equal the time zone for the system. See the /usr/lib/tztab file for a list
of all the available time zones.
# vi /etc/TIMEZONE
TZ=CST6CDT
export TZ

Module 15
Configuring NTP
3. Edit the /etc/ntp.conf file and define the NTP server as described earlier in this
module.
4. Start the xntpd daemon manually by executing the following command:

# sbin/init.d/xntpd start
5. Wait. It could take up to 6 minutes for the xntpd daemon to stabilize.
6. Verify the NTP server configuration (and its association with peer NTP servers) by
executing the following command:
# ntpq -p
More information on the ntpq command is contained in the upcoming slides.

Module 15
Configuring NTP
15–9. SLIDE: Configuring an NTP Client
Configuring an NTP Client
1. Modify the /etc/rc.config.d/netdaemons file.

export NTPDATE_SERVER=’NTPserver1 NTPserver2’
export XNTPD=1
export XNTPD_ARGS=
2. Modify the /etc/TIMEZONE file as appropriate on all clients and servers.
TZ=CST6CDT
export TZ
3. Modify /etc/ntp.conf as described previously.
4. Run the /sbin/init.d/xntpd startup script.
5. Wait for NTP to establish associations with servers and peers. Be patient!
6. Run ntpq -p to check associations.
Student Notes
The procedure for configuring an NTP client is virtually identical to that of configuring an
NTP server — only the contents of the configuration files change.
The complete, step-by-step procedure for configuring an NTP client is:

1. Edit the /etc/rc.config.d/netdaemons file to configure the xntpd daemon to
startup every time the system boots. Set the XNTPD variable to 1, and specify which NTP
servers to query when the ntpdate command is used:
export NTPDATE_SERVER='NTPserver1 NTPserver2'
export XNTPD=1
export XNTPD_ARGS=
2. Edit the /etc/TIMEZONE file and specify the correct time zone for the client system. See
the /usr/lib/tztab file for a list of all the available time zones.
# vi /etc/TIMEZONE
TZ=CST6CDT
export TZ

Module 15
Configuring NTP
3. Edit the /etc/ntp.conf file and define the NTP client as described earlier in this
module.
4. Start the xntpd daemon manually by executing the following command:

# /sbin/init.d/xntpd start
5. Wait for the xntpd daemon to start. It could take up to 6 minutes for the daemon to
establish an association with its NTP servers and peers.
6. Verify association with NTP server(s) and peers were correctly established. Execute the
command:
# ntpq -p

Module 15
Configuring NTP
15–10. SLIDE: Verifying NTP Functionality
Verifying NTP Functionality
• View NTP activity and errors over time:

# more /var/adm/syslog/syslog.log
• Verify that the xntpd daemon is running:

# ps -e | grep xntpd
• Check associations with other nodes:

# ntpq -p
remote refid st t when poll reach delay offset disp
---------------------------------------------------------------
*server2a server1a 3 u 64 64 377 0.87 10.56 16.11
+server2b server1b 3 u 100 264 376 9.89 5.94 16.40
server2c 0.0.0.0 16 - - 64 0 0.00 0.00 1600.00
Student Notes
Several tools are available to verify that NTP is functioning properly.
• Check the syslog.log log file:
# tail /var/adm/syslog/syslog.log
When the xntpd daemon starts up, it logs a number of entries to the
/var/adm/syslog/syslog.log log file, including:
− Timestamps of when the xntpd was started and stopped.

− Associations formed with other nodes running NTP.
− Errors found in the /etc/ntp.conf file.
• Verify that the xntpd daemon is running by executing the ps command:
# ps –e | grep xntpd

Module 15
Configuring NTP
• View the relationships established by your xntpd daemon by executing the ntpq -p
command.
# ntpq -p
remote refid st t when poll reach delay offset disp
---------------------------------------------------------------
*server2a server1a 3 u 64 64 377 0.87 10.56 16.11
+server2b server1b 3 u 100 264 376 9.89 5.94 16.40
server2c 0.0.0.0 16 - - 64 0 0.00 0.00 1600.00
ntpq displays several fields of information for each of the defined NTP relationships. The
fields are described below:
remote: Identifies the NTP source’s host name.

refid: Where the NTP source obtained its time (0.0.0.0 indicates a downed server).
st: Stratum level of the source (low is best!).
t: Source type. l=local GPS, radio, or system clock; u=unicast; b=broadcast.
when: How long has it been since the server responded to a poll?
poll: How frequently is NTP polling the server?
reach: A value of 0 means the server is unreachable; 377 means that all recent probes
have been successful.
delay: Milliseconds required for the server to reply to a query (low is best!).
offset: Milliseconds difference between the this host and the server (low is best!).
disp: How much does the network delay vary from poll to poll? (low is best!)
The NTP source that you are currently synchronized to is indicated by a “*”. Other strong
contenders are indicated by a “+”. “-“ indicates a discarded source.

Module 15
Configuring NTP
15–11. LAB: Introduction to NTP
Directions
Your instructor will assign you to work with a team of your classmates to configure an NTP
server, and one or more NTP clients. Record the host names and chosen roles of your
teammates' machines below.
NTP server: ___________
NTP client: ____________
NTP client: ____________
Record the commands you use to complete the steps below, and answer all questions.
Preliminary Step
Part 1: Configuring an NTP Server

The steps below should only be configured on the host you have chosen to be the NTP server.
Do not start configuring the NTP clients until the server configuration is complete.
Since you probably do not have access to a radio clock in the classroom, use the NTP server's
internal system clock as the authoritative time source for your team.
1. Set the local clock forward 2 minutes so the clients can actually see a clock "step" after
enabling NTP.
date MMDDhhmm
xclock -update 1 &
2. Add a server line to the end of the /etc/ntp.conf file defining the local clock as the
only time source. Since the internal system clock is not likely to be accurate, set the
stratum level of this time source to 10.
# vi /etc/ntp.conf
server 127.127.1.1

Module 15
Configuring NTP
3. Modify the /etc/rc.config.d/netdaemons file to enable XNTPD on the server. Do

not specify an NTP date server.
NTPDATE_SERVER=
XNTPD=1
XNTPD_ARGS=
4. Run the NTP startup script to start the xntpd daemon.

5. After xntpd starts, it takes 5 poll cycles (320 seconds) to establish the appropriate peer
and server relationships. Wait 5 minutes before proceeding on to the next question.
6. Is the xntpd daemon running? Are there any NTP errors in the syslog?
If all is well, the daemon should be running, and there should not be any XNTPD
"ERROR"s in the syslog.
7. Does ntpq -p suggest that the correct association has been formed? What stratum level
did NTP assign to your local clock?
# ntpq -p
There should be one line in the ntpq -p output showing that the local clock is being
used as a stratum 10 time source.

Module 15
Configuring NTP
Part 2: Configuring an NTP Client

Do not start this procedure until you confirm that your NTP server is fully functional. The
steps below should only be performed on the host(s) you have chosen as NTP clients.
1. Add appropriate server and drift file lines to your /etc/ntp.conf file to poll the NTP
server created in the previous portion of the exercise.
vi /etc/ntp.conf
server 128.1.1.1 # assume 128.1.1.1 is the NTP srvr IP
You may use the server's hostname rather than the IP if you wish.
Note: xntp must be able to write to the directory where the drift file is located.
2. Modify the /etc/rc.config.d/netdaemons file to enable xntpd. Also, define your

NTP server to be the NTPDATE_SERVER.
NTPDATE_SERVER=128.1.1.1 # Assume 128.1.1.1 is the NTP srvr IP
XNTPD=1
XNTPD_ARGS=
Here again, you may use the server's host name in place of the IP if you wish.
3. Run the NTP startup script on the client to start the NTP daemon. Note the output as
ntpdate steps the system clock.
4. Check to ensure that your client formed the proper association by running ntpq -p.
# ntpq -p

Module 15
Configuring NTP
5. Compare the time on your client against the time on the NTP server. Do they appear to be
synchronized at this point?

Module 16 — Configuring an SD-UX Depot Server
Objectives
• Explain the benefits of SD-UX depot servers.
• Create a depot.
• Copy software and patches to a depot.
• Remove software and patches from a depot.
• List available depots and their contents.
• Register and unregister depots.
• Push and pull software installs from a depot server.

Module 16
Configuring an SD-UX Server
16–1. SLIDE: What is an SD-UX Depot?
What is an SD-UX Depot?
An SD-UX “Depot” is a repository for software that has been bundled using HP’s
Software Distributor utilities and tools. Depots may be stored on CD, tape, in a
.depot file, or in a directory on disk.
Software from install CDs
Software from Support+ CDs
Patch Tapes from HP
Software from HP users’ group games.depot
depot
Student Notes
Managing software in today’s large computing environments can be a challenging task.
Administrators often manage dozens of systems, and must contend with a constant stream of
software and patch updates.
Fortunately, all software from HP – from the HP-UX install CD’s, to Openview product CDs,
to patch downloads from the ITRC -- are packaged using HP’s Software Distributor UX (SD-
UX) utilities.
The SD-UX utilities make it fairly easy to install, remove, and catalog software on HP-UX
systems.

Module 16
Administrators that manage multiple systems can streamline software management even
further by taking advantage of SD-UX software depots. An SD-UX depot is a repository for
software packaged using the SD-UX utilities. Depots can be stored using a variety of media.
• The OS and application software that you receive in the HP-UX media kit are structured
as CDROM depots.
• The Support+ patch bundles that are distributed several times each year are structured as
CDROM depots, too.
• Patches that you download from the ITRC website are stored as .depot files.
Contributed software that you download from the HP users’ group typically comes in a
.depot file, too.
• Occasionally, HP support personnel may provide a patch tape, which is also recorded in
the SD-UX depot format.
Juggling stacks of media kits, CD-ROMs, tapes, and .depot files can be challenging.
Fortunately, SD-UX offers a better solution: using the swcopy command, you can
consolidate software from multiple sources into a consolidated directory depot.

Module 16
16–2. SLIDE: What is an SD-UX Depot Server?
What is an SD-UX Depot Server?
An SD-UX “Depot Server” is an HP-UX host that has one or more

registered depot directories from which clients can install software.
Mission Critical OE depot
Technical Computing OE depot
Application depot
depot server target clients
Student Notes
After you create one or more directory depots on a system, you may wish to make those
depots available to other hosts on the network, too. Systems that are configured to share
depots with remote SD-UX clients are called “SD-UX Depot Servers”.
A depot server may have one or more depots, and can specify which depots should be shared
with clients.

Module 16
16–3. SLIDE: Why Create a Depot Server?
Why Create a Depot Server?
By configuring an SD-UX depot server …

• I don't have to deal with stacks of tapes and CDROMs!
• I can manage software from a single, central location
• I can ensure consistent software loads!
• I can push and pull software remotely across the network!
• swinstall automatically manages dependencies for me!
• swinstall automatically installs patches at product install time!
Student Notes
Configuring an SD-UX depot server offers many advantages:
• Instead of managing stacks of CDROMs and tapes, SD-UX client administrators can
swinstall software and patches from your SD-UX depot server. This is especially
helpful when installing systems that don’t have a CDROM or tape drive available.
• A depot server provides a single point of administration for your software and patch
updates.
• Installing all of your hosts from a central depot server ensures that all hosts have a
similar software/patch image.
• Configuring a depot server makes it possible to remotely install and manage software.
Individual hosts on your network can “pull” software from the depot server. With HP-UX
11i, it is now possible to “push” software installs and updates from a depot server to one
or more remote targets.
• After you select a patch, product, or bundle in a depot, swinstall auto-selects other
products from the depot that your selected product requires.

Module 16
• When swinstall’ing software from an SD-UX depot, if the depot contains patches for
the user-selected product(s), swinstall will automatically select and install those
patches at the same time that it installs the selected product itself. This can significantly
decrease the amount of downtime required to update software and patches on a system.

Module 16
16–4. SLIDE: Planning for Depots
Planning for Depots
Where should I put my software depot?
9 Consider available disk space

9 Consider network connectivity
9 Consider the depot server’s OS
9 Will you create one depot on your server … or several?
9 Use separate depots for the OS vs. Applications
9 Store products and their patches in the same depot
Student Notes
Several important design issues should be considered before you configure an SD-UX server.
Consider available disk space

Each depot is configured as a directory tree. The more software you intend to store in your
depot, the more disk space you will need. To simplify disk space management, it may make
sense to create a separate file system for your SD-UX depots. The commands below might be
used to create a 2GB depot file system in the /dev/vg01 volume group.
# vgdisplay vg01
# lvcreate –L 100 –n depots vg01
# newfs –F vxfs /dev/vg01/rdepots
# mkdir /depots
# mount /dev/vg01/depots /depots
# vi /etc/fstab

Module 16
Consider network connectivity

Installing software remotely from a depot server generates a fair amount of network traffic.
Ensure that your depot server has adequate network bandwidth. It may not be feasible to
push or pull software installs across slow WAN links. If you need to install software on
systems in branch offices with poor connectivity, it may make sense to create replica depot
servers, or distribute custom depot tapes.
Consider the depot server’s OS

If your depot server will serve multiple clients running different versions of HP-UX, ensure
that the most recent version of SD-UX is loaded on the server. An 11i depot server can host
11i depots, as well as 11.00 and 10.20 depots for clients running earlier versions of HP-UX.
Forward compatibility, however, cannot be guaranteed with earlier versions of SD-UX.
Will you create one depot on your server … or several?

A single depot server can host multiple software depots. Ideally, you should:
• Create a separate depot for each version of the OS
• Separate application from OS software
Many depot administrators structure their depot directories like this:

/depots/Rel_B.11.11/MissionCriticalOE
/depots/Rel_B.11.11/TechnicalComputingOE
/depots/Rel_B.11.11/Applications
/depots/Rel_B.11.00/Core
/depots/Rel_B.11.00/Applications
Prior to HP-UX 11.00, patches and products had to be stored in separate depots. HP-UX 11.00
introduced some swinstall enhancements that made it practical to co-mingle patches and
products in a single depot.

Module 16
16–5. SLIDE: Adding Software to Depots
Adding Software to Depots
Create a directory for the depot

svr# mkdir /mydepot
Copy a single product from a CDROM depot to a directory depot
svr# swcopy –s /cdrom FooProd @ /mydepot
Copy all software from a CDROM depot to a directory depot
svr# swcopy –s /cdrom ‘*’ @ /mydepot
Copy all software from a tape depot to a directory depot
svr# swcopy –s /dev/rmt/0m ‘*’ @ /mydepot
Copy all software from one directory depot to another directory depot
svr# swcopy –s /myolddepot ‘*’ @ /mydepot
/mydepot
Student Notes
After you create your depot directories, you can copy software to the depots from a variety of
sources using the swcopy command.
Copy a single product from a CDROM depot to a directory depot:

svr# swcopy –s /cdrom FooProd @ /mydepot
Copy all software from a CDROM depot to a directory depot:

svr# swcopy –s /cdrom ‘*’ @ /mydepot
Copy all software from a tape depot to a directory depot:

svr# swcopy –s /dev/rmt/0m ‘*’ @ /mydepot
Copy all software from one directory depot to another directory depot:
svr# swcopy –s /myolddepot ‘*’ @ /mydepot

Module 16
16–6. SLIDE: Adding Patches to a Depot
Adding Patches to a Depot
Adding patches to your depot offers several advantages:

9 Patches are installed automatically when installing products from the depot
9 Patches can easily and consistently be updated on all of your hosts
To add patches to a depot, use swcopy –x enforce_dependencies=false
PHCO_1000.depot
svr# swcopy \
–s /tmp/PHCO_xxxx.depot \
PHCO_2000.depot /mydepot
-x enforce_dependencies=false \
\* @ /mydepot
PHNE_3000.depot
Student Notes
Although a product-only depot is useful, providing patches as well as products in your SD-UX
depots offers even greater power and flexibility:
• Some of the patches that you use in your shop probably come from the Support+ CD,
some may be downloaded from the ITRC, and some may be pulled from patch tapes.
Using an SD-UX depot, you can consolidate patches from all of those sources into a
single network depot.
• When installing a new product from a depot, the default

autoselect_patches=true option on swinstall automatically selects and
installs any matching patches from the depot, too:
tgt# swinstall –s svr:/mydepot \

–x autoselect_patches=true \
-x autoreboot=true FooProd
Since swinstall installs both the product and its patches simultaneously, this
minimizes the number of swinstall sessions and reboots necessary to install the
product and necessary patches. If the auto-selected patches have dependencies,

Module 16
swinstall automatically selects the dependents, too.
• After a product has been initially installed, depots simplify patch updates, too. Client
administrators can simply use the swinstall –x patch_match_target
command to automatically select patches from the depot that match products already
installed on the target system:

–x patch_match_target=true \
–x autoreboot=true
Instead of manually managing patches on each individual system, simply ensure that
your depot server has the most current, tested patches, then run the swinstall
command above on each target host on a regular basis. swinstall will choose the
appropriate patches for each system.
Adding patches to your depot

Patches may be added to your depots in much the same way that products were added to
your depots. The example below copies PHCO_1000 to /mydepot from a .depot file that
was downloaded and unshar’ed from the ITRC:
svr# swcopy –s /tmp/PHCO_1000.depot \

–x enforce_dependencies=false \* @ /mydepot
This next example copies all the patches from a Support+ GOLDBASE11i depot to
/mydepot:
svr# swcopy –s /cd/GOLDBASE11i \

This last example copies all the patches from a patch tape to /mydepot:
svr# swcopy –s /dev/rmt/0m \

Patch dependencies
Note that all of the swcopy examples above included the –x
enforce_dependencies=false option.
Oftentimes, in order for an HP-UX patch to function properly, one or more additional patches
may be necessary to meet the patch’s dependencies. These dependencies are typically
documented in the patch’s .text file, and on the ITRC patch database web page. By default,
the swcopy command won’t copy a patch to a depot unless the patch’s dependencies can be
resolved in the depot.

Module 16
When setting up a patch depot, it is common to copy patches from multiple .depot files,
each of which contains a single patch. Since the patch in one .depot file may be dependent
on a patch in another .depot file, meeting those dependencies can be a real hassle. The
process is much simpler if you disable swcopy dependency checking.
When clients swinstall patches from the depot, however, the swinstall command must
verify that dependencies have been met. Although it is safe to override dependency checking
on swcopy, it is very dangerous to override dependency checking when running
swinstall. Doing so can render a system unstable.

Module 16
16–7. SLIDE: Removing Software from a Depot
Removing Software from a Depot
• Use the swremove –d command to remove products from a depot

• By default, swremove won’t remove filesets required to meet
dependencies for other products in the depot
Remove a single product from a depot

svr# swremove –d FooProd @ /mydepot
Remove all products from the depot, and the depot itself
svr# swremove –d \* @ /mydepot
svr# rm -rf /mydepot
Student Notes
The command required to remove a product from a depot is fairly straightforward:
svr# swremove -d FooProd @ /mydepot
If you wish to remove all of the software from a depot, simply replace FooProd with a ‘*’.
This will also ”unregister” the depot itself.
svr# swremove -d ‘*’ @ /mydepot

svr# rm –rf /mydepot
Dealing with dependencies

Sometimes other products or patches in your depot may be dependent on the product you
wish to remove. In this situation, removing the product or patch from the depot becomes
more complicated. Two swremove options control what happens.
The -x enforce_dependencies=true|false option determines whether swremove

allows a patch or product to be removed, if that patch or product is required by other patches
or products. The default value for this option is "true".

Module 16
The -x autoselect_dependents=true|false option determines whether swremove

selects just the explicitly selected patch, or the explicitly selected patch and all of its
dependents. The default value for this option is "false".
The table below summarizes the resulting swremove behavior you will see when using the
most common combinations of these options to remove a patch that has dependencies:
enforce_dependencies autoselect_dependents result

true false nothing removed (default)
false false patch removed, dependents
remain
true true patch and dependents
removed

Module 16
16–8. SLIDE: Listing Software in a Depot
Listing Software in a Depot
Listing available depots:

tgt# swlist –l depot @ myhost
# Initializing...
# tgt “svr" has the following depot(s):
/mydepot
/myappdepot
Listing software in a depot:

tgt# swlist -s sanfran:/mydepot
# tgt: svr:/mydepot
# Bundle(s):
100BaseT-00 B.11.11.01 EISA 100BaseT
100BaseT-01 B.11.11.01 HP-PB 100BaseT
Student Notes
Listing available depots and their contents
After creating a depot, you can verify that the depot is visible to your clients by executing the
swlist command. Other hosts on the network can use the same command to see which
depots are available from your server.
# swlist –l depot @ svr

# Initializing...
# tgt “myhost.hp.com" has the following depot(s):
/mydepot
/myappdepot

Module 16
You can also list the contents of a specific depot using a variation on the same command.
This feature, too, is available to anyone on the network.
# swlist –l product –s svr:/mydepot

# tgt: hpvc:/mydepot
# Bundle(s):
100BaseT-00 B.11.11.01 EISA 100BaseT
100BaseT-01 B.11.11.01 HP-PB 100BaseT
# Target: mickie:/var/spool/sw
#
Ignite-UX B.1.47 HP-UX System Installation Services

Module 16
16–9. SLIDE: Registering or Unregistering a Depot
Registering or Unregistering a Depot
Register a depot:
svr# swreg –l depot @ /cdrom
svr# swlist –l depot
# Initializing...
# tgt “sanfran" has the following depot(s):
/cdrom
Unregister a depot:
svr# swreg –ul depot @ /cdrom
svr# swlist –l depot
# Initializing...
# WARNING: No depot was found for "sanfran:".
Student Notes
In order for a depot to be visible to clients on the network, the depot must be “registered”. If
you have a locally mounted CDROM depot that you wish to make available to other clients on
the network, simply register the depot via the swreg command.
# swreg –l depot @ /cdrom
Before you unmount and remove the CDROM, be sure to unmount it.
# swreg –ul depot @ /cdrom
When you copy software to a directory depot, swcopy automatically registers the depot for
you. Also, when you remove the last product from a depot, swremove unregisters the depot
for you.
You can always install software from a depot on your localhost, even if the depot isn’t
registered.

Module 16
16–10. SLIDE: Pulling Software from a Depot
Pulling Software from a Depot
Once the depot server has been configured, any host on

the network can “pull” software from the depot server via the
swinstall command.

-x autoreboot=true FooProd
software pull
svr tgt host
Student Notes
Once you have configured your depot server, your clients can use the swinstall command
to pull software from your depots, just as you would install software from a CD. Simply
specify server:/depotpath after the –s source option.
# swinstall –s svr:/mydepot –x autoreboot=true FooProd
After analyzing the requirements of the selected product(s) and auto-selecting dependencies
and patches from the depot, swinstall installs and configures the software on your system.
If the product or bundle contains a kernel fileset, swinstall will automatically reboot your
system.

Module 16
16–11. SLIDE: Pushing Software from a Depot: Concept
Pushing Software from a Depot: Concept
Using the 11i swinstall “push” functionality allows you to

push software installs/updates from the depot server out to
one or more remote target hosts simultaneously.
Additional configuration is required on both the client and server to

allow a server to push software to a client.
tgt1
tgt2
software tgt3
push
svr
Student Notes
The 11i version of the swinstall command was enhanced to provide the ability to push
software to remote systems from a depot server. The swremove, swcopy, and swlist all
are capable now of performing remote operations, too, both from the command line and via
the interactive GUI interface. You can monitor the results of a remote operation using the
swjob job browser GUI.
This new functionality allows you to manage software and patches on multiple systems from
one central depot server. With sufficient network bandwidth, you could potentially maintain
consistent software loads on hundreds of systems scattered across your enterprise from one
central depot server!

Module 16
16–12. SLIDE: Pushing Software from a Depot: Commands
Pushing Software from a Depot:

Commands
Configure push functionality on the depot server:

svr# swreg –l depot @ /var/opt/mx/depot10
svr# touch /var/adm/sw/.sdkey
Allow the depot server to push software to a client: (repeat on each client)
tgt# swinstall –s svr:/var/opt/mx/depot11 \
-x autoreboot=true \
AgentConfig.SD-CONFIG
Use the push functionality to remotely install, list, and remove software:
svr# swinstall –s svr:/mydepot FooProd @ tgt1 tgt2
svr# swlist @ tgt1 tgt2
svr# swremove FooProd @ tgt1 tgt2
Student Notes
Configuring push functionality on the depot server

Several steps are required to enable the push functionality on the depot server. First, register
the depot10 and depot11 depots on the depot server. These depot directories, which are
included in a standard 11i install, contain filesets that must be installed on each client that
you intend to push to. depot10 contains software for 10.x clients, and depot11 contains
software for 11.x clients. Registering the depots makes them accessible to remote clients.
Normally, when you create a new depot with swcopy, the depot is registered for you
automatically.
svr# swreg –l depot @/var/opt/mx/depot10

Next, touch a file called /var/adm/sw/.sdkey. When you run the swinstall GUI,
swinstall checks to determine if this file exists. If the file exists, swinstall launches a
somewhat modified GUI that allows you to specify one or more remote target hosts to push
software to. Without this file, swinstall launches the traditional GUI interface and
assumes that all selected software should be installed on the localhost. If you don’t use the

Module 16
swinstall GUI, you can skip this step.
# touch /var/adm/sw/.sdkey
Allow the depot server to push software to a client
The depot server isn’t allowed to push software to a target client until the client explicitly
allows the depot server to do push installs. This requires several changes to the SD-UX
Access Control Lists (unrelated to HFS or JFS ACLs). The SD-UX ACL mechanism is fairly
sophisticated, and can’t be covered in this class. For more information, see the Software
Distributor Administrator Guide for HP-UX 11i (Part Number: B2355-90699) manual on
http//docs.hp.com. Fortunately, SD-UX will set the appropriate ACLs for you if you
install the SD-CONFIG fileset from the depot server on the target client.
tgt# swinstall –s /var/opt/mx/depot11 AgentConfig.SD-CONFIG
Use the push functionality to remotely install, list, and remove software
After you have configure both the depot server and target clients, you can begin pushing
software from the depot server. Here are a few examples:
# swinstall –s svr:/mydepot FooProd @ tgt1 tgt2

# swlist @ tgt1tgt2
# swremove FooProd @ tgt1 tgt2
If you created the /var/adm/sw/.sdkey file above, then the GUI interface for each of these
commands will include a new screen that allows you to select a target host for the SD-UX
operations.
Limitations
• You cannot use remote operations to directly “push” an HP-UX OS update to remote
systems.
• The swinstall –x patch_match_target option works with the push functionality,

but you can only push to one remote system at a time.
• The following commands don’t support the SD-UX push functionality: update-ux,
install-sd, swpackage, swmodify
• You can only push software from an 11i depot server, though the target hosts can be
10.20, 11.00, or 11i.

Module 16
16–13. LAB: Configuring an SD-UX Depot Server
Directions
Carefully follow the directions below.
Part 1: Preliminary Step

If you haven’t already done so, return to your system’s TCP/IP configuration to the state its
original state.
# /labs/netfiles –r ORIGINAL
Part 2: Configuring a Depot Server

You should have two .depot files on your lab system called /labs/echoapp.depot and
/labs/PHSS_01111.depot. Your goal in this portion of the lab is to consolidate the
contents of these two .depot files into a depot directory that is accessible to clients on your
network.
1. Create a /depots/Rel_B.11.11/appl directory for your new depot.
Answer:
2. Copy the contents of /labs/PHSS_01111.depot to your new depot.
Answer:
3. Now copy the contents of /labs/echoapp.depot to your new depot.
Answer:
4. List the contents of your new depot to verify that the software was copied properly.
Answer:

Module 16
5. Temporarily unregister your depot. What impact does this have on the depot list reported
by swlist –l depot?
Answer:
6. Re-register the depot.
Answer:
7. Use a “pull” install to install the EchoApp product from your new depot on your
localhost. Watch the output carefully. What was installed as a result of your
swinstall?
Answer:
8. Run the program to verify that your install succeeded.
# /opt/echoapp/bin/echoapp
9. Remove the EchoApp product. Watch the output carefully. What was removed as a
result of your swremove?
Answer:

Module 16
Part 3: (Optional) Configuring SD-UX “Push” Functionality

1. Verify that your /var/opt/mx/depot11 depot is registered.
Answer:
2. Ask your partner to install the AgentConfig.SD-CONFIG fileset from your

/var/opt/mx/depot11 depot so you can “push” software updates to their system.
Answer:
3. Now “push” install EchoApp to your partner’s system!
Answer:
4. Use the remote swlist functionality to verify that EchoApp installed properly on your
partner’s system.
Answer:
5. Can you remotely remove EchoApp from your partner’s system, too? Try it!
Answer:

Module 16
Part 3: Cleanup
1. Remove all of the software from your /depots/Rel_B.11.11/appl depot.
Answer:
2. Remove the /depots/Rel_B.11.11/appl depot directory, too.
Answer:

Module 16

Appendix A — Decimal-Hexadecimal-Binary
Conversion
dec hex binary
0 00 00000000
1 01 00000001
2 02 00000010
3 03 00000011
4 04 00000100
5 05 00000101
6 06 00000110
7 07 00000111
8 08 00001000
9 09 00001001
10 0a 00001010
11 0b 00001011
12 0c 00001100
13 0d 00001101
14 0e 00001110
15 0f 00001111
16 10 00010000
17 11 00010001
18 12 00010010
19 13 00010011
20 14 00010100
21 15 00010101
22 16 00010110
23 17 00010111
24 18 00011000
25 19 00011001
26 1a 00011010
27 1b 00011011
28 1c 00011100
29 1d 00011101
30 1e 00011110
31 1f 00011111
32 20 00100000
33 21 00100001
34 22 00100010
35 23 00100011
36 24 00100100
37 25 00100101
38 26 00100110
39 27 00100111
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Appendix A
Decimal-Hexadecimal-Binary Conversion
40 28 00101000
41 29 00101001
42 2a 00101010
43 2b 00101011
44 2c 00101100
45 2d 00101101
46 2e 00101110
47 2f 00101111
48 30 00110000
49 31 00110001
50 32 00110010
51 33 00110011
52 34 00110100
53 35 00110101
54 36 00110110
55 37 00110111
56 38 00111000
57 39 00111001
58 3a 00111010
59 3b 00111011
60 3c 00111100
61 3d 00111101
62 3e 00111110
63 3f 00111111
64 40 01000000
65 41 01000001
66 42 01000010
67 43 01000011
68 44 01000100
69 45 01000101
70 46 01000110
71 47 01000111
72 48 01001000
73 49 01001001
74 4a 01001010
75 4b 01001011
76 4c 01001100
77 4d 01001101
78 4e 01001110
79 4f 01001111
80 50 01010000
81 51 01010001
82 52 01010010
83 53 01010011
84 54 01010100
85 55 01010101
86 56 01010110
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Appendix A
87 57 01010111
88 58 01011000
89 59 01011001
90 5a 01011010
91 5b 01011011
92 5c 01011100
93 5d 01011101
94 5e 01011110
95 5f 01011111
96 60 01100000
97 61 01100001
98 62 01100010
99 63 01100011
100 64 01100100
101 65 01100101
102 66 01100110
103 67 01100111
104 68 01101000
105 69 01101001
106 6a 01101010
107 6b 01101011
108 6c 01101100
109 6d 01101101
110 6e 01101110
111 6f 01101111
112 70 01110000
113 71 01110001
114 72 01110010
115 73 01110011
116 74 01110100
117 75 01110101
118 76 01110110
119 77 01110111
120 78 01111000
121 79 01111001
122 7a 01111010
123 7b 01111011
124 7c 01111100
125 7d 01111101
126 7e 01111110
127 7f 01111111
128 80 10000000
129 81 10000001
130 82 10000010
131 83 10000011
132 84 10000100

Appendix A
133 85 10000101
134 86 10000110
135 87 10000111
136 88 10001000
137 89 10001001
138 8a 10001010
139 8b 10001011
140 8c 10001100
141 8d 10001101
142 8e 10001110
143 8f 10001111
144 90 10010000
145 91 10010001
146 92 10010010
147 93 10010011
148 94 10010100
149 95 10010101
150 96 10010110
151 97 10010111
152 98 10011000
153 99 10011001
154 9a 10011010
155 9b 10011011
156 9c 10011100
157 9d 10011101
158 9e 10011110
159 9f 10011111
160 a0 10100000
161 a1 10100001
162 a2 10100010
163 a3 10100011
164 a4 10100100
165 a5 10100101
166 a6 10100110
167 a7 10100111
168 a8 10101000
169 a9 10101001
170 aa 10101010
171 ab 10101011
172 ac 10101100
173 ad 10101101
174 ae 10101110
175 af 10101111
176 b0 10110000
177 b1 10110001
178 b2 10110010

Appendix A
179 b3 10110011
180 b4 10110100
181 b5 10110101
182 b6 10110110
183 b7 10110111
184 b8 10111000
185 b9 10111001
186 ba 10111010
187 bb 10111011
188 bc 10111100
189 bd 10111101
190 be 10111110
191 bf 10111111
192 c0 11000000
193 c1 11000001
194 c2 11000010
195 c3 11000011
196 c4 11000100
197 c5 11000101
198 c6 11000110
199 c7 11000111
200 c8 11001000
201 c9 11001001
202 ca 11001010
203 cb 11001011
204 cc 11001100
205 cd 11001101
206 ce 11001110
207 cf 11001111
208 d0 11010000
209 d1 11010001
210 d2 11010010
211 d3 11010011
212 d4 11010100
213 d5 11010101
214 d6 11010110
215 d7 11010111
216 d8 11011000
217 d9 11011001
218 da 11011010
219 db 11011011
220 dc 11011100
221 dd 11011101
222 de 11011110
223 df 11011111
224 e0 11100000

Appendix A
225 e1 11100001
226 e2 11100010
227 e3 11100011
228 e4 11100100
229 e5 11100101
230 e6 11100110
231 e7 11100111
232 e8 11101000
233 e9 11101001
234 ea 11101010
235 eb 11101011
236 ec 11101100
237 ed 11101101
238 ee 11101110
239 ef 11101111
240 f0 11110000
241 f1 11110001
242 f2 11110010
243 f3 11110011
244 f4 11110100
245 f5 11110101
246 f6 11110110
247 f7 11110111
248 f8 11111000
249 f9 11111001
250 fa 11111010
251 fb 11111011
252 fc 11111100
253 fd 11111101
254 fe 11111110
255 ff 11111111

Appendix B  HP-UX Administration Command
Quick Reference
Modules 1- 6: TCP/IP Configuration, Routing, Troubleshooting
arp Displays ARP cache entries.
hostname Displays or modifies the system host name.
ifconfig Displays or configures a network interface card.
ioscan Scans hardware for interface cards and devices.
lanadmin Displays or modifies a NIC card's link layer parameters.
lanscan Lists installed LAN cards.
linkloop Verifies link level connectivity with a test frame.
ndd Displays or sets tunable network parameters.
netstat Displays network interface, routing, and socket connection
information.
nslookup Tests host name resolution.
ping Verifies network layer connectivity.
route Adds and removes route table entries.
uname Displays or sets the system host name.
/etc/hosts Maps host names to IP addresses.
/etc/rc.config.d/hp* Link layer startup script configuration files.
/etc/rc.config.d/netconf Startup configuration file defining a host's host name and IP.
/etc/rc.config.d/nddconf Startup configuration file defining ndd parameters.
/sbin/init.d/hostname Startup script that sets the system host name.
/sbin/init.d/net Startup script that configures LAN interface cards.
Module 7: Starting Network Services

init Daemon responsible for managing system startup.
rc Executes /sbin/init.d/* scripts to start and stop services
when changing run levels.
/etc/inittab Configuration file for the init daemon.
/etc/rc.config.d/* Configuration files for /sbin/init.d/* scripts.
/etc/rc.log Log file used by /sbin/rc.
/sbin/init.d/* Startup scripts called by /sbin/rc.
/sbin/init.d/template Template for new /sbin/init.d/* startup scripts.
/sbin/rc[0-4].d/ Directories consulted by /sbin/rc to determine which
services start at which run levels.
Modules 8 - 10: NFS and AutoFS

autofs_proc Daemon responsible for identifying idle AutoFS file systems.
automount Used to update the mount table after modifying AutoFS maps.
automountd AutoFS deamon that mounts and unmounts NFS file systems.
biod Daemon that provides buffer cache functionality for NFS file
systems.
exportfs Exports and unexports directories to NFS clients.
fusers Lists or kills processes using a mounted file system.
mount Mounts a file system.
nfsd NFS server daemon responsible for handling clients' access
requests.
nfsstat Displays NFS usage statistics.
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Appendix B
HP-UX Administration Command Quick Reference
portmap Passes incoming NFS RPC requests to the appropriate RPC

daemons (10.x).
rpcbind Passes incoming NFS RPC requests to the appropriate RPC
daemons (11.x).
rpcinfo Display RPC programs registered with a host's
portmap/rpcbind daemon.
rpc.lockd Works with rpc.statd to provide NFS file locking.
rpc.mountd Answers NFS mount requests.
rpc.pcnfsd Authenticates NFS access requests from PC clients.
rpc.statd Works with rpc.lockd to provide NFS file locking.
showmount Queries an NFS server's mount daemon.
umount Unmounts a file system.
umountall Unmounts all file systems.
/etc/auto_master The AutoFS master map configuration file.
/etc/auto.* Additional AutoFS map configuration files.
/etc/exports Lists directories to export to NFS clients at system startup.
/etc/fstab Lists file systems to mount at system startup.
/etc/rc.config.d/nfsconf The NFS startup configuration file.
/sbin/init.d/nfs.client Starts NFS client functionality at system startup.
/sbin/init.d/nfs.core Starts core NFS functionality during system startup.
/sbin/init.d/nfs.server Starts NFS server functionality at system startup.
/var/adm/automount.log AutoFS log file.
Module 11: NIS

domainname Sets or displays the NIS domain name.
keyserv Stores private encryption keys for use by secure RPCs.
nsquery Tests user and host name lookup functionality (11.x).
passwd Changes a password in /etc/passwd or the NIS passwd map.
portmap Passes incoming NIS RPC requests to the appropriate RPC
daemons (10.x).
rpcbind Passes incoming NIS RPC requests to the appropriate RPC
daemons (11.x).
rpc.yppasswdd NIS server daemon responsible for updating user passwords in
the NIS passwd map.
ypbind NIS client daemon responsible for choosing and binding to an
NIS server.
ypcat Displays the contents of an NIS map.
ypinit Creates NIS map databases.
ypmake Creates or rebuilds NIS maps.
ypmatch Searches for information in NIS maps.
yppasswd Changes a password in an NIS password.
yppoll Checks the status of an NIS map on a specified NIS server.
yppush Pushes an NIS map update out to NIS slave servers.
ypserv Daemon that answers NIS clients map lookup requests.
ypset Binds an NIS client to a specified NIS server.
ypwhich Displays the name of an NIS client's current NIS server.
ypxfr Pulls a map update from an NIS master server.
ypxfrd Transfers NIS maps between NIS master & slave servers.
/etc/nsswitch.conf Determines what source is used for username, host name, and
other lookup requests.
/etc/rc.config.d/namesvrs NIS startup configuration file.
/var/yp/$(domainname) Directory containing the NIS maps.
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Appendix B
Module 12: DNS

hosts_to_named Translates /etc/hosts into DNS database files.
named DNS server daemon.
nslookup Interactively query and troubleshoot DNS servers.
nsquery Query and troubleshoot the local host name resolver.
sig_named Send restart and other signals to the DNS named daemon.
/etc/named.boot DNS named daemon's boot configuration file.
/etc/named.data/* DNS database files.
/etc/nsswitch.conf Determines what source is used for host name and other
lookup requests.
/etc/resolv.conf Resolver configuration file.
/sbin/init.d/named DNS named daemon startup script.
/var/adm/syslog/syslog.log Log file used by named, and many other daemons and services.
Module 13: Configuring and Securing ARPA/Berkeley Services

inetd Superdaemon responsible for invoking internet service server
processes as needed.
telnetd telnet server process.
ftpd ftp server process.
netstat Displays, among other things, socket connections.
remshd Remote shell server process.
rlogind rlogin server process.
/etc/ftpd/ftpusers Defines which users may access a host via FTP.
/etc/hosts.equiv Grants password free Berkeley Service access to selected
clients.
/etc/inetd.conf Determines which internet services inetd should and
shouldn't provide.
/etc/services Maps port numbers to service names.
/var/adm/inetd.sec Determines which clients can access which inetd services.
~/.rhosts Grants password free Berkeley Service access to selected
clients.
~/.netrc Contains login information by the ftp autologin process.
Module 14: BOOTP/TFTP

bootpd Provides IP configuration information for BOOTP and DHCP
clients.
tftpd Provides password-free FTP-like access to allow network
printers and other devices to download configuration files.
jetadmin Menu-based utility for configuring network printer
BOOTP/TFTP service.
xtadm Menu-based utility for configuring X-terminal BOOTP/TFTP
service.
/etc/bootptab The BOOTP configuration file.
/etc/inetd.conf The inetd configuration file, used to enable/disable
BOOTP/TFTP service.
/etc/services Determines which port numbers are used by bootp and tftp.
/home/tftpdir/ TFTP home directory: the only directory normally accessible to
TFTP clients.
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Appendix B
Module 15: NTP

ntpdate Polls one or more NTP servers and immediately, and adjusts
the system clock accordingly.
ntpq Displays NTP status information.
xntpd Polls one or more NTP servers at regular intervals, adjusting
the system clock as necessary.
/etc/ntp.drift File used by xntpd to track the accuracy of the system clock
over time.
/etc/ntp.conf The xntpd configuration file.
/etc/rc.config.d/netdaemons Startup script configuration file for NTP and other services.
/sbin/init.d/xntpd The NTP startup script.
Module 16: Configuring an SD-UX Server

swagent Process responsible for installing, removing, and copying SD-
UX software.
swagentd Daemon responsible for starting swagent processes as
necessary.
swcopy Copies SD-UX software between depots.
swinstall Installs SD-UX software from a depot.
swlist Lists SD-UX software in a depot, or installed on a host.
swreg Registers or unregister an SD-UX depot.
swremove Removes SD-UX software from a depot or host.
H3065S D.00 B-4 http://education.hp.com

Solutions
http://education.hp.com Solutions-1 H3065S D.00

Solutions
1–23. REVIEW QUESTIONS: LAN Concepts and Components
Directions
Answer the following questions:
1. If a host has two LAN interface cards, will the MAC addresses of the two cards be the
same, or different?
Answer
Different. Every LAN card should have a unique MAC address.
2. Is it possible to determine which network a host is on just by looking at the host's MAC
address?
Answer
No. Given a host's IP address and netmask you can determine which network the host is
on, but a MAC address alone is insufficient.
3. Complete the following table:

167.12.132.5/16
124.132.12.5/8
213.1.231.45/24
Answer
167.12.132.5/16 255.255.0.0 167.12.0.0/16 167.12.255.255
124.132.12.5/8 255.0.0.0 124.0.0.0/8 124.255.255.255
213.1.231.45/24 255.255.255.0 213.1.231.0/24 213.1.231.255
4. Which of the networks listed in question 3 would allow the fewest hosts?
What is the maximum number of hosts allows on that network?
Answer
The 213.1.231.0/24 network has the fewest host bits, so it would support the fewest hosts.
With 8 host bits, this network could have at most 28 = 256 addresses. Subtracting the
broadcast and network addresses means that the network could support no more than
254 hosts.
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Solutions
5. How many different networks are represented by the list of IP addresses below?
132.1.1.3/16
132.2.1.1/16
132.1.1.2/16
132.1.1.1/16
132.1.2.1/16
132.1.2.2/16
Answer
The /16 tells us that there are 16 network bits in each of these IP addresses. Thus, the first
two octets define the network portion of the IP. This suggests that just two networks are
represented in this list: 132.1.0.0/16 and 132.2.0.0/16.
6. What is the highest possible host IP address on the 158.153.0.0/16 network?

What is the lowest possible host IP address on this network?
Answer
The highest host IP is 158.153.255.254.
The lowest host IP is 158.153.0.1.
7. What is the difference between a destination port number and a destination IP address?
Answer
A destination IP determines which host should receive a packet. A destination port
number determines which application on a host should receive a packet.
8. Name one major difference between UDP and TCP.
Answer
TCP is a connection-oriented protocol that provides a built-in acknowledgement
mechanism. UDP is a connection-less protocol that does not provide an
acknowledgement mechanism.
9. HPUX provides three different methods for mapping host names to IP addresses. Name
two.
Answer
/etc/hosts, DNS, and NIS may all be used to resolve host names to IP addresses.

Solutions
3–9. LAB: Configuring Network Connectivity
Directions
This lab will configure a new host name and IP address for each system in your classroom.
Preliminary Steps
1. Just in case something goes wrong during this lab, make a backup copy of all of your
network configuration files. There is a shell script in your labs directory designed
specifically for this purpose. The shell script will save a tar archive backup of your
network configuration files in the file you specify. Add the –l option to verify your
backup.
# /labs/netfiles.sh -s ORIGINAL
# /labs/netfiles.sh –l ORIGINAL
3. Changing your host name and IP on a running system can wreak havoc on CDE and other
Part 1: Checking the Current LAN Card Configuration

Check the current configuration of the LAN card. Answer the following questions related to its
configuration.
1. How many LAN cards does your system have, and what are their Hardware paths?
Answer
The following commands may be used to view your LAN card hardware paths:
# lanscan
# ioscan –funC lan
2. Verify that the "Networking" product is installed on your machine. Is any additional
networking software installed on your machine to support your LAN interface cards?
Answer
# swlist Networking
Every machine should have the Networking product loaded. Other LAN software will vary
from system to system.

Solutions
3. Does your kernel contain the drivers necessary to support your LAN cards? Which
command will tell you if a driver has CLAIMED your LAN cards? If your LAN card is
UNCLAIMED, install the necessary drivers.
Answer
# ioscan –funC lan
Look for "UNCLAIMED" LAN cards. The drivers should already be installed, and all cards
should be "CLAIMED.”
4. Do device files exist for your LAN cards?
Answer
# ioscan -funC lan
The device files should already exist.
5. List the current MAC address, IP address, netmask, and broadcast address for each of
your LAN cards.
Answer
# lanscan shows the MAC address

# ifconfig lan0 shows the IP, netmask, and broadcast addresses
Note that these solutions assume that your default LAN card is lan0. The default LAN
interface name on your system may be different. The IP, netmask, and broadcast
addresses will also vary from classroom to classroom.

Solutions
Part 2: Configuring the New LAN Card Configuration

The goal of this portion of the lab exercise is to configure a new IP address and host name for
each of the machines in the classroom. Your instructor will assign you a host name from the
table below.
octets should be set to. The last two octets must be set in accordance with the table below.
Host Name IP Address

corp ____.____.0.1
sanfran ____.____.1.1
oakland ____.____.1.2
la ____.____.1.3
chicago ____.____.2.1
peoria ____.____.2.2
rockford ____.____.2.3
atlanta ____.____.3.1
athens ____.____.3.2
macon ____.____.3.3
nyc ____.____.4.1
albany ____.____.4.2
buffalo ____.____.4.3
paris ____.____.5.1
lyon ____.____.5.2
grenoble ____.____.5.3
london ____.____.6.1
leeds ____.____.6.2
ipswich ____.____.6.3
bonn ____.____.7.1
berlin ____.____.7.2
hamburg ____.____.7.3
tokyo ____.____.8.1
kyoto ____.____.8.2
osaka ____.____.8.3

Solutions
1. There should be a script in the /labs directory called netsetup.sh. This script will
ask you for your instructor-assigned hostname, and the first two IP octets that your
instructor should also provide. After you enter the requested information, the script will
display your assigned IP address and a variety of other network settings that you will use
later in the class. The script will also create a new hosts file in /tmp/hosts. Run the
script, then review the /tmp/hosts file. By default, the script doesn’t actually change
your network configuration.
# /labs/netsetup.sh
# cat /tmp/hosts
2. From the command line, change your IP to the address suggested in /tmp/hosts. Be
sure to change your netmask, too!
Answer
# ifconfig lan0 w.x.y.z netmask 255.255.0.0 # replace w.x.y.z w/ your IP
3. Is your new IP address set properly? How can you find out?
Answer
# ifconfig lan0
ifconfig should indicate that the IP and netmask have been set properly.
4. Modify the appropriate startup file to make your IP address change permanent. Allow the
system to default the broadcast address. Also, permanently change your host name in this
startup file. If a default route is currently defined, delete it. You will have a chance to
configure a new default route in the next chapter.
Answer
# vi /etc/rc.config.d/netconf
HOSTNAME=hostname use your new host name here
INTERFACE_NAME[0]=lan0 use your interface name here

IP_ADDRESS[0]=w.x.y.z use your new IP here
SUBNET_MASK[0]=255.255.0.0
INTERFACE_STATE[0]=""
DHCP_ENABLE[0]=""
ROUTE_MASK[0]=""
ROUTE_GATEWAY[0]=""
ROUTE_COUNT[0]=""
ROUTE_ARGS[0]=""

Solutions
5. Copy the /tmp/hosts file into place as the default /etc/hosts file.
# cp /tmp/hosts /etc/hosts
6. Define a host name alias for each of the host names in your row. Use the first name of the
user sitting at each station as the alias.
Answer
# vi /etc/hosts
w.x.y.z city student1 # use your neighbor’s IP, hostname, name here
7. Reboot to see if your changes worked!
Answer
# shutdown –ry 0

Solutions
Part 3: Checking the New Configuration

1. Check your LAN card's IP. Did the configuration work?
Answer
# ifconfig lan0
The configuration should have succeeded!
2. The hostname command will display your system host name. Check to ensure that your
host name is set properly.
Answer
# hostname
Your host name should be set properly.
3. Based on your Answers to questions 1 and 2 above, what commands did the
/sbin/init.d/net script appear to execute on your behalf during the boot process?
Answer
The system should have executed the uname, hostname, and ifconfig commands on
your behalf.
# uname -S hostname
# hostname hostname
# ifconfig lan0 w.x.y.z netmask 255.255.0.0 up
4. Try to ping your instructor’s new IP address. Does this work?
Answer
# ping w.x.y.z # use your instructor’s IP address here.
This should succeed!
5. Try to ping your instructor’s hostname. Does this work?
Answer
# ping hostname # use your instructor's host name here.
Assuming the hostname you ping has been added to /etc/hosts, and that host is
configured properly, this should work.

Solutions
6. Try to ping the a neighboring machine using an alias you defined in your /etc/hosts
file. Does this seem to work?
Answer
# ping instructor
This should succeed, too.

Solutions
4–7. LAB: Configuring Routing
Directions
Record the commands you use to perform the tasks suggested below.
Your instructor has configured host corp as a router with two LAN interfaces. Record corp’s
IP and network addresses here. The first IP should be a /16 address whose first two octets
match your first two octets. The second IP address should be a /24 address that is entirely
different from your system’s IP address.
corp's first interface’s IP: ___ . ___ . _ 0 . 1 /16 (should be on your net)
corp’s first interface’s network: ___ . ___ . _0 . 0 /16
corp's second interface’s IP: ___ . ___ . __ _ . _1__ /24 (should be on another net)
corp’s second interface’s network: ___ . ___ . _ . 0 /24
Verify that your instructor has configured corp’s second interface before proceeding.
Preliminary Steps
Part 1: Viewing and Modifying the Routing Table

1. View your routing table. What routes are currently defined on your host?
Answer
# netstat –rn
You should have routes defined to:

• your own IP address,
• your own network,
• the 127.0.0.1 address, and
• the 127.0.0.0 network.

Solutions
2. Are you able to ping corp’s first LAN card?

Are you able to ping corp’s second LAN card? Explain!
Answer
You should be able to ping corp’s first address since it is on the same IP network as your
LAN interface, which you already have a route to.
The second LAN card, however, is on a different network. Since your routing table
doesn’t have an entry for the second network, you shouldn’t be able to ping corp’s
second IP address.
3. From the command line, add a route to the second network via corp’s first LAN interface.
Then check your routing table again to verify that you were successful.
Answer
corp’s second network is accessible via corp’s first interface.
# route add net secondnet netmask 255.255.255.0 firstIP 1

# netstat -rn
4. Can you ping the second interface on corp now?
Answer
# ping secondIP
Now that you have a route to the second network, you should be able to ping corp’s
second IP.
5. Delete the route that you just added. Then check the routing table to verify that you were
successful.
Answer
# route delete net secondnet netmask 255.255.255.0 firstIP

# netstat –rn
6. Now, define corp’s first IP as your default route. Then check your routing table again to
be sure this worked.
Answer
# route add default firstIP 1

# netstat -rn

Solutions
7. Can you ping the second IP now, even though you do not have an explicit route to the
second network?
Answer
# ping secondIP
This should work! Although there isn’t an explicitly defined route to the second network,
your system uses the default route you just defined. Since the default route points to
corp, which has a connection to the second network, this ping should succeed.
8. How can you ensure that your default route is defined after every system boot? Make it
so.
Answer
# vi /etc/rc.config.d/netconf
ROUTE_MASK[0]=""
ROUTE_GATEWAY[0]=firstIP
ROUTE_COUNT[0]=1
9. Reboot your machine. When your machine comes back up again, check the routing table
to verify that the default route is defined.
Answer
# shutdown –ry 0
Part 2: Adding Router Entries to the /etc/hosts File

1. Add an entry to your /etc/hosts file for corp's second LAN interface. Since corp has
two IP addresses, it should have two entries in the /etc/hosts file, and both entries
should resolve to hostname corp.
# vi /etc/hosts
firstIP corp
secondIP corp
2. If you ping corp, which of corp's IP addresses does your system appear to choose?
Watch your ping output carefully.
Answer
# ping corp
The system appears to ping the first address listed in /etc/hosts, which should be
corp’s first IP address in this case.

Solutions
3. For troubleshooting purposes, it may be helpful to be able to specify which IP address is

used when ping’ing a router such as corp. You may wish to assign /etc/hosts aliases
to each of the LAN cards on corp.
Answer
# vi /etc/hosts
firstIP corp corp1
secondIP corp corp2
4. How can you specifically ping corp’s first interface now?

How can you specifically ping corp’s second interface?
Answer
# ping corp1
# ping corp2

Solutions
Part 3: Important! Backup Your New Network Configuration!

1. Use the netfiles.sh script to backup the new network configuration that you
configured over the last couple of chapters. Many of the labs that follow in this course
require access to this archive backup! You can verify that the backup succeeded by
running netfiles.sh –l.
# /labs/netfiles.sh –s NEW
# /labs/netfiles.sh –l NEW

Solutions
5–13. LAB: Configuring Subnets
Directions
Answer all of the questions below. Assume that your network contains some older devices
that do not support all-0 or all-1 subnet addresses.
Part 1
1. Your company's network address is 128.20.0.0/16, but your netmask is set to
255.255.255.0. Given this netmask, how many bits are in the subnet portion of your IP
address?
Answer
The /16 appended to the end of the network IP address indicates that the first 16 bits (or
first two octets) contain network bits. The netmask indicates that the first three octets
are all masked. Thus, all 8 bits in the third octet must be subnet bits.
2. Given your answer to the previous question, how many host addresses may be configured
on each subnet?
Answer
With 8 bits, it is possible to represent 28 = 256 addresses. However, each subnet must
have a subnet address and a broadcast address. Thus, each subnet could have at most 254
hosts.
3. What are the lowest and highest subnet addresses?
Answer
The lowest subnet address is 128.20.1.0.

The highest subnet address is 128.20.254.0.
4. What are the lowest and highest host addresses on the first subnet?
Answer
The lowest host address on the first subnet is 128.20.1.1.

The highest host address on the first subnet is 128.20.1.254.

Solutions
Part 2
Your company's network address is 192.30.40.0/24, and you need to create two subnets.
1. How many contiguous bits are needed, and in which octet?
Answer
Two bits are required to form two subnets.

The /24 indicates that the first three octets are network octets.
Thus, the subnet bits must be taken from the fourth octet.
2. What is the subnet mask?
Answer
We need to mask the network bits in the first three octets, as well as the two subnet bits
in the fourth octet. This yields netmask value 255.255.255.192.
255.255.255.11000000 = 255.255.255.192
3. What are the valid subnet addresses?
Answer
The valid subnets would be:
192.30.40.01000000 = 192.30.40.64/26
192.30.40.10000000 = 192.30.40.128/26

Solutions
Part 3
Your company's network address is 132.40.0.0/16. You need to configure nine subnetworks.
1. How many bits are needed to form 9 subnets?
Answer
Three subnet bits yield six subnets.

Four subnet bits yield fourteen subnets.
To meet the stated requirements, we must use four bits.
The extra subnets may be preserved for future growth.
2. What will be the subnet mask in dotted decimal notation?
Answer
The subnet mask must be:
255.255.11110000.00000000 = 255.255.240.0
3. List the first three subnet addresses.
Answer
The first three subnets would be:
132.40.00010000.00000000 = 132.40.16.0/20
132.40.00100000.00000000 = 132.40.32.0/20
132.40.00110000.00000000 = 132.40.48.0/20
4. How many hosts can be on each subnet?
Answer
Since there are 4 host bits in the third octet, and 8 host bits in the fourth octet, we have a
grand total of 12 host bits. With 12 host bits, we can represent 212 = 4096 addresses.
Subtracting the subnet address and broadcast address, we are left with 4094 host
addresses per subnet.
5. What is the complete address for the first host on the first subnet?
Answer
The address of the first host on the first subnet must be:
132.40.00010000.00000001 = 132.40.16.1/20

Solutions
6. What would be the complete address for the last host on the first subnet?
Answer
To formulate the address of the last host on the first subnet, set all but the last host bit to
"1". This yields:
132.40.00011111.11111110 = 132.40.31.254/20
7. Fill in the variable values you would expect to see in the /etc/rc.config.d/netconf
file for the last host on the first subnet. Record the variable values below, but do not
actually modify the /etc/rc.config.d/netconf file on your system.
IP_ADDRESS[0]=
SUBNET_MASK[0]=
Answer
IP_ADDRESS[0]=132.40.31.254
SUBNET_MASK[0]=255.255.240.0
8. What command would the /sbin/init.d/net script execute because of the netconf
values in the previous question?
Answer
ifconfig lan0 132.40.31.254 netmask 255.255.240.0 up

Solutions
6–12. LAB: Troubleshooting Network Connectivity

Directions
Answer all questions below. Also, record the commands you use to find the answers.
Preliminary Steps
2. Disabling the LAN card can cause problems for CDE, too. Before starting the lab, shut
down CDE:
Part 1: Determining Your Current Network Configuration

1. Determine your host name, and MAC address and IP address of your lan interface(s).
MAC address(es) :
IP address(es) :
Hostname :
Answer
# lanscan # shows your MAC address

# ifconfig lan0 # shows your IP address
# hostname # shows your host name
2. To which network are you directly connected?

Do you have a default route defined so you can reach other networks?
Answer
# netstat -in # shows your network address
# netstat -rn # shows your routing table
(including the default route)
3. Given a host name, how can you determine that hostname’s corresponding IP address?
Which IP address is associated with corp’s first interface?
Answer
# nslookup corp

Solutions
4. Can you determine the MAC address associated with corp’s first interface, too? Record
this MAC address for future reference.
Answer
# ping corp # ping corp to add it to the
arp cache
# arp corp # now find their IP and MAC in the
arp cache
Part 2: Testing LAN Connectivity

1. Ensure that your lan0 card is in an "UP" state, and verify that you can ping hostname
corp.
Answer
# ping corp
This should succeed.
2. Can you still ping other hosts if your LAN interface is "DOWN"? Change the IP
configuration state of your lan0 interface to "DOWN.” Which field in the netstat –in
output indicates that the interface is down?
Answer
# ifconfig lan0 down
# netstat –in
The “*” following the interface name in the first column indicates that the card is down.
3. While your LAN card is DOWN, can you ...
ping your corp?

ping your own hostname?
ping your loopback address?
Answer
ping hangs when you attempt to hit corp. However, you may be surprised to discover
that you can ping your own hostname or your loopback address even when your LAN
interface is down.
4. Now try linkloop'ing to your corp's MAC address. Does this work? Explain.
Answer
linkloop should succeed, even though ping fails.
linkloop is an OSI layer 2 utility that succeeds regardless of the IP configuration of the
card.

Solutions
5. Based on your answer to the previous question, when might linkloop be useful?
Answer
linkloop can test connectivity between any two hosts on a network even if the IP
configuration on either host is corrupted. If you can linkloop a host, but can’t ping
that same host, you may want to check the routing tables and IP addresses on both
machines.
6. Bring your lan0 card back to an "UP" state.
Answer
# ifconfig lan0 up
Part 3: Troubleshooting Connectivity Problems

1. Before starting this exercise, make sure you are able to ping host name "corp”.
2. There should be a shell script in your /labs directory called /labs/corrupt.sh. Run
the script. When prompted, enter a number between 1 and 5. Based on your response, the
script will corrupt your LAN configuration in one of five different ways. When the script
terminates, your task is to fix your LAN configuration so the command ping corp
succeeds. Take advantage of all the tools we discussed in this chapter.
3. Once you successfully troubleshoot and fix your configuration, run the script again,
choose a different number, and again fix the resulting problem. If time permits, try each
of the five options provided by the script.
Good luck!
Part 4: Cleanup
in before this lab.

Solutions
7–11. LAB: Starting Network Services
Directions
Work on your own to perform the following tasks.
Preliminary Step
Part 1: Exploring the Startup/Shutdown Scripts

You have seen in this chapter that many system and network services are started
automatically during the boot process via "S" scripts in the /sbin/rc*.d directories. You
can view a list of these scripts by typing:
# ls /sbin/rc*.d/S*
Answer the questions below using the output from the ls command above.
1. At which run level does NFS client functionality start?
Answer
NFS client functionality starts at run level 2.
2. At which run level does NFS server functionality start?
Answer
NFS server functionality starts at run level 3.
3. At which run level does your system set its host name?
Answer
The host name is set at run level 1.
4. At which run level does the net script set your IP address?
Answer
Run level 2.
5. At which run level does the sendmail daemon begin delivering mail?
Answer
Run level 2.

Solutions
6. At which run level does the NIS service become available?
Answer
Run level 2.
7. At which run level does the system enable access to ftp, telnet, and other Internet
services?
HINT: Internet services are started by the inetd Internet daemon.
Answer
Run level 2.

Solutions
Part 2: Starting and Stopping Services

Most services may be manually started and stopped using the startup scripts in the
/sbin/init.d directory.
1. Is the sendmail daemon currently running on your machine?
Answer
# ps -e | grep sendmail
Answer=Yes (On most systems, sendmail should be running by default.)
2. Stop the sendmail daemon using the init.d script.
Answer
# /sbin/init.d/sendmail stop
3. Is the sendmail daemon running?
Answer
Sendmail is not running.
4. Restart sendmail properly, then check to ensure the daemon is running
Answer
# /sbin/init.d/sendmail start
The daemon should be running.

Solutions
Part 3: Enabling, Disabling, and Configuring Services

There are many network and system services available, but you may not need all of those
services to be enabled. For instance, if you do not use networked file systems, you may
choose to disable NFS. Most services may be enabled or disabled via their control variables.
Usually control variables match the name of the service they control, for example, the
sendmail daemon is controlled by the SENDMAIL control variable.
Setting a control variable to "1" enables that service at next boot, while setting the control
variable to "0" disables the service at next boot. Control variables are set in configuration files
in /etc/rc.config.d/*. Sometimes the configuration file matches the name of the
service. You can always use the grep command to find the proper configuration file for a
service. For instance, the output from the following grep command suggests that the
sendmail control variable is defined in /etc/rc.config.d/mailservs.
# grep -il sendmail /etc/rc.config.d/*

/etc/rc.config.d/mailservs
See if you can find the /etc/rc.config.d configuration files for each of the services
below, and determine which of those services are enabled on your system.
Service Name Configuration File Name Enabled?

nfs.server /etc/rc.config.d/nfsconf Y
nfs.client /etc/rc.config.d/nfsconf Y
nis.server /etc/rc.config.d/namesvrs N
nis.client /etc/rc.config.d/namesvrs N
sendmail /etc/rc.config.d/mailsvrs Y
named (DNS) /etc/rc.config.d/namesvrs N
xntpd /etc/rc.config.d/netdaemons N

Solutions
Part 4: Creating a Custom Startup Script

In this part of the lab exercise, you will have an opportunity to create a custom
startup/shutdown script to start and stop the pfs_mountd daemon used by the PFS file
system in HP-UX. The “Portable File System” is one of the few services in HP-UX that does
not include a pre-configured startup script, so this is a particularly practical exercise!
1. Make a copy of the /sbin/init.d to use as a template for your pfs_mountd startup script.
# cp /sbin/init.d/template /sbin/init.d/pfs_mountd

# vi /sbin/init.d/pfs_mountd
following:
'start_msg')
# of the checklist.
;;

'start_msg')
# of the checklist.
echo "Starting the pfs_mountd subsystem"
;;
'stop_msg')
# of the checklist.
;;

'stop_msg')
# of the checklist.
echo "Stopping the pfs_mountd subsystem"
;;

Solutions
rval=2
else
:
fi
;;
Change the CONTROL_VARIABLE, and add the command necessary to start


rval=2
else
/usr/sbin/pfs_mountd &
set_return
:
fi
;;

rval=2
else
:
fi
;;
Change the CONTROL_VARIABLE, and add the command necessary to kill


rval=2
else
:
kill $(ps –ef | grep /usr/sbin/pfs_mountd | grep –v grep |\
cut –c10-14)
set_return

Solutions
fi
;;
e. Save your changes and quit /sbin/init.d/pfs_mountd.
3. Create a configuration file and a control variable for your new startup script:
# vi /etc/rc.config.d/pfs_mountd
PFS_MOUNTD=1
4. Create a start link to start the new service at run level 3 using the “don’t care” 900
sequence number, and a kill link to kill the new service with sequence number 100 at run
level 2:
# ln –s /sbin/init.d/pfs_mountd /sbin/rc3.d/S900pfs_mountd
# ln –s /sbin/init.d/pfs_mountd /sbin/rc2.d/K100pfs_mountd
5. Test your new startup script by executing both the start and kill links.
# /sbin/rc3.d/S900pfs_mountd start
# ps –ef | grep pfs_mountd
# /sbin/rc2.d/K100pfs_mountd stop
# ps –e
6. Assuming the previous test succeeded, change run levels a few times to further test your
scripts.
# init 2
# init 3
# init 2
Answer
The pfs_mountd daemon is not running initially, so the kill command fails. Bouncing
back up to run level 2 starts the daemon, so the second attempt to run the start script
succeeds.

Solutions
9–19. LAB: Configuring NFS
Directions
In this lab you will work with a partner to experiment with some of the features of NFS. One
of you will function as an NFS server, and the other will function as an NFS client. You
should work together throughout the lab to ensure that you feel comfortable with both the
client and server functionalities of NFS. At this point, decide between yourselves who will be
the server and who will be the client.
Host name of server: ________________________
Host name of client: ________________________
Preliminary Steps
2. (client)
Install the lab files needed on your client:
# cd /labs
# tar -xvf nfs.client.tar
You should now have two new user accounts defined in your /etc/passwd file: "mickie"
and "minnie.” The passwords for the new accounts are "mickie" and "minnie" respectively.
Note that neither user has a home directory on your machine. You will mount their home
directories from your partner's NFS server.
3. (server)
Install the lab files needed on your server:
# cd /labs
# tar -xvf nfs.server.tar
This tarball creates several new files and directories, and two new user accounts in your
/etc/passwd file for users "mickie" and "minnie.” The passwords for the new accounts
are "mickie" and "minnie" respectively. The tarball also creates home directories for
mickie and minnie.
Part 1: Basic NFS Configuration

In order for NFS to function properly, the InternetSrvcs and Networking products must
be installed on your machine. Check to ensure that both of these products have been
installed on your machine. Also ensure that the NFS subsystem is configured in the
kernel.
# swlist -l product 'Networking' 'InternetSrvcs' 'NFS'
# grep nfs /stand/system

Solutions

Is your machine configured as an NFS server, client, or both?
What configuration file should you check to find out?
Make sure the appropriate functionality is configured.
Answer
Your machines should be configured with both NFS server and NFS client functionality.
Check the NFS_SERVER and NFS_CLIENT variables in /etc/rc.config.d/nfsconf.
3. (client)
What daemons should you see on an NFS client?
Use ps -e on the client to ensure that the necessary daemons are actually running.
Answer
Clients should have the following daemons:
portmap/rpcbind (optional)
biod (optional)
rpc.statd
rpc.lockd
4. (server)
What daemons should you see on an NFS server?
Use ps -e to ensure that the server has the necessary daemons running.
Answer
Servers should have the following RPCs registered:
portmap/rpcbind
rpc.mountd
nfsd
rpc.statd
rpc.lockd

Solutions
Part 2: Exporting and Mounting NFS File Systems

1. (server)
There are several files on your server machine that your clients need to access. Export
the following with the export options set as noted. Make the file systems available to
clients immediately, but also ensure that they will be available after the next system boot
by adding them to /etc/exports.
/home rw for your partner's machine, no access for other hosts
/opt/phone rw for your partner's machine, readonly for all others
/opt/fun readonly for everyone on the LAN
Answer
server
# vi /etc/exports
/home -access=client
/opt/phone -rw=client
/opt/fun -ro
server
# exportfs -a
2. (server)
What command can you use to see what file systems you have made available? Can you
tell which export options you used?
What command can you use to see what file systems other servers have made available?
Choose another machine in the classroom and see what it has exported. Can you tell
which export options were used?
Answer
server# exportfs
The exportfs command shows what is exported, and which export options were used.
server# showmount -e otherservername
This command shows who can mount the file system, but does not indicate what export
options were used.
3. (client)
Create mount points for the file systems your neighbor exported, and mount them:
/home/mickie
/home/minnie
/opt/fun
/opt/phone

Solutions
Answer
client# mkdir /home/mickie /home/minnie /opt/fun /opt/phone
client# mount server:/home/mickie /home/mickie
client# mount server:/home/minnie /home/minnie
client# mount server:/opt/fun /opt/fun
client# mount server:/opt/phone /opt/phone

4. (client)
What file needs to be modified to ensure that these NFS file systems are automatically
mounted after every system boot? Make it so. (For now, use the "defaults" mount option.)
Syntax errors in the /etc/fstab file may cause the next system boot to fail. Do a
mount -a to ensure that you did not make any mistakes in fstab file.
Finally, use mount -v to ensure that all the NFS file systems actually mounted properly.
Answer
client# vi /etc/fstab
server:/home/mickie /home/mickie nfs defaults 0 0
server:/home/minnie /home/minnie nfs defaults 0 0
server:/opt/fun /opt/fun nfs defaults 0 0
server:/opt/phone /opt/phone nfs defaults 0 0
client# mount -a
client# mount -v
5. (server)
What command lists the remote machines that have your exported file systems mounted?
Answer
server# showmount -a

Solutions
Part 3: Using NFS File Systems

Some shops use NFS to export file systems containing application executables. This
offers a number of benefits. You only need to allocate disk space for the application on
the NFS server, not on each and every client. It also simplifies upgrades, since the
application is stored in just one place.
From your client, try executing some of the programs mounted from the NFS server to
verify that this is true:
client# /opt/fun/melt
client# /opt/fun/xroach -speed 1
Another benefit of NFS is that files created in an NFS file system instantly become
available to multiple client machines. Do the following experiment to verify that this is
true:
server# touch /home/mickie/data
Does the client see the new file that was created on the server?
Answer
Yes, the client should see the new file that was created on the server.

Though access to files shared via NFS should be more or less transparent to your users,
file access restrictions can mean that a user is able to access a file on some machines but
not others. Try the following commands while logged on as root:
client# cp /opt/fun/melt /opt/fun/drip
server# cp /opt/fun/melt /opt/fun/drip
Why did this command succeed when executed on the server, but not when executed on
the client? (hint: look at /etc/exports)
Answer
The file system was exported with write permission, but without root permission. Thus,
on the client, user root is treated as "nobody" inside /opt/fun.

Solutions
3. (client)
Let's try a variation on the experiment you did back in Q#1 of this part of the lab.
Why did this fail?
Was the file system exported with "ro" permission?
Was the file system mounted with "ro" permission?
As root, shouldn't you be able to create /home/mickie/memo?
Do whatever is necessary to successfully execute the touch command on the client. (You
should not have to type anything on the server. Hint: Which user on the client has write
permission on Mickie's home directory?)
Answer
The file system was neither exported nor mounted with read only permissions. However,
root on the client is treated as nobody. User nobody only has r-x permissions on mickie's
home directory.
client# su - mickie
exit
We saw in the previous question that root on an NFS client does not (by default) have the
same file access as root on the NFS server. If a single administrator manages several
systems, however, it may be useful to allow root on NFS clients to have true root access
to exported file systems.
What would you have to do on the NFS server side to allow root on the client to have the
same full root access to the /home file system? Make it so.
Did this seem to work? While logged in as root on the client, try touching a file in mickie's
home directory. Did you have to do anything on the client side to recognize the change in
the server's exports file?
Answer
server# vi /etc/exports
/home -root=client
server# exportfs –a
client# touch /home/mickie/junk
This should work, even without remounting the file system

Solutions
Part 4: Unmounting NFS File Systems

1. (client)
Occasionally, it becomes necessary to unmount file systems to perform some
administrative tasks. Let's start with the easiest case: on the client machine, unmount
/home/mickie.
Use mount -v to see which file systems remain in the client's mount table. Also do an
ls of /home/mickie, and note that the memo and data files that were under
/home/mickie no longer appear since the file system has been unmounted.
Answer
client# umount /home/mickie
client# mount -v
2. (client)
Let us try a more complicated scenario. Can the client unmount an NFS file system if one
of the client's users is accessing that file system?
On the client machine, open two windows. In one of the windows, cd to the
/home/minnie directory. In the other window, issue the umount command to unmount
the minnie file system. Did this work?
The fuser command can tell you who is currently using a file system. Try the following
to see who is currently using /home/minnie.
client# fuser -cu /home/minnie
Try a fuser -cuk on /home/minnie, and see what happens. Then try unmounting the
file system again.
Answer
This should fail. You cannot unmount a file system on the client while a process on the
client is using the file system.
This command kills the window that was using /home/minnie. After killing the process,
its no problem to unmount the file system.
client# fuser -cuk /home/minnie

client# umount /home/minnie

Solutions
3. (server)
In Part 2, Question 5, we saw a command that the server administrator could use to
determine which of the exported file systems were actually mounted on client hosts. Now
try executing that command again. Was the NFS server notified when the client
unmounted mickie and minnie?
Answer
server# showmount -a
The output suggests that the server was notified.
We saw that the administrator can force users out of a mounted file system with the
fuser command. If fuser is executed on the NFS server, does it kill processes on the
NFS clients, or just on the server itself? Try it.
client# cd /opt/fun
server# fuser -cuk /opt
Unfortunately, there is no mechanism in NFS to kill client processes from the server.
Answer
You should see that the fuser command, when executed on the server, only kills
processes on the server. The clients should be unaffected.
We just discovered in the previous question that the NFS server has no way of killing
processes on client hosts. Local file systems cannot be unmounted until all processes
using them die. Does this mean that an NFS server administrator is unable to unmount
his/her exported file systems until the clients that have mounted those file systems
voluntarily unmount? Let's find out.
server# fuser -cuk /opt # kill any proc's on the svr using /opt
server# umount /opt # unmount the local /opt file system
Did you successfully unmount the file system? Any errors? What happened to the client
process that was using your exported /opt?
Try the following commands on the client and note the output.
client# pwd
client# ls
client# cd ..
client# cd /
On the client, could you unmount /opt/fun, even after the server unmounted?

Solutions
Answer
No errors. The client process does not appear to have been affected — yet.
pwd works.
ls generates: ". not found.”
cd .. generates: "the specified directory is not valid.”
cd / works.
umount /opt/fun works.

Summarizing what you saw in the previous question: If an NFS server unmounts an
exported file system that a client has mounted,
a. Can the client still access files in the effected file system?
b. What happens to client processes accessing the affected file system?
c. Can the client unmount the imported file system?
Answer
The client cannot access files in the effected file system.
Processes using the file system are not affected initially.
The client can unmount the file system.

Remount all the server and client file systems on both the server and client.
Answer
server# mount -a
server# exportfs -a
client# mount -a

Solutions
Part 5: (Optional) When Things Go Wrong


What happens if the NFS client loses LAN connectivity to the server? Do the following
and note the output from the commands. First note the client's behavior when the server
is up. (It should be normal.)
client# cd /opt/fun
client# ls
Now take the server's lan card down and note what happens to the client:

client# ls # This will hang indefinitely
Move on to next step.
What happens when the client regains connectivity to the NFS server?

client# ls
Answer
This should work without any problems.
The ls hangs indefinitely. Shortly, you should get an NFS server not responding
error.
The ls command executes.

So, what can the client administrator do while the NFS server is down? Can the client
administrator unmount the NFS file system? Try it.
client# cd /
client# umount /opt/fun # Be patient.
client# mount
What happens if the client tries to remount that file system again while the server is still
down? Try it.
client# mount /opt/fun # Be patient.

Solutions
Answer
The umount actually occurs immediately. However, the client attempts to notify the
server that the file system has been unmounted. It may take several minutes for this to
time out.
Eventually, the client should time out.

Hopefully you discovered that a client can always unmount an NFS file system, even if
the NFS server is down. In fact, since NFS is a "stateless" system, the server can always
unmount its local file systems, too, even if clients have them mounted. Of course doing so
will cause problems for the clients.
To summarize, when an NFS server goes down...
Are any of the processes on the client killed?
What happens when a process on the client tries to hit a file system on the downed server
(assuming the default mount options are used)? Do they hang indefinitely or time out?
What happens when a client tries to mount a file system from a downed server? (Again,
assume that the default mount options are used.)
Answer
When the NFS server becomes unavailable, no client processes are killed. However, if a
client process attempts to access the server, the process hangs indefinitely. The client can
always unmount a file system, even if the NFS server is down.

Bring the server and client back to their original states:
server# mount -a
server# exportfs -a
client# mount -a

Solutions
Part 6: (Optional) Client Side Mounting Options

intr and nointr mount options
By default, HP-UX mounts NFS file systems "hard,intr.” If the NFS server goes down with
these default mount options, we saw client attempts to access the NFS files and
directories hang indefinitely. Can the user abort a command if they get tired of waiting?
Try it.
Alternately, you can mount an NFS file system nointr. How would the nointr mount
option affect the experiment above? Try it.

client# mount -o nointr server:/opt/fun /opt/fun
When will the user get a prompt back?
Answer
With the default intr mount option, the user can ^C out of a process that hangs because
of a downed NFS server.
If the file system is mounted nointr, however, a process hung as the result of a downed
NFS server hangs indefinitely. The user will get a prompt back only when it regains
connectivity to the NFS server.
Soft versus hard mounts
The client can also override the hard option with mount -o soft. If a client has
mounted an NFS file system "soft" and the NFS server goes down, what happens to client
requests to the server? Try it.

client# mount -o soft server:/opt/fun /opt/fun
client# ls /opt/fun # be patient.
Answer
Eventually, ls times out with a message saying: "NFS access failed.” In contrast to this
behavior, the "hard" option would have hung indefinitely.

Solutions
Part 7: (Optional) Troubleshooting a Non-responsive NFS Server

You have seen the effect that a downed NFS server has on NFS clients. What can the
administrator on the client side do to determine what might be wrong on the server side?
Do an experiment to find out. Start by doing some experiments while both your server
and client are functioning properly. Bring the LAN cards on both machines to an "UP"
state:
client# ifconfig lan0 up
Now test connectivity from the client to your NFS server:
client# ping server


Now, shut down NFS on your NFS server.
server# /sbin/init.d/nfs.server stop
From the client, try mounting /opt/fun.
client# mount /opt/fun # After you see the error, hit ^C

Answer
mount notes that the server's "mount" RPC is not registered.
3. (client)
From the client, try your connectivity test commands again:
client# ping server
Can you still ping the server?
Which RPC programs are no longer available on the server?
Will clients be able to mount NFS file systems now? Why?
Will clients be able to access already mounted NFS file systems? Why?
Answer
You can still ping the server, but the mount and nfs rpcs are no longer registered with
the server's portmapper. The client cannot mount the file system since mountd daemon
is not running on the server anymore. Nor can the client access already mounted NFS file
systems since the nfs daemon is not running.

Solutions
Part 8: Cleanup
1. Before moving on to the next chapter, restore your network configuration to the state it
was in before this lab.

Solutions
10–15. LAB: Configuring AutoFS
Preliminary
Portions of this lab may disable your lan0 interface card. If you are using remote lab
This lab assumes that the classroom has been configured with the 128.1.*.* IP addresses
configured earlier in the course. The instructor station must be assigned IP address 128.1.0.1.
Execute the following preliminary setup steps on both the student and instructor
workstations in preparation for the lab:
# /labs/autofs.lab.setup.sh
These scripts added several entries to the /etc/passwd and /etc/hosts files on both the
instructor and student workstations. When executed on the instructor station, the script also
configures several additional IP addresses via IP multiplexing, and creates and exports
several directories.
Part 1: Enabling and Starting AutoFS

Before you can configure the AutoFS maps, you must verify that NFS is installed, and the
AutoFS daemons are running. That is the goal of this first portion of the lab!
1. Verify that the NFS product is installed on your system, and that the NFS client
functionality is configured in /etc/rc.config.d/nfsconf.
Answer
# swlist –l product NFS

# more /etc/rc.config.d/nfsconf
Make sure that the NFS_CLIENT variable is set to "1"!
2. AutoFS was not included in the NFS product that was initially shipped with 10.20 and
11.00. Verify that AutoFS is included in the version of the NFS product installed on your
system by checking for the existence of the /usr/lib/netsvc/fs/autofs directory.
Answer
# ll /usr/lib/netsvc/fs/autofs
3. HP-UX 10.20 and 11.x support both AutoFS and the older Automounter. Is either of these
services configured on your machine? Which one, if any?
Answer
# more /etc/rc.config.d/nfsconf
If AUTOMOUNT=0 and AUTOFS=0, then neither service is configured.

If AUTOMOUNT=1 and AUTOFS=0, then automounter is configured.
If AUTOMOUNT=1 and AUTOFS=1, then AutoFS is configured.

Solutions
Automounter is configured by default in both HPUX 10.20 and 11.00.
4. Enable AutoFS in /etc/rc.config.d/nfsconf, but do not try to start the daemon

yet.
Answer
AUTOMOUNT=1
AUTOFS=1
There is no need to change the defaults for any of the other AutoFS and Automount
related variables in the file at this point.
5. Automount and AutoFS should never run concurrently on a system. Technically, you
should be able to switch from one service to the other by tweaking the control variables
in /etc/rc.config.d/nfsconf. Realistically speaking, however, it is often difficult to
shut down automounter without rebooting since the daemon will not die until all of the
automounted file systems are unmounted. The cleanest solution is to reboot. Make it so!
# shutdown –ry 0
6. When your system comes back up again, verify that the AutoFS daemons are running.
Answer
# ps –ef | grep auto

Solutions
Part 2: Configuring the AutoFS –hosts Map

The –hosts map provides a convenient mechanism for automatically mounting NFS file
systems from any NFS server without modifying /etc/fstab or issuing the mount
command. This portion of the lab walks you through the steps required to configure the
–hosts map.
1. The –hosts entry is included in /etc/auto_master by default in HPUX. Verify that
the map has already been configured in your system's /etc/auto_master file.
Answer
Your /etc/auto_master file should look like this:
# cat /etc/auto_master
/net –hosts –nosuid,soft
2. Does the mount table reflect the fact that AutoFS is managing the /net mount point?
Answer
# mount –v
Yes! You should see an entry in your mount table showing that –hosts is mounted on
/net. The file system type field in the mount table should indicate that this is an autofs
file system.
3. Test your –hosts map! What happens when you access /net/corp? Try it!
# ls /net/corp
Answer
Several NFS file systems should have been mounted under /corp on your behalf, and
should appear in the ls output.
4. What changed in the mount table?
Answer
# mount –v
The –hosts entry in the mount table remains. Also, you should see one entry in the
mount table for each of the NFS file systems mounted under /net/corp/* .
5. Will AutoFS recognize a host referenced by IP address rather than name? Try it!
# ls /net/128.1.0.1
# mount -v
It works! You may reference hosts under /net by either host name or IP address.

Solutions
6. What happens if you attempt to access a non-existent host? Try it!
# ls /net/10.1.1.1
Answer
The resulting AutoFS mount request fails, and AutoFS returns a "not found" message.

Solutions
Part 3: Configuring the AutoFS Direct Map

This part of the lab exercise gives you an opportunity to supplement your –hosts special map
with a direct map file, too.
1. Add a direct map entry to /etc/auto_master. Name your direct map
/etc/auto.direct.
Answer
/- /etc/auto.direct
2. Configure your direct map to automatically mount the /usr/contrib/games directory

from the corp NFS server. Use the read-only mount option.
Answer
/usr/contrib/games –ro corp:/usr/contrib/games
3. What must be done to make this change take effect? Make it so!
Answer
# automount
4. What appears in the mount table to indicate that AutoFS has recognized the new direct
map?
Answer
# mount –v
There should be an entry in the mount table indicating that /etc/auto.direct is

mounted on /usr/contrib/games.
5. Does the games mount point appear when you list the contents of /usr/contrib? Does
listing the /usr/contrib directory cause AutoFS to mount the games file system from
the NFS server?
# ls /usr/contrib
# mount –v
Answer
The games mount point directory does appear in the ls output. However, the file system
does not actually mount until the contents of /usr/contrib/games are first accessed.

Solutions
6. cd to /usr/contrib/games, and list the contents. There should be an executable

under games called /usr/contrib/games/oneko/bin/X11/oneko. Run the oneko
executable, then check the mount table to see what changed.
# cd /usr/contrib/games
# ls
# /usr/contrib/games/oneko/bin/X11/oneko &
# mount –v
Answer
Any attempt to access the contents of an AutoFS managed mount point should cause the
associated NFS file system to mount. Any one of the three actions in this question – cd,
ls, or running the executable – would have been sufficient to cause the file system to
mount.
Viewing the mount table should verify this. You should see /usr/contrib/games
mounted from the NFS server.
7. Add another entry to your direct map to mount the /data/contacts directory from the
corp NFS server. Users will need both read and write access to this file system. Do not
execute the automount command yet.
Answer
/usr/contrib/games –ro corp:/usr/contrib/games
/data/contacts -rw corp:/data/contacts
8. What happens at this point if you attempt to do an ls of /data/contacts?
Answer
# ls /data/contacts
This should generate a "not found" error message. The automount command must be
executed to notify AutoFS any time the direct map changes.
9. Do whatever is necessary to make the /data/contacts directory available on the

client. Verify that your fix works.
Answer
# automount
# mount -v
# ls /data/contacts
# mount -v
This time, the ls command should succeed!

Solutions
Part 4: Configuring an AutoFS Indirect Map

Your organization has three departments, with home directories on three different NFS
servers. Members of the finance department have their home directories on a server called
"finance,” members of the business department have their home directories on a server called
"business", and members of sales have their home directories on a server called "sales". Your
goal in this portion of the lab exercise is to configure an indirect map that will mount and
unmount these home directories on an as-needed basis.
1. The indirect map used in this portion of the lab will be mounted under /home. This will
not work if the logical volume containing your current users home directories is also
mounted on /home. For the remainder of this lab, unmount the logical volume containing
your users' home directories.
# umount /home
2. Add an indirect map entry for /home to /etc/auto_master. This map entry should
reference the /etc/auto.home map file.
Answer
/home /etc/auto.home
3. What must be done anytime the master map changes? Make it so!
Answer
You must update the mount table anytime the master map changes:
# automount
# mount -v
4. Now create the /etc/auto.home map file. The map file should configured such that:
• /home/finance is mounted from finance:/home/finance

• /home/business is mounted from business:/home/business
• /home/sales is mounted from sales:/home/sales
Is it necessary to re-issue the automount command after creating/changing the indirect

map file?
Answer
# vi /etc/auto.home
finance finance:/home/finance
business business:/home/business
It is not necessary to execute automount after modifying an indirect map. This is one
key advantage that the indirect map has over a direct map!

Solutions
5. Check the mount table. How many mount table entries were created because of the new
indirect map? How many entries would have been created in the mount table if this had
been configured as a direct map?
Answer
# /usr/sbin/mount –v
There should be just one new entry in the mount table indicating that /etc/auto.home
is mounted on /home. If this had been configured via a direct map, there would have
been three new entries in the mount table.
6. Do an ls of /home. Can you explain the result? Did AutoFS mount any file systems?
Answer
# ls /home
# mount -v
The ls command does not list anything! This is expected. The home directories will not
be mounted until they are actually accessed.
7. Now access a specific user's home directory and see what happens to the mount table:
# ls /home/finance/user1
# mount –v
Answer
AutoFS intercepts the /home/finance access attempt, and automatically mounts the
needed file system from the finance server. This is reflected in the mount table.
8. Will this configuration automatically mount a user's home directory at login time? Try it!
Try logging in as user "user3.” Then check the mount table to verify that the user's home
directory was in fact mounted from the proper location.
# su – user3
$ pwd
$ ls -a
$ exit
# mount -v
Answer
The user login should succeed. The login process attempts to cd to the home directory
specified by the user's entry in the /etc/passwd file. Assuming /etc/passwd and
AutoFS are configured properly, users will never know that their home directories are
mounted by AutoFS.

Solutions
9. Can you shorten the /etc/auto.home file to a single line? How? Make it so! Then test
your solution:
# vi /etc/auto.home
# mount –s.
Answer
# vi /etc/auto.home
* &:/home/&
# mount -v
AutoFS key substitution provides the solution to this problem. The /etc/auto.home
file suggested below will automatically NFS mount any user's home directory if each NFS
server's home directories are named according to the following convention:
/home/servername/username. The ls command should succeed.

Solutions
Part 5: Cleanup
Before moving on to the next chapter, run the netfiles.sh cleanup script:
# mount -a

Solutions
11–14. LAB: Configuring NIS
Directions
In this lab exercise, you will work with a team of two to four classmates to configure and test
NIS servers and clients in your own NIS domain. Working with the teammates assigned by
your instructor, decide on a name for your NIS domain.
Domain Name: _________________
Within your domain, you should configure one master server, a slave server, and one or more
clients. Decide among yourselves which machine will be your master server, which will be
the slave, and which will be the client(s):
Master server: _________________
Slave server: _________________
Client(s): _________________
Note that the examples referenced in the instructions that follow refer to a domain called
"california" containing three hosts. Within this sample domain, "sanfran" is the master server,
"oakland" is the slave server, and "la" is a client.
Preliminary Step
Part 1: Configuring an NIS Master Server

The following steps should only be performed on the NIS master server. Do not start
configuring the slave or clients until the master configuration is complete.
1. Ensure that your ASCII source files (/etc/passwd, /etc/group, etc.) are up-to-date.
Although the ASCII files may be changed after configuring NIS, it is much easier to make
changes now. For the sake of this lab exercise, you may assume that your ASCII source
files are already up-to-date.
2. The script used to configure the NIS master server must know ahead of time the name of
the domain. Do this by setting your server's NIS domain name with the domainname
command:
# domainname california # set your domain name
# domainname # check your domain name

Solutions
3. Next, run the ypinit -m command to build all the maps for your domain. When asked if
you wish to "quit on non-fatal errors,” Answer "n.” ypinit prompts for a list of slave
servers for the domain, then builds all the necessary maps.
# ypinit -m

Enable your machine as an NIS_MASTER_SERVER and define your NIS_DOMAIN. To
ensure consistency across the domain, the master should also be configured as a client.
Enable NIS_CLIENT functionality as well.
Answer
NIS_MASTER_SERVER=1
NIS_SLAVE_SERVER=0
NIS_CLIENT=1
NIS_DOMAIN=california
5. Reboot to start NIS on the master.
Answer
# cd /
# shutdown -ry 0
6. When your machine comes back up again, check to see which processes are running.
What NIS-related processes would you expect to see on an NIS master server?
Answer
Among others, you should see portmapper/rpcbind, ypserv, rpc.yppasswd, and
ypbind. A complete list of NIS-related daemons was provided earlier in the chapter.

Solutions
Part 2: Configuring an NIS Slave Server

Every NIS domain should have at least one NIS slave server to provide service to the clients if
the master becomes unavailable. In subnetted networks, each subnet usually has a separate
NIS slave server.
Do not begin this portion of the lab until the master server is fully configured.
1. Start by setting your domain name as you did on the master.
Answer
# domainname california
2. Run the ypinit -s masterserver command, where masterserver is the host

name of your master server. This downloads the NIS maps from the master. When asked
if you wish to quit on non-fatal errors, Answer "n.”
# ypinit -s sanfran
3. Watch the ypinit messages. What does the ypinit do to configure the slave server?
(Note: disregard the ethers, bootparams, and netmasks errors generated by ypinit.
These maps are not used in HP-UX, but the ypinit utility still attempts to download
them.)
Answer
ypinit automatically downloads all the NIS maps from the master server.
4. ypinit should have copied the NIS maps from the master server, and stored them
under the slave server's /var/yp directory. Do an ls of /var/yp, and find the
subdirectory for your domain. What do you see in your domain’s /var/yp subdirectory?
Answer
All NIS maps are stored in subdirectories under /var/yp. The california maps, for
instance, would be found in /var/yp/california.
Enable your machine as an NIS_SLAVE_SERVER and NIS_CLIENT and define your
DOMAINNAME.
Answer
NIS_MASTER_SERVER=0
NIS_SLAVE_SERVER=1
NIS_CLIENT=1

Solutions
6. Remove all of your users' entries from your local password file, since NIS will now be
providing central administration of your user account information. However, be sure to
leave all accounts with userids below 100 in /etc/passwd. Why might it be important to
leave these userids (especially root.) in place?
Answer
# vipw # remove all user account definition lines
If there are problems with NIS, you should ensure that at least the critical system
accounts are still available so root can log on and fix the problem.
7. Reboot.
Answer
# cd /
# shutdown -ry 0

Solutions
Part 3: Configuring NIS Clients

Do not continue on to this step until at least one of your NIS servers has finished booting.
Now configure the remaining hosts in your team as NIS clients.
1. Enable NIS client functionality and define your domain name in the
/etc/rc.config.d/namesvrs config file.
Answer
NIS_CLIENT=1
2. As you did with your slave server, remove all user entries from /etc/passwd.
Answer
# vipw
# remove all user entries, but leave userid's 0 -100
3. Reboot.
Answer
# cd /
# shutdown -ry 0

Solutions
Part 4: Using NIS Maps

After the system finishes booting, try a few tests to see if your NIS configuration was
successful. Since all of your machines in the domain are clients, even the master and slave
can try these exercises.
1. The ypwhich command tells you to which server you are bound. Which server are you
currently bound to?
Answer
# ypwhich
2. The ypcat command displays the contents of NIS maps. Adding the -k option also
shows the key value associated with each entry in the map files. View the contents your
hosts map by typing:
client# ypcat -k hosts.byname
client# ypcat -k hosts.byaddr
client# ypcat hosts
"hosts" is just an abbreviation for hosts.byaddr. To list the other nicknames

recognized by ypcat, try:
client# ypcat -x
3. You can check the value associated with any key in an NIS map by using the ypmatch
command:
client# ypmatch user1 passwd.byname
client# ypmatch 0 passwd.byuid
4. Do the standard UNIX utilities use the NIS? To find out, try logging in as user1. Note that
user1 no longer exists in the slave or clients' local password files. Why does this login
succeed?
Answer
client# login user1 # login as user1
client# exit # log back out again
The system calls used to look up usernames and passwords are smart enough to
reference the NIS maps instead of the local password file.
5. Try another system utility. Use nslookup to determine which IP address is associated
with your neighbor's host name. Does nslookup appear to use NIS? How can you tell?
Answer
client# nslookup oakland
nslookup notes in its output: "Trying NIS.”
Even if the /etc/hosts file did not exist, your client could resolve host names using the
NIS hosts map.

Solutions
Part 5: Updating NIS Maps

1. Start with an easy NIS update. Log in as user1 on the client and type passwd to change
user1's password.
Answer
client# login user1 # login as user1
client# passwd # change user1's password
client# exit
2. Is the password change reflected in the password map on the master, the slave, or both?
Use yppoll command to check the order number on the master and slave servers.
yppoll -h slave passwd.byname
yppoll -h master passwd.byname
yppoll -h slave passwd.byuid
yppoll -h master passwd.byuid
3. Are the order numbers the same?
Answer
The order numbers should be the same, which indicates that both servers' maps were
updated.
4. Try another change on the client. Create a user account in the /etc/passwd file on the
client, then ypcat the passwd map again. Does ypcat show the new account? Explain.
client# useradd donald
client# ypcat passwd
Answer
ypcat does not reflect the changes. NIS consults the NIS maps (which haven't changed
yet) rather than the local passwd file.
5. What happens if you make your changes to /etc/passwd on the master server instead
of the client? Try it. Add user donald to the master server's passwd file. Then ypcat the
passwd map and explain the result.
master# vi /etc/passwd
Answer
Even changing the ASCII source files on the master will not yield an immediate change in
the ypcat output. Remember, ASCII source files are distinct from NIS maps. The master's
NIS maps must be rebuilt and pushed out to the slaves anytime the ASCII source files
change.

Solutions
6. On the master, do whatever is necessary to rebuild the passwd map and propagate the
updates to the slave server. Use ypcat to ensure this worked properly.
Answer
master# /var/yp/ypmake passwd
ypmake rebuilt both password maps and automatically pushed them out to the slave.
7. What happens if an NIS slave is down when the master attempts to push an update? Try it
and find out.
− Shutdown the LAN card on the slave

− Add user pluto to the master's /etc/passwd file
− ypmake the passwd map on the master (Be patient.)
Did ypmake warn you that the slave was down?

Answer
slave# ifconfig lan0 down
master# useradd pluto
master# ypmake passwd
ypmake should display a "Timeout talking to slave" warning. However, the final message
from ypmake says: "no errors encountered." Make a habit of reading ALL the messages
from ypmake so you do not miss timeout warnings.
8. Bring the slave's LAN card back up again, then do whatever is necessary on the slave to
update the maps. Note: ypxfr does not recognize the NIS nicknames.
Answer
slave# ifconfig lan0 up
slave# ypxfr passwd.byuid
slave# ypxfr passwd.byname
9. Is any harm done if you ypxfr a map that is already up-to-date? Try it. From the slave,
try another ypxfr on passwd. What happens? Why might this behavior be
advantageous?
Answer
slave# ypxfr passwd.byname
slave# ypxfr passwd.byuid
ypxfr only downloads new copies of the maps if there have been changes. Since the
maps on the master have not changed since the last ypxfr, there was no need to
download the maps again. The slave's maps remain unchanged.

Solutions
Part 6: Securing Clients and Slave Servers with Password/Group

Escape Entries
Currently, anyone listed in the NIS passwd map can log onto your NIS client. Your goal in this
exercise is to modify your client configuration so only user1-user3 are allowed to log in (as
well as root, of course).
1. Start out by adding the escape entries to the client's /etc/passwd file that would allow
user1-user3, but no other NIS map users, to successfully log in.
Answer
client# vipw # add the following lines to the end of the file
+user1
+user2
+user3
2. Did your escape entry have the desired effect? Can your client su to user1's account? Can
your client su to user6's account? Why can user6 still log in?
Answer
Both users appear to be able to log in despite the escape entry. By default, HPUX 11.x
does not recognize escape entries. In order to force the system to recognize the escape
entries, you must modify /etc/nsswitch.conf.
3. Create a new /etc/nsswitch.conf file for yourself with the entries required to
recognize escape characters in /etc/passwd and /etc/group.
Answer
client# vi /etc/nsswitch.conf
passwd: compat
group: compat
4. Try logging in with the user1 and user6 usernames again. What happens now?
Answer
client# su - user1 # succeeds.
client# su - user6 # fails.
This is the desired behavior.

5. Change your client's password file so all users in the NIS maps except user1 -- user3 are
allowed to log in. Try logging in.
Answer
client# vipw
- user1
- user2
- user3
+
client # su - user1 # fails.
client# su - user6 # succeeds.
This seemed to work.

Solutions
Part 7: (Optional) Securing the NIS Master Server

The escape entries you used in the previous part of the exercise provide a convenient
mechanism for restricting access to NIS clients and slaves. However, some special NIS
configuration changes are required if you wish to restrict access to the master server.
1. Why can't you restrict access to the master server by simply deleting all the user lines
from /etc/passwd, so only the root and basic system userids remain?
Answer
The /etc/passwd file on the master is used to build the passwd map. Deleting all the
user lines would leave the passwd maps empty after the next ypmake.
2. Follow the steps suggested in the notes to restrict access to the master server so only
root can log in.
Answer
master# cp /etc/passwd /etc/passwd.nis

master# vipw
(Remove all user entries)
master # vi /etc/nsswitch.conf
passwd: compat
group: compat
master# vi /etc/rc.config.d/namesvrs
(Find the YPPASSWDD_OPTIONS line)
(Change all occurrences of /etc/passwd to /etc/passwd.nis)
master# vi /var/yp/ypmake
(Change PWFILE=${PWFILE:-$DIR/passwd} to PWFILE=${PWFILE:-

$DIR/passwd.nis} )
master# /var/yp/ypmake passwd

master# cd /
master# shutdown -ry 0
3. Try logging into your master server as user3. This should fail.

Solutions
Part 8: (Optional) When Things Go Wrong . . .

2. What happens if the NIS master server is unreachable for a period of time? Take down
the LAN card on your master server.
Answer
master# ifconfig lan0 down
3. Can clients still access the maps? From the client, ypcat passwd and explain the result.
(Be patient.)
Answer
client # ypcat passwd
This should work. If the client was bound to the master, it may take a few minutes to
timeout, but eventually ypbind should send out a broadcast to find a new server to
which it can bind. The slave should be able to provide the requested map.
4. Can changes be made to the maps while the server is down? Log in as user4 on the client
and try changing the password with passwd. What happens? (Be patient.)
Answer
client # login # log in as user4

client # passwd
client # exit
The passwd command fails. No changes may be made to the maps until the master server
returns.
5. Now take down the slave's LAN card, too.
Answer
slave# ifconfig lan0 down

Solutions
6. Try a ypcat on passwd. What happens? (Be patient. Once you see a few error messages,
press return to get back to a prompt.)
Answer
Eventually, you should get "NIS server not responding" messages, and the command
times out with a failure message since no servers are available.
7. Bring the LAN cards on both servers back up again.
Answer
master# ifconfig lan0 up

slave# ifconfig lan0 up

Solutions
Part 9: (Optional) Troubleshooting NIS

You have seen what happens when a client is no longer able to communicate with the NIS
servers. What can you do to troubleshoot the problem?
1. What NIS-related process(es) must be running on the client? Do a ps -e to ensure that
the necessary processes are actually running.
Answer
client # ps -e
At a minimum, the client requires ypbind.
2. See if your client can still access the NIS maps. Try a ypcat passwd and see what
happens (be patient).
When an NIS server goes down, the client's first access may eventually time out and
generate an error. However, ypbind immediately attempts to bind to another NIS server
on the subnet. Try another ypcat passwd and see what happens. Did the ypcat
succeed this time?
Answer
3. There are a number of RPC daemons that must be running on an NIS server in order for
clients to be able to access the NIS maps. How can the client see if these RPCs are
registered and available?
Answer
client# rpcinfo -p sanfran # test the master
client# rpcinfo -p oakland # test the slave
The master server should be running rcbind (portmap), ypbind, ypserv, ypxfrd,
yppasswd, and ypupdated.
The slave should be running all of the above except rpc.yppasswd and
rpc.ypupdated.
Part 10: Cleanup

in before this lab.

Solutions
12–22. LAB: DNS
Introduction
In this exercise, you will configure a DNS master server, a slave server, and a DNS client. You
will also have a chance to update the DNS data on your name servers, and explore some of
the name server database files.
Your instructor will break the class into teams of 2 or 3 students each. Each team will be
assigned a DNS sub-domain under hp.com from the table below. You will then work with
your teammates to configure a master server, a slave server, and one or more DNS clients
within your assigned domain. The instructor's station will serve as a root level name server so
you can access other teams' domains as well.
octets should be set to.
Table 12-1.
Domain Name Role Host Name IP Address

. master corp ____.____.0.1
com master corp ____.____.0.1
hp.com master corp ____.____.0.1
ca.hp.com master sanfran ____.____.1.1
slave oakland ____.____.1.2
client la ____.____.1.3
il.hp.com master chicago ____.____.2.1
slave peoria ____.____.2.2
client rockford ____.____.2.3
ga.hp.com master atlanta ____.____.3.1
slave athens ____.____.3.2
client macon ____.____.3.3
ny.hp.com master nyc ____.____.4.1
slave albany ____.____.4.2
client buffalo ____.____.4.3
fr.hp.com master paris ____.____.5.1
slave lyon ____.____.5.2
client grenoble ____.____.5.3
uk.hp.com master london ____.____.6.1
slave leeds ____.____.6.2
client ipswich ____.____.6.3
de.hp.com master bonn ____.____.7.1
slave berlin ____.____.7.2
client hamburg ____.____.7.3
jp.hp.com master tokyo ____.____.8.1
slave kyoto ____.____.8.2
Client osaka ____.____.8.3

Solutions
Preliminary Steps
3. If you haven’t already changed your IP address and hostname to match the hostname
your instructor assigned to you, do so now. Use the /labs/netsetup.sh script to
make the change.
# /labs/netsetup.sh –ip (answer the prompts that follow)
Part 2: Configure Your Master Server

1. Ensure that all hosts in your domain are included in /etc/hosts and are fully qualified.
Add an alias for each host that identifies the non-qualified hostname. Delete all other
entries from the /etc/hosts file except the localhost entry and the hosts in your
domain (it’s even ok to delete corp!).
# vi /etc/hosts
127.0.0.1 localhost
2. Create a directory for the DNS database files and cd to it.

3. Create a param file for your domain.

# vi param
-d state.hp.com # Use your domain name(s) here
-n w.x.y # Use your domain’s subnet address(es) here
-z w.x.y.z # Use your master server's IP here
-b /etc/named.conf

Solutions
4. Run hosts_to_named.
If hosts_to_named fails for any reason, check the syntax in /etc/hosts, remove
/etc/named.data/conf.*, /etc/named.data/boot.*,
/etc/named.data/db.*, and /etc/named.conf, and re-run hosts_to_named.
5. Copy the db.cache file from corp. Note that the FTP daemon on corp attempts to
resolve the source IP address of each incoming FTP request to a hostname. Since DNS
isn’t fully configured at this point, it may take a couple minutes for the resolver to
timeout. Be patient.
# ftp w.x.y.z # Use corp’s IP address here

> quit
6. Enable NAMED in the /etc/rc.config.d/namesvrs.

NAMED=1
NAMED_ARGS=""

Solutions
Part 3: Configure Your Slave server

1. Create a directory for the database and configuration files.
2. FTP a copy of the db.cache and db.127.0.0 from the master.

> quit
3. FTP a copy of conf.sec.save from the master server, and move it into place on the
slave server as /etc/named.conf.

> quit
4. Enable NAMED in /etc/rc.config.d/namesvrs.
NAMED=1
NAMED_ARGS=""

Solutions
Part 4: Configure All Hosts in Your Domain as DNS Clients

1. Modify the /etc/resolv.conf file. Include your domain and the hp.com domain in
your search list. Include both your master and your slave server in the nameserver
list.
search state.hp.com hp.com # use your domain name here
nameserver w.x.y.z # use your master's IP here
nameserver w.x.y.z # use your slave's IP here
2. If your /etc/nsswitch.conf exists, delete it. You can experiment with the default
behavior for now. You will have a chance to re-create the file later.
# rm /etc/nsswitch.conf
3. If you are the master server, you should have modified your /etc/hosts file back in
Part 2, so you can skip this step. Slaves and clients, however, still need to modify
/etc/hosts at this point. Fully qualify and create aliases for your host in your local
domain, and remove all other entries (except localhost).
# vi /etc/hosts
127.0.0.1 localhost
128.1.1.3 city.state.hp.com city # Keep your host’s entry

Solutions
Part 5: Test DNS

All hosts in your domain (clients and servers) can try the following exercises.
1. Run nslookup and identify your master server as the server to use.
• Can you resolve a host name in your own domain?

• Can you resolve an IP address in your own domain?
• Can you resolve a host name in another domain? (Try corp.hp.com.)
• Can you resolve an IP address in another domain? (Try corp’s IP)
Answer
# nslookup
> server w.x.y.z # Tell nslookup to use your master server
> city.state.hp.com. # Resolve a host name in your domain
> corp.hp.com. # Resolve corp.hp.com
> w.x.y.z # Resolve an IP in your domain
> w.x.y.z # Resolve corp's IP
> exit
All of these tests should succeed.
2. Try the same tests that you did in the previous question, but use the slave name server
this time. Does your slave server seem to work?
Answer
# nslookup
> server w.x.y.z # Tell nslookup to use your slave server
> city.state.hp.com. # Resolve a host name in your domain
> corp.hp.com. # Resolve corp.hp.com
> w.x.y.z # Resolve an IP in your domain
> w.x.y.z # Resolve corp's IP
> exit
All of these tests should succeed.
3. Which name server does nslookup use by default if you simply type nslookup
corp.hp.com from the shell prompt? Try it. How can you permanently change the
default name server?
Answer
The default name server is defined by the first nameserver entry in
/etc/resolv.conf. Reversing the order of the nameserver entries in
/etc/resolv.conf changes the default name server.

Solutions
4. Try resolving a host name in your domain using the simple host name (eg: sanfran,
rather than sanfran.ca.hp.com). Try resolving a host in another domain using the
simple host name. Your first experiment should succeed, while the second should fail.
Why?
Answer
# nslookup city # use a host in your domain
# nslookup city # use a host in a different domain
The second example fails since the external host’s domain isn’t included in your
/etc/resolv.conf search list.

Solutions
Part 6: Updating Your DNS Name Servers

1. Choose a new host/IP for your domain, and add it to your master server's DNS data files
using vi and hosts_to_named. Do not run sig_named, yet. Note that you can add a
new host name/IP to DNS even if that host isn’t physically connected to the network.
Answer
The example that follows adds host sacramento.ca.hp.com to sanfran, the master
server for ca.hp.com. Your hostnames and IPs will be different.
# vi /etc/hosts
w.x.y.z city.state.hp.com # add another city to your hosts file
# hosts_to_named –f param
2. Which two db.* files would you expect to be affected by the newly added host and IP?
Look at the SOA records for those two files. How can you tell that the files were updated?
Answer
Two db.* files are affected by the addition of sacramento:

/etc/named.data/db.state # replace state with your domain
/etc/named.data/db.w.x.y # replace w.x.y with your subnet
This is reflected by the serial number in the SOA records at the top of both files; the serial
number has been incremented by one.
3. Now that the db.* files have been updated, can you nslookup the new host using the
master server? Try it, and explain the results.
Answer
# nslookup
> server w.x.y.z # Tell nslookup to use your slave server
> city.state.hp.com. # Resolve the new host name
> exit
This should fail. named must be forced to reread its data files before it will resolve the
new hostname. If you run nslookup non-interactively, though, it may find the hostname
in the /etc/hosts file.

Solutions
4. What do you need to do to ensure that your DNS clients can resolve the new host name?
Make it so.
Answer
Run sig_named on the master server to force the named daemon to reload its data files.
# sig_named restart
# nslookup
> server w.x.y.z # Use your master server's IP here.
> city.state.hp.com # Use your newly added host here
> exit
5. By default, when will your slave name server recognize that a new host name and IP have
been added to the domain? How can you force the slave to do an immediate update? Do
it.
Answer
By default, the slave will only refresh its DNS data at the interval specified in the SOA
records. Typically, the refresh interval is 3 hours. You can force an immediate refresh by
restarting named on the slave server:
# sig_named restart
6. Verify that the slave server update was successful.
# nslookup
> server w.x.y.z # Use your slave server's IP here.
> city.state.hp.com # Use your new hostname here
> exit
Part 7: Cleanup
1. Restore your pre-DNS configuration on all hosts in your domain by running
/labs/netfiles.sh:
master# /labs/netfiles.sh –r NEW

slave# /labs/netfiles.sh –r NEW
client# /labs/netfiles.sh –r NEW

Solutions
13–14. LAB: Configuring and Securing ARPA/Berkeley Services
Directions
This lab offers an opportunity to configure, use, and troubleshoot the ARPA/Berkeley service
configuration on your machine. For a portion of the lab, you will need to work with a partner.
Choose a partner, and decide which machine will be the internet service "server" during the
experiments that follow, and which will be the "client".
Note that the "server" and "client" roles assigned in this lab are relatively arbitrary. Most HP-
UX machines are configured to provide both client and server functionality.
Server's host name: ____________________
Client's host name: ____________________
Preliminary Step
Part 1: Basic ARPA/Berkeley Service Configuration

1. (server and client) The "InternetSrvcs" product must be installed on every machine that
wishes to use or provide ARPA/Berkeley services. Check to ensure that this product is
installed on your system.
Answer
# swlist -l product InternetSrvcs
2. (server) The server's inetd daemon must be running in order for clients to have access
to any of the internet services. Use ps -e to check to ensure that the inetd daemon is
running on your server.
Answer
# ps -e | grep inetd
3. (server and client) Which script starts inetd during the boot process? At which run level
does inetd start?
Answer
inetd is started by /sbin/init.d/inetd at run level 2, and is killed by the same

script at run level 1.

Solutions
4. (server) Look at /etc/inetd.conf and /etc/services to determine which Internet

services are configured on your server, then complete the table below:
Service Enabled? Port#

------- -------- -----
telnet
ftp
login
tftp
bootps
5. Do you currently have server processes running for these services? Explain.
Answer
# more /etc/inetd.conf
# more /etc/services
The list of services enabled may vary from machine to machine, depending on the
contents of /etc/inetd.conf. Services that are commented out are not available.
The port numbers for the services may be found in the second field of the
/etc/services file.
Most likely, there are no server processes running for any of the listed services. Server
processes for these services are only started on an as-needed basis.
6. (server) Ensure that the services in inetd.conf that appear to be enabled actually are
enabled. Use netstat -a to check the status of each of the enabled services and ports
you listed in the table above.
Answer
# netstat -a
netstat -a lists the status of all configured ports. Unless the services are currently in
use, all ports associated with the services listed in the table should all be in a "LISTEN"
state.

Solutions
Part 2: Securing the Internet Services

1. (server) The inetd.conf file allows you to enable or disable an Internet service for all
clients. If, however, you wish to allow/prevent specific client(s) access to a service, you
must use the /var/adm/inetd.sec file.
Configure your /var/adm/inetd.sec file such that only the hosts in your row
(including your partner) have telnet access. Add another line to ensure that all your
classmates except your partner can ftp to your machine.
Answer
vi /var/adm/inetd.sec
telnet allow 128.1.1.1-4 # actual IP addresses will vary
ftp deny 128.1.1.2 # actual IP addresses will vary
2. (client) See if your server's configurations so far have succeeded. What messages do you
see when you attempt to telnet or ftp to the server?
Answer
telnet succeeds.
ftp fails with the message: "Service not available.”
3. (server) What do you have to do to enable inetd logging? Make it so.
Answer
export INETD_ARGS="-l"
4. (client) See if the logging feature works. From the client, telnet to the server, do an ls,
then immediately exit. Then attempt to ftp to the server (this should fail). Move on to
the next question to see what was recorded in the inetd log.
Answer
# ftp server # server host name will vary
# telnet server # server host name will vary
5. (server) How much detail is recorded in the inetd log? On the server, do a more on the
file where ARPA/Berkeley service requests are logged.
• Does inetd log the name of the service requested?
• Does inetd log the host name of the requesting client?
• Does inetd log the username of the user making telnet requests?
• Does inetd log the commands executed during the telnet session?
• Does inetd log denied requests for Internet service?

Solutions
Answer
Looking at /var/adm/syslog/syslog.log, you should see that:
Yes, the service name is recorded.
Yes, the requesting client host name is recorded.
No, username requesting a telnet connection is not recorded.
No, commands executed during a telnet session are not recorded.
Yes, denied service requests are recorded.

Solutions
Part 3: Experimenting with ARPA/Berkeley Service Connections

The goal of this part of the lab is to determine what happens when a client process connects
to a server providing ARPA/Berkeley services. More specifically, we will be experimenting
with the "telnet" service.
1. (client and server) First, check to see which daemons and processes are already running
on the server and client:
Answer
There should not be any telnet sessions running at this point.

2. (client and server) Establish a telnet session from the client to the server, and look at
the process table to determine which processes were started as a result.
client# telnet server
Which telnet related processes are running on the client now? Which telnet related
processes are running on the server now?
Answer
On the client, there should be a telnet process.

On the server, there should be a telnetd process.
3. (client and server) Can multiple clients telnet to the server simultaneously? Try it. On
the client side, open another window and initiate another telnet connection to the
server. Check to see which telnet related processes are running on the server and
client:
How many telnetd server processes are running on the server? How many telnet
processes are running on the client? Explain.
Answer
There should be two telnet processes on the client, and two telnet server processes
on the server.
Every telnet service request first goes to the server's inetd daemon, at which point
inetd starts the appropriate server process to manage interaction with the requesting
client.
You will have multiple telnetd server processes running on your machine if there are
multiple simultaneously connected clients.

Solutions
4. (client and server) Take a look at the ports that are being used by your telnet
processes:
client# netstat -a | grep telnet
server# netstat -a | grep telnet
How many telnet connections are ESTABLISHED? What process do you suppose is
monitoring the port in the LISTEN state? Do the client side telnet processes share a
port or use different ports? Which well-known port number are the telnetd daemons on
the server sharing?
Answer
Two connections should be established.
inetd is LISTENing on port number 23 for additional telnet requests.
On the client side, the telnet processes each have a separate port.
On the server side, however, all the telnet daemons receive data on port 23.
5. (client) Close your telnet connections to the server.

Solutions
Part 4: Experimenting with ARPA/Berkeley Services

1. (client) What happens if the server's inetd daemon is down when a client attempts to
connect? Try it, then explain the result.
server# inetd –k # kill the server's inetd
client# telnet server # can the client still connect?
server# inetd # restart the server's inetd
Answer
The connection fails. Clients cannot connect until the server's inetd daemon returns.
2. (client and server) What happens if the server's inetd daemon goes down AFTER a
session has been established -- does the existing connection remain, or are all client
connections immediately terminated? Try it, then explain the result.
client# telnet server # establish a connection to the server
server# inetd –k # kill the server's inetd.
server# ps -e | grep telnetd # does the telnet daemon remain?
Answer
Existing connections remain, even if inetd is killed. After the initial connection, inetd
is no longer involved in the client - server communication.
3. (client and server) What happens if the server's telnetd server process is killed while a
client is connected? Try it.
server# ps -e | grep telnetd # find the server process's PID
server# kill _____ # kill telnetd's PID
Does the client telnet process exist after the server's telnetd daemon is killed?
Restart inetd on the server before proceeding to the next question.
# inetd
Answer
Killing the telnetd process on the server severs the connection. The client telnet
process dies as a result.
4. (client) Must the client be running inetd in order to establish connections to a server?
Try it, and explain the result.
client# inetd -k # kill the client's inetd
client# telnet server # can the client still telnet out?
client# inetd # restart the client's inetd
Answer
Even if the client's inetd process dies, the client should still be able to telnet out.

Solutions
Part 5: Experimenting with Host and User Equivalency

1. (server)
Configure host equivalency for all the hosts in your row, including your client.
Answer
# vi /etc/hosts.equiv # list all hosts in your row, one
per line, by host name.
2. (client)
While logged in as root, use rlogin to log into the server. What happens? Why?
Exit out of your rlogin session before proceeding to the next question.
Answer
# rlogin server
You should still be prompted for a password. Remember, host equivalency does not apply
to the root account.
# exit
3. (client)
Use the su command to switch your user ID to user1. Then try rlogin again. What
happens? Why?
Answer
# su - user1
# rlogin server
This should work. /etc/hosts.equiv on the server grants host equivalency to users
on the client.
4. (server)
What can you do on the server to enable root on the clients password free access to your
machine? Make it so.
Answer
# vi ~root/.rhosts # add the client's host name to the file
5. (client)
Terminate the rlogin and su sessions you stated previously. Ensure that you are back
to the "root" userid. Then see if you can rlogin to the server without a password
Answer
# exit
# exit
# rlogin server # should work!

Solutions
6. (server)
Remove /etc/hosts.equiv and ~root/.rhosts.
Answer
# rm /etc/hosts.equiv ~root/.rhosts

Solutions
Part 6: (Optional) Troubleshooting Problems with the Internet

Services
In the exercise that follows, you will work with your partner to corrupt, then fix the internet
service configuration on the server machine that you chose at the beginning of this lab.
The list below suggests several different ways to corrupt the internet service configuration on
your "server" machine. Take turns being the "corrupter" and the "troubleshooter.”
The "corrupter" should perform any one of the corruption techniques from the list below on
the "server" machine. It is the duty of the "troubleshooter,” then to do whatever is necessary
on the server to enable the client to successfully telnet to the server.
Try the exercise several times, alternating roles as "corrupter" and "troubleshooter.”
Before starting the exercise, shutdown CDE:
/sbin/init.d/dtlogin.rc stop
Eight Ways to Corrupt an Internet Service Server
1. Kill the inetd daemon with inetd -k
2. Comment out the telnet line in /etc/inetd.conf and restart inetd.
3. Comment out the telnet line in /etc/services and restart inetd.
4. Take down the server's LAN card with ifconfig lan0 down.
5. Change the server's IP address with ifconfig lan0 254.254.254.254.
6. Detach the LAN cable on the server.
7. Change the client's network entry in the server's routing table.
8. Deny the client telnet access via /var/adm/inetd.sec.
Part 7: Cleanup
in before this lab.

Solutions
13–15. REVIEW QUESTIONS: Configuring and Securing

ARPA/Berkeley Services
Directions
1. What is the difference between a daemon and a server process?
Answer
A daemon is a software process that runs continuously (in the background) and provides
services upon request. A server process runs one time, when called by a daemon, and
then stops.
2. List some Internet Services daemons and server processes.
Answer
Daemons: inetd, rwhod, sendmail, named

Server processes: telnetd, ftpd, rlogind, rexecd, remshd
3. What does inetd do? What is the advantage in its functioning?
Answer
inetd is a "superdaemon"; it is responsible for invoking other Internet servers when they
are needed. By allowing this one daemon to invoke many servers, the system load is
reduced. (The alternative would be to have one daemon for each of the services, which
would significantly increase the load.)
4. What is the name of the inetd configuration file?
Answer
/etc/inetd.conf
5. What command do you use after modifying the configuration file?
Answer
# inetd –c

Solutions
6. What is a port? What file associates port numbers with a service name?
Answer
A port is an address within a host that is used to differentiate between multiple sockets
with the same Internet address. Ports are identified by port numbers. (A socket address
consists of the Internet address plus the port number.)
The /etc/services file associates a port number with a service name. These ports are
called well-known ports.
7. List at least four security features of the Internet Services.
Answer
• /etc/hosts.equiv
• $HOME/.rhosts
• /etc/ftpusers
• /etc/inetd.conf
• /var/adm/inetd.sec
• inetd logging
8. Which server processes use the /etc/hosts.equiv and $HOME/.rhosts files?
Answer
The servers remshd and rlogind use these files, if the files are present.
9. Are the /etc/hosts.equiv and $HOME/.rhosts files optional for using the Berkeley
Services? Explain your Answer.
Answer
The Answer is yes and no. These files are optional, they are used if they are present. You
need to configure bypass password security (user or system equivalency) if a remote user
is able to access to one of your password secured user accounts with rcp or remsh.
10. What is the name and what are the features of the security file that ftpd uses?
Answer
The /etc/ftpusers file denies remote users to access the specified users with ftp.

Solutions
11. What is an anonymous FTP?
Answer
A public user account without password security that allows a user to copy files with ftp
from or to a remote system . A chroot() is done to the anonymous FTP user's HOME
directory.
12. What is the security feature of /var/adm/inetd.sec?
Answer
It allows or denies certain services that are administrated by inetd for specific hosts or
networks.
13. What is wrong in the following inetd.sec example?

rlogin allow 192.6.1
Answer
This will not work. The official service name (see /etc/services) is login, not
rlogin.
14. If inetd logging is enabled, which file contains the logging output?
Answer
The log file of syslogd is /var/adm/syslog/syslog.log.

Solutions
14–6. LAB: Managing a bootp/tftp Server
Part 1: Basic bootp/tftp Configuration

1. The bootp/tftp services are bundled in the InternetSrvcs product. Ensure the
InternetSrvcs product is installed on your machine.
Answer:
# swlist InternetSrvcs
2. Run the config_bootp and config_tftp -h commands to enable BOOTP/TFTP.
Answer:
# setup_bootp
# setup_tftp –h
3. Verify that the bootps and tftp services are both enabled in /etc/inetd.conf and
the /etc/services file.
Answer:
# grep –e bootp –e tftp /etc/inetd.conf
# grep –e bootp –e tftp /etc/services
4. Verify that the TFTP account exists in /etc/passwd and that a TFTP home directory was
created.
Answer:
# grep tftp /etc/passwd

# ll -d /home/tftpdir

Solutions
Part 2: Configuring a Network Printer in /etc/bootptab

1. Kill the rbootd daemon to avoid port conflicts with hppi.
# ps –ef |grep rbootd

# kill PID
2. Verify that the HPNPL bundle is installed on your system.
Answer:
# swlist HPNPL
3. Using hppi, create a bootptab entry for a network printer. Use the hardware address,
IP address, host name, subnet mask, and default router address provided by your
instructor. Use your classroom's room name or number as the printer location, and your
own name as the printer contact.
Answer:
-> (1) Create printer configuration in BOOTP/TFTP database
(Answer the questions that follow according to instructor's directions.)
4. Check the /etc/bootptab file for changes made by hppi. Name three pieces of
information defined in the printer's new entry in bootptab.
Answer
The following are a few of the most common fields found in the /etc/bootptab file:
:ht= #Network interface card type (ether, ieee, etc.)
:ha= #MAC address
:hn: #Should BOOTP provide the printer a host name?
:ip= #IP address
:sm= #Subnet mask
5. At this point your machine is ready to service bootp requests from the network printer
you configured.
6. Now remove the new printer bootp configuration from your machine using hppi.
-> (2) Remove printer configuration from BOOTP/TFTP database

Solutions
15–11. LAB: Introduction to NTP
Directions
Your instructor will assign you to work with a team of your classmates to configure an NTP
server, and one or more NTP clients. Record the host names and chosen roles of your
teammates' machines below.
NTP server: ___________
NTP client: ____________
NTP client: ____________
Record the commands you use to complete the steps below, and Answer all questions.
Preliminary Step
Part 1: Configuring an NTP Server

The steps below should only be configured on the host you have chosen to be the NTP server.
Do not start configuring the NTP clients until the server configuration is complete.
Since you probably do not have access to a radio clock in the classroom, use the NTP server's
internal system clock as the authoritative time source for your team.
1. Set the local clock forward 2 minutes so the clients can actually see a clock "step" after
enabling NTP.
date MMDDhhmm
xclock -update 1 &
2. Add a server line to the end of the /etc/ntp.conf file defining the local clock as the
only time source. Since the internal system clock is not likely to be accurate, set the
stratum level of this time source to 10.
# vi /etc/ntp.conf
server 127.127.1.1
3. Modify the /etc/rc.config.d/netdaemons file to enable XNTPD on the server. Do

not specify an NTP date server.
NTPDATE_SERVER=
XNTPD=1
XNTPD_ARGS=

Solutions
4. Run the NTP startup script to start the xntpd daemon.

5. After xntpd starts, it takes 5 poll cycles (320 seconds) to establish the appropriate peer
and server relationships. Wait 5 minutes before proceeding on to the next question.
6. Is the xntpd daemon running? Are there any NTP errors in the syslog?
If all is well, the daemon should be running, and there should not be any XNTPD
"ERROR"s in the syslog.
7. Does ntpq -p suggest that the correct association has been formed? What stratum level
did NTP assign to your local clock?
# ntpq -p
There should be one line in the ntpq -p output showing that the local clock is being
used as a stratum 10 time source.

Solutions
Part 2: Configuring an NTP Client

Do not start this procedure until you confirm that your NTP server is fully functional. The
steps below should only be performed on the host(s) you have chosen as NTP clients.
1. Add appropriate server and driftfile lines to your /etc/ntp.conf file to poll the NTP
server created in the previous portion of the exercise.
vi /etc/ntp.conf
server 128.1.1.1 # assume 128.1.1.1 is the NTP srvr IP
You may use the server's hostname rather than the IP if you wish.
Note: xntp must be able to write to the directory where the drift file is located.
2. Modify the /etc/rc.config.d/netdaemons file to enable xntpd. Also define your

NTP server to be the NTPDATE_SERVER.
NTPDATE_SERVER=128.1.1.1 # Assume 128.1.1.1 is the NTP srvr IP
XNTPD=1
XNTPD_ARGS=
Here again, you may use the server's host name in place of the IP if you wish.
3. Run the NTP startup script on the client to start the NTP daemon. Note the output as
ntpdate steps the system clock.
4. Check to ensure that your client formed the proper association by running ntpq -p.
# ntpq -p
5. Compare the time on your client against the time on the NTP server. Do they appear to be
synchronized at this point?
Answer
Execute the date command on both machines.
They should agree.

Solutions
16–13. LAB: Configuring an SD-UX Depot Server
Directions
Carefully follow the directions below.
Part 1: Preliminary Step

If you haven’t already done so, return to your system’s TCP/IP configuration to the state its
original state.
# /labs/netfiles –r ORIGINAL
Part 2: Configuring a Depot Server

You should have two .depot files on your lab system called /labs/echoapp.depot and
/labs/PHSS_01111.depot. Your goal in this portion of the lab is to consolidate the contents of
these two .depot files into a depot directory that is accessible to clients on your network.
1. Create a /depots/Rel_B.11.11/appl directory for your new depot.
Answer:
# mkdir –p /depots/Rel_B.11.11/appl
2. Copy the contents of /labs/PHSS_01111.depot to your new depot.
Answer:
# swcopy –s /labs/PHSS_01111.depot –x enforce_dependencies=false

\* @ /depots/Rel_B.11.11/appl
3. Now copy the contents of /labs/echoapp.depot to your new depot.
Answer:
# swcopy –s /labs/echoapp.depot \* @ /depots/Rel_B.11.11/appl
4. List the contents of your new depot to verify that the software was copied properly.
Answer:
# swlist –s localhost:/depots/Rel_B.11.11/appl

Solutions
5. Temporarily unregister your depot. What impact does this have on the depot list reported
by swlist –l depot?
Answer:
# swreg –ul depot /depots/Rel_B.11.11/appl

# swlist –l depot
The new depot should no longer appear in the swlist –l depot output.
6. Re-register the depot.
Answer:
# swreg –l depot /depots/Rel_B.11.11/appl
7. Use a “pull” install to install the EchoApp product from your new depot on your
localhost. Watch the output carefully. What was installed as a result of your swinstall?
Answer:
# swinstall –s localhost:/depots/Rel_B.11.11/appl \
–x autoreboot=true EchoApp
This should install EchoApp as well as the EchoApp patch.
8. Run the program to verify that your install succeeded.
# /opt/echoapp/bin/echoapp
9. Remove the EchoApp product. Watch the output carefully. What was removed as a
result of your swremove?
Answer:
# swremove –x autoreboot=true EchoApp
This should remove EchoApp as well as the EchoApp patch.

Solutions
Part 3: (Optional) Configuring SD-UX “Push” Functionality

1. Verify that your /var/opt/mx/depot11 depot is registered.
Answer:
# swreg –l depot @ /var/opt/mx/depot11

# swlist –l depot
2. Ask your partner to install the AgentConfig.SD-CONFIG fileset from your

/var/opt/mx/depot11 depot so you can “push” software updates to their system.
Answer:
partner# swinstall –s server:/var/opt/mx/depot11 \

AgentConfig.SD-CONFIG
3. Now “push” install EchoApp to your partner’s system!
Answer:
# swinstall –s server:/depots/Rel_B.11.11/appl \
EchoApp @ partner
4. Use the remote swlist functionality to verify that EchoApp installed properly on your
partner’s system.
Answer:
# swlist EchoApp @ partner
5. Can you remotely remove EchoApp from your partner’s system, too? Try it!
Answer:
# swremove –x autoreboot=true EchoApp @ partner

Solutions
Part 3: Cleanup
1. Remove all of the software from your /depots/Rel_B.11.11/appl depot.
Answer:
# swremove –d \* @ /depots/Rel_B.11.11/appl
2. Remove the /depots/Rel_B.11.11/appl depot directory, too.
Answer:
# rm –rfp /depots/Rel_B.11.11/appl

Solutions


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student

HP-UX System and

UNIX® is a registered trademark of The Open Group.

X/Open is a trademark of X/Open Company Limited in the UK and other countries.

HP-UX System and Network Administration II

Module 1 — LAN Concepts

Module 2 — LAN Hardware Overview

http://education.hp.com iii H3065S D.00

Module 3 — Configuring IP Connectivity

Module 4 — Configuring IP Routing

Module 5 — Configuring Subnetting

Module 6 — Troubleshooting Network Connectivity

H3065S D.00 iv http://education.hp.com

Module 7 — Starting Network Services

Module 8 — NFS Concepts

Module 9 — Configuring NFS

Module 10  Configuring AutoFS

http://education.hp.com v H3065S D.00

10–7. SLIDE: Configuring the AutoFS Direct Map ..............................................................10-16

Module 11 — Configuring NIS

Module 12 — Configuring DNS

H3065S D.00 vi http://education.hp.com

Module 13 — Configuring the ARPA/Berkeley Services

Module 14 — Configuring a BOOTP/TFTP Server

Module 15 — Configuring NTP

Module 16 — Configuring an SD-UX Depot Server

http://education.hp.com vii H3065S D.00

16–12. SLIDE: Pushing Software from a Depot: Commands ...............................................16-20

Appendix A — Decimal-Hexadecimal-Binary Conversion

Appendix B  HP-UX Administration Command Quick Reference

H3065S D.00 viii http://education.hp.com

Student Performance Objectives

Module 1 — LAN Concepts

• Describe the purpose of a local area network (LAN).

• Describe the concept and purpose of the OSI model.

• Describe the format and purpose of a MAC address.

• Describe the format and purpose of an IP address.

• Describe the format and purpose of an IP netmask.

• Describe the format and purpose of an IP network address.

• Describe the format and purpose of an IP broadcast address.

• Describe the format and purpose of the IP loopback address.

• Describe the format and purpose of a host name.

• Describe the differences between the UDP and TCP protocols.

• Describe the purpose of ports and sockets.

• Describe the host name to IP to MAC address lookup process.

Module 2 — LAN Hardware Overview

• Describe the characteristics of three major LAN cable types.

• Discuss three different LAN topologies.

• Explain two different LAN access methods.

• List the characteristics of an Ethernet LAN.

http://education.hp.com 1 H3065S D.00

• List the characteristics of a Token Ring LAN.

• List the characteristics of an FDDI LAN.

• Explain the difference between physical and logical topologies.

Module 3 — Configuring IP Connectivity

• Configure link layer connectivity with the lanadmin command.

• Configure and use the /etc/rc.config.d/netconf configuration file.

• Configure the /etc/hosts configuration file.

Module 4 — Configuring IP Routing