SPIRAL GALAXIES

For many astrophotographers, the spiral galaxy M 31 was their first extragalactic
subject – the first image remains in memory. This is a good point of introduction
to the astrophysics of these spiral systems.

THE CLASSIFICATION OF SPIRAL GALAXIES be followed over one or two full revolutions. Sb denotes
Spiral galaxies with their spiral arms are prototypical gala- types the arms of which are not as tightly wound and more
xies. These impressive forms allow even those with little coarsely structured compared to Sa. In the case of Sc gala-
knowledge of astronomy to instantly identify spirals as “gala- xies, the arms are the least tightly wound and have the smal-
xies” in their images. Spiral arms have thus played a deciding lest radius of curvature. The spiral arms of Sc types manage
role in the various classification schemes for this type of only about one revolution from the centre to the outskirts
galaxy. Note that all classification schemes are based on the of the disc.
view onto the main plane of the galaxy. In other words, the
“face-on” view is what matters for the classification. Galaxies In the literature one often finds expressions such as “less
seen from an oblique inclination are rotated in order to simu- developed” or “more developed” Hubble types. Caution is
late a face-on view. The classification of edge-on galaxies is required here since, despite the impression created by the
difficult. series of types, this is not an evolutionary sequence. This was
not known in the mid-1930s, when Edwin Hubble published
An edge-on spiral galaxy allows a view into its galactic his classification. One should thus not overlook this histori-
plane with large amounts of gas and dust. However, this cal aspect when considering the physical aspects of the classi-
makes it more difficult to say anything about the spiral arms. fication. This was the time of the “Great Debate” which was
This dilemma also applies to the classification of our Milky about the distances to photographed “nebulae”. Were these
Way, since Earth is located within the main plane which thus part of the Milky Way or more distant, independent gala-
doesn’t afford a view onto this plane. Further conclusions xies? In order to decide this, Edwin Hubble made use of
require complex measurements in wavelengths which are able Cepheids which he could identify in the Andromeda Nebula
to penetrate the thick clouds of gas and dust. Today, the con- (M 31) and M 33. For these giant pulsating variables, there is
sensus among astronomers is an SB classification with four a relation between the length of the period and their absolute
spiral arms. However, the Milky Way did not always have luminosity. This was discovered in 1912 by Henrietta Leavitt,
this four-arm structure; it is suspected that tidal interactions an astronomer at Harvard College Observatory. She made
induced disturbances in the plane of the disc which led to the use of Cepheids in the Magellanic Clouds, two satellite gala-
splitting of two dominant spiral arms. xies of the Milky Way; since these Cepheids are all at appro-
ximately the same distance, their apparent and absolute
The Hubble classification, which was mentioned in the magnitudes are proportional. Edwin Hubble, in 1924, was
Introduction, has proved useful over many years and distin- the first to determine the distance to the more distant gala-
guishes spiral types based on the compactness of the pattern xies M 31 and M 33, using Cepheids as distance indicators.
of the arms. The nomenclature uses, in addition to the letter It was noticed later that Cepheids are not ideal distance indi-
S, the suffi xes a, b, and c, for example describing as Sa a ga- cators, since the luminosity of these giant pulsating variables
laxy the arms of which appear very tight and as a rule can depends on the amount of heavy elements they contain, i.e.
on their metallicity. The Cepheids in the Andromeda
Nebula, like those in the Milky Way, are more metal-rich
The Andromeda galaxy M 31 is the largest galaxy in the Local than those in the Magellanic Clouds and are about 1.5 mag-
Group and has several satellite galaxies (see page 16). Image credit: nitudes brighter for the same pulsation period. The German-
Stefan Hentz, Stefan Binnewies (600-mm refl ector). American astronomer Walter Baade studied these different

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 Spiral Galaxies — The Morphology of Spiral Galaxies

and Sa(r) differ in that in the Sa(s) case one can follow

conspicuous spiral arms from the centre to the outer reaches
while an Sa(r) galaxy has a ring in the inner area from which
the spiral arms emanate.

One also has to take the spectral bandwidth of the fi lm or

detector into account during classification. Since the spiral
arms are dominated by young, hot stars, these structures are
particularly prominent in the UV band, which could even
influence the Hubble classification. Over the years, the origi-
nal classification scheme has lost its importance for current
science, since today more sophisticated analyses are necessary
in order to take into account and explain the multitude of
information available for a galaxy. Today, integral and spect-
ral properties are usually used for the scientific classification
of galaxies.

THE MORPHOLOGY OF SPIRAL GALAXIES

The spiral arms which one can see in images of galaxies
Figure 1.1: Star-formation regions are located in spiral arms, as here
in NGC 206 (see page 18). indicate the fact that the density is higher here than on
average. Th is is evidence of regions of compressed gas. The
matter density in spiral arms is 10–15 per cent higher than
types of Cepheids in the 1950s. He was able to show that the the average in the disc and leads to a local increase in the
calibration of the period–luminosity relation which Hubble star-formation rate. Our home galaxy, the Milky Way, is a
used, based on the Cepheids in the Magellanic Clouds, was nearby example of what one fi nds in distant spiral galaxies
incorrect and delivered distances which were too small, not as well: many young, hot stars with a dominant blue-white
only for the Andromeda Nebula and M 33. The required cor- colour are responsible for making the spiral arms visible
rection increased all extragalactic distances by a factor and emphasize these active regions in the galactic disc both
of two. visually and photographically. A nice example is NGC 206,
a star-forming region in a spiral arm of the Andromeda
The lintel-shaped S0 systems are a special type of spiral galaxy. About 4000 light years in size, this collection of
galaxy. They consist of a core and a disc component, but no young, hot stars shines in a conspicuous blue light. Th is is
spiral arms are visible in the disc of an S0. There are also at due to the hot O and B stars within which have their maxi-
most hints of a bar in the centre. In addition, the core is rela- mum emission in the blue spectral range. Such collections
tively brighter compared to the disc than is the case for other are also known as OB associations and are a sure sign that
types of spirals. In some edge-on S0 systems, one can see star formation is taking place. In addition to the blue
conspicuous dust lanes in the plane which are also used to colour, one also recognizes in spiral arms prominent fi ne
distinguish subtypes of S0s. structures with violet or red colours. In these so-called H II
regions, hot stars ionize the surrounding hydrogen gas,
Various factors play a role in the form and structure of spi- causing emission via recombination. Since the interstellar
ral arms; most important is the presence of interaction part- matter in spiral arms is 90 per cent hydrogen, the emission
ners. This doesn’t refer to direct interaction; rather, an spectra are primarily characterized by the Balmer spectrum
approach within ten galactic radii is enough to cause visible of hydrogen with the lines Hα, Hβ, Hγ ... . The strongest of
disturbances in the spiral arms. The spiral arms are very sen- these lines is the red Hα line with a wavelength of
sitive indicators even of very small disturbances of this kind. 656.3 nm. Spiral galaxies can contain thousands of these
Since classification is always a simplification and a reduction H II regions, which occur primarily about halfway along
of the variety of forms to a few characteristics, it is difficult to the spiral arms.
take into account all possible deviations from the ideal form
of unperturbed spiral arms. In the 1960s, Gérard-Henri de In contrast to the disc, the core region of a galaxy appears
Vaucouleurs introduced a refinement of the Hubble classifi- yellow-red. This is an indication of the presence of many old
cation by adding a third dimension, distinguishing between population II stars, which radiate mainly in the yellow-red
ring- and s-shaped types. Th is formal extension of the spectral range. The light of many such stars thus emphasizes
description allowed for mixed types, and the terms Sa(s) the longer wavelengths and shifts the colour of the core

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 Spiral Galaxies — The Morphology of Spiral Galaxies

Figure 1.2: The spiral galaxy NGC 2403 has many active regions in its main plane which are visible as blue and red structures (see page 33).

correspondingly from blue to yellow-red. The transition from high- and low-pressure zones in the atmosphere, in the
the spiral arms to the core of a spiral galaxy corresponds to a arrangement of sunflower seeds, and in snail shells.
change in the stellar population and indicates a similarity Mathematically, logarithmic spirals have the property that a
between the core and an elliptical galaxy. ray from the centre always cuts the spiral at the same angle.
Thus, such a spiral is also known as an equiangular spiral.
Spiral galaxies are not only morphologically similar but One defi nes the pitch angle as the difference between the
also similar in size (taking distance into account to convert angle of intersection and 90°. Studies of spiral galaxies show
apparent to physical size). Most spiral galaxies have a diame- that typical pitch angles are 10–40° with a strong
ter of 65 000–80 000 light years. With a diameter of 100 000 maximum around 20°. Larger pitch angles correspond to
light years, the Milky Way is above average in size and thus more open spirals and thus a more relaxed structure of the
also in mass. One can see this as an indication of the fact spiral arms.
that the current Milky Way has evolved from a normal spiral
galaxy. During this evolution, smaller galaxies in the environ- One can also classify the spiral arms themselves based on
ment of the Milky Way merged with it and led to an increase their appearance. About ten per cent of spiral galaxies have
in the disc and the total mass. This process continues today two well defined spiral arms; these are often called “grand
and can be seen in the Magellanic Clouds, which are visible design” spirals, unperturbed textbook cases. In 60 per cent
from the southern hemisphere. These satellite galaxies of the of cases, more than two spiral arms occur. This “multiple-
Milky Way are dwarf galaxies which are interacting with arm structure” is often accompanied by splitting and
the Galactic gravitational field and will be completely assimi- modification. It is often difficult to determine the number of
lated in the far future. A more dramatic example is provided spiral arms due to the fact that they become less distinct as
by the Sagittarius dwarf galaxy, at 70 000 light years only half one moves away from the centre. Finally, about 30 per cent of
as distant as the Magellanic Clouds. This dwarf galaxy has spiral galaxies, so-called flocculent spirals, have arms which
already orbited the centre of the Milky Way several times are almost completely dissolved, consisting only of small-
and released several million solar masses of material in the scale arrangements of arm fragments.
process.
Looking at the form of the disc plane in detail, one
One can also study spiral arms purely geometrically. Such finds that in more than half of all spiral galaxies this plane
an analysis shows a strong similarity to logarithmic spirals. is warped. The form reminds one of a sombrero, the broad
Th is construction principle occurs often in nature and can brim of which is not flat but can be thought of as constructed
be described by noting that each revolution increases the from concentric circles which are slightly tilted with respect to
distance from the centre by the same factor. Th is is found in one another. This asymmetry occurs independently of the

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 Figure 1.3: In NGC 6632, as in many other spiral galaxies, one discovers deviations from an “ ideal” spiral pattern (see page 63).

classification of the spiral galaxy, and there is a relation bet- studies of images can reveal physical details about the enti-
ween the radius of the warped disc and the amount of warp. In re galaxy. Young, hot stars have larger masses compared to
the case of strong warps, one suspects the cause to be a dimmer stars; the mass–luminosity relation for main-
large-scale perturbation due to gravitational interaction with a sequence stars is L ~ M3,5. Star-forming regions are always
companion galaxy. A slightly warped disc, on the other hand, bluer, and thus also the spiral arms where they are located,
can have several causes, such as an asymmetric flow of gas into which is easily seen in the typical blue colour of the disc
the centre of the galaxy. These mechanisms lead one to the population of S/SB types. In contrast, an S0 type is much
interesting conclusion that a flat disc in a spiral galaxy can form redder due to the lack of spiral arms with young, hot stars.
only if many large gas clouds combine and the successive over- The S0 type is thus similar to an elliptical galaxy which is
lap of small gas clouds takes place such that the main angular dominated by dimmer, red, but also longer-lived types
momentum dominates. This growth process differs from “hier- of stars.
archical galaxy growth” in which large galaxies are formed by
the merger of smaller galaxies, leading to a characteristic bulge Spiral galaxies are rich in dust and gas which can be seen
in the central region. If the assembly of the galaxy is not distur- in the form of dust lanes and quite distinctly in the case of
bed by interactions, the result is a galaxy which is as flat as a edge-on galaxies. In this perspective, the dust lanes are in
pancake, known as a “pure-disc galaxy” in the literature. front of the spiral arms, leading to maximum contrast. Due
to the strong extinction due to gas and dust, light is
THE ASTROPHYSICS OF SPIRAL GALAXIES dimmed and in addition reddened. The reddening is due to
Together with knowledge about the various spectral classes wavelength-dependent scattering effects in which blue light
and the blue-red range of the colour of stars, detailed is scattered more strongly, reducing the amount of blue in

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 Spiral Galaxies — The Astrophysics of Spiral Galaxies

with a central mass in the middle of the spiral is not realistic.

More appropriate is a thick disc or torus of dark matter in
which the spiral plane is embedded.

One can use traditional physical methods to study the

mechanisms in the plane of the disc, with differential rotation

THE PHYSICS OF VORONTSOV-VELYAMINOV ROWS

In the spiral arms of many galaxies, one finds straight segments which
are known as Vorontsov-Velyaminov rows. The origin of these rows is
not completely understood. It can’t be explained via the gravitational
potential of a spiral galaxy nor by tidal torques. This is due to the fact
that in these gravitational fields there are no straight structures of
constant force. In the 1990s, astronomers learned with the help of
simulations that co-rotating perturbations in the plane of the spiral are a
possible cause. In order to understand the physical basis of Vorontsov-
Velyaminov rows, one has to model the gas dynamics in the spiral plane.
An important hint is given by the dust lanes which one can observe
along the spiral arms. These lanes are compressed layers of gas and dust
which indicate where the shock fronts of the density waves are located.
Since one observes linear dust formations in Vorontsov-Velyaminov rows,
one can conclude that the corresponding local shock fronts are straight
and differ from the curved form of the density waves propagating in the
plane of the spiral.

How can local, straight areas arise in the global spiral-shaped density
waves? The physical cause responsible for the origin of the rows also
causes the rows to be stable, even if this leads to perturbations in the gas
flow. If a perturbation leads to a concave form of the shock front, the gas
flows behind the perturbation are compressed and thus accelerated. The
dent in the shock front is thus compensated and the straight form is res-
the observed object. In good images, one can study this in tored. A convex perturbation, on the other hand, leads to a deceleration
detail via the colours of stars whose light travels through the of the gas flows and similarly the straight form is restored.
edges of dust lanes.
Astronomers have simulated the gas dynamics of density waves and
In the case of edge-on spiral galaxies, one can use the shock fronts based on a differentially rotating gas disc and a spiral-
Doppler shift of characteristic lines to exactly determine the shaped density wave. The density wave has a well defined amplitude in
speed of rotation. In general, the angle of inclination of the the plane of the spiral and a pitch angle such that it rotates like a solid
galactic plane of the spiral galaxy is taken into account in body with constant angular velocity. In the simulations, one can observe a
the measurement. In the case of a face-on galaxy, it is not three-step process. This begins with shock fronts which are still spiral
possible to determine the radial component of the speed of shaped. Then shear flows occur which interact with the density waves in
rotation. At large distances, rotation curves of spiral galaxies the spiral arms and cause instabilities in the shock fronts. These shear
show no decline in the speed of rotation with distance from flows are followed by so-called Kelvin–Helmholtz instabilities, which first
the centre such as one would expect from a Kepler orbit cause wavy, small-scale segments to be formed, which then lead to
about a centre of mass; rather, the curve is flat. This is an straight secondary structures in the spiral arms (see Figure 1.4). Kelvin–
indication that spiral galaxies do not have a simple mass dis- Helmholtz instabilities are small eddies which occur along the boundary
tribution dominated by the core, such as is the case in our between two flows with different velocities. Kelvin–Helmholtz instabilities
Solar System. In the last several decades, many spiral galaxies grow with time within this boundary and are visible as whirl-shaped
have been studied, and it was found that they are embedded patterns in the boundary layer.
in halos of dark matter, i.e. a smoothly distributed mass
component which interacts only gravitationally. The model

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 Spiral Galaxies — The Astrophysics of Spiral Galaxies

Figure 1.4: Colour illustration of hydrodynamical simulations. Left: View onto the spiral plane with two spiral-shaped
density waves and initial perturbations due to shear fl ows. Right: Polygonal structures arise from perturbations of the gas
dynamics. Colours indicate the density of gas in the plane of the spiral (red: high gas density, blue: low gas density). These
simulations make use of a curvature radius of 15° and a density-wave amplitude of 0.1 (courtesy of S. A. Khosperskov).

as the starting point. Material in the disc at a distance r rota- the density waves is the weak, distance-dependent drift of
tes with an angular velocity ω(r). Material closer to the centre the orbital maxima. This drift transforms a leading wave, i.e.
rotates somewhat faster, that further away somewhat slower. a wave whose outer edge travels faster than its inner edge,
How can the typical spiral patterns form via this differential into a trailing wave. In such a trailing wave, the outskirts
rotation? propagate more slowly than the more inner regions. Self-
gravitation amplifies the surface density and hence the densi-
The first answer was given in 1925 by Bertil Lindblad, and ty wave itself. This is followed by feedback with the wave
in the mid-1960s the density-wave theory was further develo- which travels through the galactic centre and thus becomes a
ped by Chia Chiao Lin and Frank Shu. Th is theory is based leading wave. An almost stable spiral structure is formed in
on a model for the formation of density waves which propa- the disc, whereby, due to gravitational amplification, trailing
gate in the plane and increase the surface density by 10–20 waves are observed in most spiral systems. In a co-rotating
per cent compared to the average density. coordinate system, stellar orbits appear almost closed and
the minimum and maximum distances are separated by 90°.
The location of this increase in density defines the location The existence of two spiral arms is a consequence of the sym-
of a spiral arm. The appearance of spiral arms, however, can- metry of this simple model. From the point of view of an
not be directly related to the orbital motion of stars about the individual star, the action of the density wave results in an
galactic centre, since then differential rotation would have increase in the speed of the star when a wave is approaching
led to tighter winding of the spiral arms with time and hence and a decrease when it is moving away. The density wave
to the destruction of the spiral structure. leads to a local increase in the stellar density, which in turn
leads to the forerunner of a later-forming spiral arm. This is
How, then, do density waves originate? Every closed orbi- because only such compression of gas leads gas clouds to col-
tal curve has an angle of 180° between the minimum and lapse, which in turn allows star formation to begin in the
maximum distance from the centre. For orbits within the spiral arms.
disc, there are variations from this simple model, since the
environment influences the gravitational potential and hence In the so-called “grand design” spirals of type Sbc/Sc, a
the motion of the body. The orbit of a star in the galactic phenomenon occurs in the spiral arms which was first disco-
plane is thus not closed and the angle between closest and vered and studied in the 1950s by the Russian astronomer Boris
farthest distance is less than 180°. The resulting form of the Vorontsov-Velyaminov. He noticed straight portions in other-
orbit corresponds to successive epicycles. The driving force of wise curved spiral arms, later known as Vorontsov-Velyaminov

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 Spiral Galaxies — Bibliography

rows. Occasionally, a spiral arm has more than one of these so that we can assume that our home Galaxy has Vorontsov-
rows, connected by a conspicuously constant angle, forming a Velyaminov rows.
polygon-like structure in the spiral arm. These spiral galaxies
are otherwise regular and show no other abnormalities. The BIBLIOGRAPHY
value of the angles between Vorontsov-Velyaminov rows lie bet- Chernin, A. D.: Vorontsov-Velyaminov’s rows in giant spiral
ween 110° and 140°, with 120° being most common. In the case galaxies: geometrical properties and physical interpretation,
of 120° angles, eight to ten such rows are observed. Astrophysics, 41, 1998
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If the angle is less or more than 120°, fewer rows are found Straight segments in the spiral arms of galaxies,
in the spiral arms. One also finds that the length of a row Astronomy Letters, 26, 2000
increases linearly with distance from the centre. This is a hint Filistov, E. A.: Polygonal structure of spiral galaxies,
that the cause of the rows is related to the large-scale density Astronomy Reports, 56, 2012
waves and not to small-scale perturbations. Examples of Hubble, E.: Cepheids in Spiral Nebulae, Popular Astronomy,
these rows can be found in M 51, M 101 and in NGC 2223. 33, 1925
If one observes several Vorontsov-Velyaminov rows, one can Khoperskov, S. A. et al.: Polygonal Structures in the Gaseous
broadly distinguish two types: on the one hand rows which Disk: Numerical Simulations, Astronomy Letters, 37, 2011
are brighter than a normal spiral arm, but similar in form Kupka, F.: Galaxien: Entwicklung, 2005,
and width, and on the other hand conspicuously narrow rows [Link]/~fk /TUM
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ber of rows (5–7); for large angles of more than 40°, only one Pickering, E. C and Levitt, H.: Periods of 25 Variable Stars in
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