The Family of Stars and Their Death - Small main-sequence stars (red dwarfs): Stars are categorized by their

egorized by their surface

Cooler and burn their fuel slowly, lasting temperature and brightness. The
billions of years. Hertzsprung-Russell (H-R) Diagram is a tool
Introduction: used to classify stars.
- Giant and Supergiant Stars: When stars
The universe is home to billions of stars, exhaust hydrogen in their cores, they Hot, Blue Stars (O-Type): Very luminous
each with unique characteristics but expand and cool to form giants or and massive but short-lived.
sharing fundamental similarities. These supergiants.
- Cool, Red Stars (M-Type): Small, dim
stellar "family members" are grouped - Giants (like Betelgeuse): Massive and stars like red dwarfs.
based on their size, temperature, luminous.
brightness, and life stages. Star Clusters:
- Supergiants: Even larger than giants,
Types of Stars: leading short but spectacular lives. - Open Clusters: Groups of young stars
loosely bound by gravity, prone to being
- Protostar: A star begins its life as a - Sun: Considered an average-sized star, dispersed over time. They are mostly
protostar, forming from a dense region in smaller than both supergiants and giant found in spiral and irregular galaxies,
a cloud of gas and dust (nebula). Gravity stars. including the Milky Way, as they form in
pulls the particles together, causing heat regions rich in gas and dust.
build-up as the cloud contracts. - Dwarf Stars:
- The Pleiades (M45): One of the most
Main Sequence Stars: These are the - White Dwarfs: These are the remnants famous open clusters, visible to the naked
"adults" of the stellar family, where stars of medium-sized stars like the Sun, no eye in the constellation Taurus.
spend the majority of their lives. They fuse longer undergoing fusion but radiating
hydrogen into helium in their cores, leftover heat. - The Hyades: Another well-known open
releasing energy that makes them shine. cluster, located in Taurus.
Brown Dwarfs: Sometimes called "failed
- Large main-sequence stars (blue giants): stars," these celestial objects are too small - Globular Clusters: Dense, spherical
Extremely hot and bright but have shorter to sustain hydrogen fusion. collections of older stars found in the
life spans. outskirts of galaxies.
Stellar Classification:
Binary and Multiple Star Systems:
Many stars are part of systems where two - Massive Stars: The death of stars, particularly in
or more stars orbit each other. supernovae, disperses elements like
- Life Span: Millions to tens of millions of carbon, oxygen, and iron into space. These
- Example: The binary star Sirius (Sirius A years. elements are crucial for the formation of
and Sirius B) is the brightest star in our new stars, planets, and life.
night sky. - Death Process:

The Death of Stars: Red or Blue Supergiant Phase: After

exhausting hydrogen, elements are fused Exploring Galaxies: Families, Properties,
- Low- and Medium-Mass Stars (like the in the core. When iron forms, fusion stops, and Active Phenomena
Sun): as iron cannot release energy through
fusion. INTRODUCTION
- Life Span: Tens of billions of years.
Supernova Explosion: The core collapses Galaxies are the fundamental building
- Death Process: under gravity, triggering a catastrophic blocks of the universe, vast collections of
Red Giant Phase: Hydrogen fuel in the explosion. The explosion releases stars, gas, dust, and dark matter bound
core is depleted, and the core contracts. immense energy, spreading heavy together by gravity. Understanding their
The outer layers expand, and the star elements into space. properties and evolution is crucial to
becomes a red giant. comprehending the cosmos. This report
Remnants of Massive Stars: will explore the diverse families of
Planetary Nebula Formation: The outer - Neutron Star: If the core is 1.4 to 3 times galaxies, the methods used to measure
layers are ejected into space, forming a the Sun's mass, it becomes an incredibly their properties, and the fascinating
glowing shell of gas. The core is left behind dense neutron star. phenomenon of active galaxies.
as a dense, hot remnant. Planetary
nebulae are often ring-shaped or bubble- - Black Hole: If the core exceeds 3 solar Families of Galaxies:
shaped. masses, it collapses into a black hole, The Hubble Sequence
where gravity is so strong that not even
White Dwarf: The remaining core cools light can escape. Edwin Hubble, a pioneering astronomer,
and dims over time, becoming a white developed a classification system for
dwarf. Eventually, it may fade into a cold, Importance of Star Death: galaxies based on their visual morphology.
dark "black dwarf."
This system, often represented as a subdivided into normal spirals (Sa, Sb, Sc) - Star Formation rate
"tuning fork" diagram, categorizes galaxies and barred spirals (SBa, SBb, SBc) based on
into several main types: the presence and prominence of a central - Chemical Composition
bar structure and the tightness of their Measuring Galaxy properties
- Elliptical Galaxies spiral arms. Sa galaxies have tightly wound
- Lenticular Galaxies arms and a large central bulge, while Sc Distance: Measuring the distance to
galaxies have loosely wound arms and a galaxies is fundamental. The most
- Spiral Galaxies smaller bulge. common method relies on Hubble's Law,
which states that the recession velocity (v)
- Irregular Galaxies Irregular Galaxies (Irr): These galaxies do of a galaxy is directly proportional to its
not fit neatly into the Hubble sequence, distance (d): v = H₀d, where H₀ is the
Elliptical Galaxies (E): These galaxies are
exhibiting chaotic and asymmetrical Hubble constant (approximately 70
smooth, elliptical in shape, and contain
structures. They often have high rates of km/s/Mpc). Redshift (the stretching of
mostly older, red stars. They have little gas
star formation due to their abundant gas light wavelengths due to the expansion of
and dust, indicating low rates of star
and dust. Two main subtypes exist: Irr I the universe) is used to measure the
formation. Ellipticals are classified from E0
(somewhat resembling spirals) and Irr II recession velocity. More precise distance
(nearly spherical) to E7 (highly elongated)
(highly irregular). measurements for nearby galaxies utilize
based on their ellipticity.
Measuring Galaxy properties standard candles (objects with known
Lenticular Galaxies (S0): These galaxies luminosity, such as Cepheid variable stars
possess a disk-like structure similar to Determining the properties of galaxies and Type Ia supernovae).
spirals, but lack prominent spiral arms. requires sophisticated techniques:
They often have a central bulge and show Measuring Galaxy properties
intermediate properties between Luminosity: The total light output of a
ellipticals and spirals. - Distance galaxy is its luminosity, measured across
Spiral Galaxies (S): These galaxies are all wavelengths.
Luminosity
characterized by a flattened disk with
prominent spiral arms. They contain a Mass
significant amount of gas and dust, leading
to active star formation. Spirals are further - Size and Morphology
 Mass: Galaxy mass is estimated using - Quasars
various methods, including analyzing the
rotation curves of stars and gas within the - Seyfert Galaxies The study of galaxies reveals a rich
galaxy and observing gravitational lensing tapestry of structures, properties, and
- Radio Galaxies evolutionary pathways. By understanding
effects.
- Blazars the different families of galaxies,
Measuring Galaxy properties employing various techniques to measure
QUASARS their properties, and investigating the
Size and Morphology: The size and shape phenomenon of active galaxies, we gain
of a galaxy are determined through direct Extremely luminous and distant AGN,
invaluable insights into the formation and
imaging and analysis of its structure. often outshining their host galaxies.
evolution of the universe. Further research
Star Formation Rate: The rate at which SEYFERT GALAXIES continues to refine our understanding of
new stars are forming is estimated by these fascinating celestial objects.
Spiral galaxies with bright, active nuclei.
observing the intensity of ultraviolet light
emitted by hot, young stars. RADIO GALAXIES
The Stars: Chapter 5 - Irene L. Balucos
Chemical Composition: Spectroscopy Galaxies emitting strong radio waves from
reveals the chemical composition of a powerful jets emanating from their central Learning Content:
galaxy by analyzing the absorption and black holes.
emission lines in its spectrum. - THE BIRTH OF STARS
BLAZARS
Active Galaxies - What is a star?
AGN with jets pointed directly at Earth,
characterized by unusually bright and - Star birth
resulting in exceptionally bright emissions.
energetic centers, far exceeding the The energy released by AGN is generated - Types of nebulae
combined light of all their stars. This through the accretion process, where
activity is often driven by Active Galactic matter spirals into the black hole, - Step-by-step process leading to the
Nuclei (AGN), which are thought to be releasing gravitational potential energy in formation of a proto star
supermassive black holes at the centers of the form of radiation and relativistic jets. - FUSION IN STARS
galaxies accreting matter. Different types
of active galaxies exist: CONCLUSION - Fusion in Stars
 star birth to the scattering of light by dust particles.
An example is the Pleiades Nebula.
- How Does Fusion Happen in Stars? - A star is born from a cloud of gas and
dust called a nebula. Dark Nebulae
- The Main Fusion Process: Proton-Proton
Chain - A nebula is a vast, diffuse cloud of gas - These are dense clouds of gas and dust
and dust in space. Nebulae can vary in that block the light from stars and other
- Why is Fusion Important for Stars? size, shape, and composition. objects behind them, appearing as dark
THE BIRTH OF STARS patches against the background of
- As the nebula gains mass, its brighter stars or nebulae. An example is
What is a star? gravitational forces build. the Horsehead Nebula.

Stars can vary greatly in age, size, - When they are strong enough to cause Step-by-step process leading to the
luminosity, and color. the inner part of the cloud to heat up, it formation of a proto star
becomes a proto star.
- A star is an incandescent ball of gas in Molecular Cloud Collapse: A molecular
space that produces light and heat. Types of nebulae cloud, made of gas and dust, begins to
Emission Nebulae collapse under its own gravity.
- It is estimated that there are 100 billion
galaxies in the universe, each possibly - These nebulae glow brightly because Gravitational Contraction: As the gas
containing 100 billion stars. they are composed of ionized gas, typically cloud collapses under its own gravity, the
hydrogen, that emits light when it is particles within the cloud start to move
- Small stars are called dwarfs, and large
energized by ultraviolet radiation from closer together.
stars are called giants.
nearby young, hot stars. A well-known Formation of a Protostar: As the
- The color of a star is dependent directly example is the Orion Nebula. collapsing material gets denser and hotter,
on its temperature.
Reflection Nebulae a protostar begins to form at the center of
- Hotter stars are white and blue, and the collapsing gas cloud. The temperature
cooler stars are orange and red. Yellow - These nebulae do not emit their own at the core of the protostar increases
stars, like our sun, have an average light but instead reflect the light from dramatically (reaching thousands of
temperature. nearby stars. They often appear blue due degrees Kelvin), but nuclear fusion has not
yet begun.
Protostar Stage: During this phase, the The Main Fusion Process: Proton-Proton Stellar structure refers to the internal
object is a protostar: a young star that is Chain composition and physical properties of
still gathering mass from the surrounding stars. It's a complex field of study in
gas and dust. Two protons (hydrogen nuclei) collide and astrophysics that helps us understand how
fuse to form deuterium (a heavier form of stars form, evolve, and eventually die.
End of Protostar Phase: Eventually, the hydrogen).
core temperature and pressure rise - Core: This is the hottest and densest part
enough for nuclear fusion to start, marking The deuterium then fuses with another of the star, where nuclear fusion occurs.
the transition from a protostar to a main proton to form helium-3. This is where hydrogen atoms fuse to form
sequence star. Two helium-3 nuclei then fuse together to helium, releasing immense energy.

THE FUSION IN STARS form helium-4 and release two protons. Radiative Zone: Energy from the core
Why is Fusion Important for Stars? travels outwards through this zone via
Fusion in Stars radiation. This zone acts like a radiation
- Fusion in Stars is the process by which - Energy Source: Fusion provides the shield. Energy generated in the core is
stars generate energy, allowing them to energy that powers stars and prevents transported outward in the form of
shine and produce heat. them from collapsing under their own photons (light particles), which constantly
gravity. interact with the surrounding plasma. This
- Fusion is the process where lighter process is slow and inefficient, taking
atomic nuclei (like hydrogen) combine to - Element Formation: Over time, fusion
millions of years for photons to reach the
form heavier nuclei (like helium), releasing creates heavier elements like carbon,
surface.
a huge amount of energy in the form of oxygen, and even iron, which are
light and heat. This energy is what powers important for the formation of planets and - Convective Zone: In stars like our Sun,
stars, like the Sun. life. the outer layers are cooler than the
radiative zone. This creates a convective
How Does Fusion Happen in Stars? Stellar Structure and the Main-Sequence:
zone, where energy is transported through
A Summary
the physical movement of hot gas.
- For fusion to occur, the conditions inside
Stellar Structure Imagine a bubbling pot of water; hotter,
a star must be extremely hot and under
less dense gas rises, while cooler, denser
very high pressure.
gas sinks, creating a continuous cycle of as their progress through several types of
energy transfer. star life-cycles.
- The Hertzsprung-Russell diagram (H-R
- Photosphere: This is the star's visible diagram) is a scatter plot of stars showing - These are the most numerous true stars
surface, the layer we see from Earth. The the relationship between the stars' in the universe and include the Sun. Color-
photosphere is relatively cool compared to absolute magnitudes or luminosities and magnitude plots are known as
the inner layers, yet it still radiates their stellar classifications or effective Hertzsprung-Russell diagrams after Ejnar
immense heat and light. temperatures. Hertzsprung and Henry Norris Russell.

- Chromosphere: Above the photosphere, - Imagine a map that helps astronomers - Mass Dictates Fate:
the chromosphere is a thin, hot layer of understand the lives of stars. That's the
gas that emits a faint glow, especially Hertzsprung-Russell diagram! It's a
during solar flares and prominences. powerful tool for visualizing the - A star's mass is its most crucial defining
relationships between a star's luminosity, characteristic, dictating its entire life cycle.
- Corona: Is the star's outermost surface temperature, and evolutionary
atmosphere, extending far into space. It's stage.
incredibly hot, reaching millions of
degrees, and is responsible for solar wind, - Most stars, including our Sun, reside on - Each star possesses a unique profile that
a constant stream of charged particles that a diagonal band called the Main Sequence. is defined by its mass, which significantly
flows from the Sun. This band is where stars spend the longest influences its lifecycle. Heavier stars tend
and most stable phase of their lives. to burn hotter and consume their nuclear
The Main-Sequence: Where Stars Spend fuel at a far more rapid rate than their
Most of Their Lives - Main Sequence: The Stellar Highway: lighter counterparts.
It represents the longest and most stable - In astronomy, the main sequence is a
phase of a star's life. Imagine a long, classification of stars which appear on
steady highway where stars cruise along, plots of stellar color versus brightness as a - Massive Stars: Short Lives, Explosive
fueled by the hydrogen fusion in their continuous and distinctive band. Stars on Ends: Massive stars burn through their
cores. this band are known as main-sequence hydrogen fuel at an incredibly rapid pace,
stars or dwarf stars, and positions of stars producing enormous amounts of energy.
- Hertzsprung-Russell (H-R) Diagram: a on and off the band are believed to They live short, intense lives and often end
stellar map indicate their physical properties, as well
their lives in spectacular supernova Introduction:
explosions.
- Photosphere: The visible surface of a
star.
Throughout much of human history,
- Low-Mass Stars: Long Lives, Gentle people thought that the sun’s energy
Deaths: Low-mass stars, like red dwarfs, came from fire. But less than 100 years
are fuel-efficient. They burn through their - Chromosphere: A thin, hot layer above ago, scientists discovered that the source
fuel slowly and have incredibly long the photosphere. of the sun’s energy is quite different from
lifespans. They eventually evolve into fire.
white dwarfs, cooling over billions of
years. - Corona: The outermost layer of a star's
atmosphere. Table of Contents:

Summary Points:
- Main-Sequence Stars: The Stable Phase. - The Sun’s Energy
The Main Sequence represents the longest
- Core: The star's nuclear reactor, where and most stable phase of a star's life. It's
nuclear fusion takes place. depicted on a Hertzsprung-Russell
diagram, plotting the luminosity and - Mass Changing Into Energy
surface temperature of stars.

- Radiative Zone: Energy is transported - The Sun’s Interior

outward through the absorption and re-
emission of photons. - Mass Dictates Fate: A star's mass
determines its position on the Main
Sequence and its lifetime. Massive stars - Core
are hotter, brighter, and have shorter
- Convective Zone: In cooler stars, energy lifespans than less massive stars.
is transported outward through the
- Radiative Zone
movement of hot gas. The Sun: A Stellar Powerhouse
 spectrograph. Dark lines form in the
spectra of stars when gases in the stars’
- Convective Zone - Prominences outer layers absorb specific wavelengths
of the light that passes through the layers.
Because each element produces a unique
- The Sun’s Atmosphere - Solar Flares pattern of spectral lines, astronomers can
match the spectral lines of starlight to
those of Earth’s elements and identify the
- Photosphere - Coronal Mass Ejections elements in the star’s atmosphere.

- Chromosphere - Auroras Mass Changing Into Energy:

- Corona The Sun’s Energy: The Sun’s energy comes from nuclear
fusion, where a small amount of mass is
converted into a large amount of energy.
In 1905, Albert Einstein introduced the
- Solar Activity The sun appears to the unaided eye as a
equation E=mc² in his special theory of
dazzling, brilliant ball that has no distinct
relativity, showing that energy. This
features. Because the sun’s brightness can
equation explains how even a tiny mass
- Sunspots damage your eyes if you look directly at
can produce a vast amount of energy.
the sun, astronomers look at the sun only
through special filters. Astronomers often
use other specialized scientific instruments
- The Sunspot Cycle In the Sun, about 4 million tons of mass
to study the sun.
are converted into energy every second,
but this is still small compared to the Sun’s
- Solar Eruptions total mass. During fusion, particles called
Scientists break up the sun’s light into a
neutrinos are released and reach Earth in
spectrum by using a device called a
about eight minutes, confirming that the - Chromosphere: Above the photosphere
Sun’s energy comes from hydrogen fusing is the chromosphere, a thin layer known
into helium. Hotter stars can fuse other - Convective Zone: After the radiative as the "color sphere" that glows reddish
elements, like carbon, nitrogen, and zone, the Sun’s outer 30% is the from hydrogen emissions. The gases here
oxygen, to produce energy. convective zone. Energy is transferred by move upward, forming narrow jets of hot
convection, where hot gases rise, carrying gas that can reach 16,000 km before
energy to the surface. As these gases fading within minutes. Temperature: 6,000
expand and cool, they sink back down, ◦C –50,000 ◦C.
The Sun’s Interior: becoming reheated by energy from the
radiative zone. Temperature: 2,000,000
◦C.
- Core: Diameter: 1,390,000 km - Corona: Transition region where
Temperature: 15,000,000 ◦C. The Sun's temperatures rise sharply. The outermost
mass, 300,000 times that of Earth, creates layer of the Sun's atmosphere is the
The Sun’s Atmosphere: corona, a vast region of hot gas. Despite
extreme pressure, making the core over
10 times denser than iron. This pressure its low density, the corona's magnetic field
and heat strip electrons from nuclei, holds back most particles, though some
allowing hydrogen nuclei to fuse into - Photosphere: Temperature: 6,000 ◦C. electrons and ions escape as solar wind,
helium. The innermost layer of the Sun’s flowing through the solar system.
atmosphere, photosphere, meaning Temperature: 1,000,000 ◦C.
“sphere of light” consists of gases rising
from the convective zone and emits much
- Radiative Zone: Temperature: 2,000,000 of its energy as visible light. The layers
◦C - 7,000,000 ◦C. The energy produced in Solar Activity:
above the photosphere are transparent,
the Sun’s core moves outward through allowing this light to reach Earth. Dark
two zones before reaching the areas called sunspots appear cooler.
atmosphere. The first of these is the - Sunspots: The movement of gases in the
radiative zone, which surrounds the core. Sun’s convective zone and its rotation
In this zone, energy travels outward as generate magnetic fields. These fields slow
electromagnetic waves, or radiation. - Sunspots: 3,800 ◦C. convection in some areas, reducing energy
transfer from the core to the photosphere.
As a result, these regions are up to 3,000 - Prominences: Great clouds of glowing the upper atmosphere to produce colorful
ºC cooler and appear as dark spots called gas that form huge arches above the Sun’s light. Near the magnetic poles, they are
sunspots, even though they still emit light. surface, following magnetic field lines. called northern lights (aurora borealis) or
The photosphere around sunspots shows a They can last from hours to weeks and are southern lights (aurora australis). Auroras
grainy pattern called granulation. Some often associated with the chromosphere. usually appear between 100 and 1,000 km
large sunspots can exceed 100,000 km in above Earth's surface and are more
diameter, over seven times Earth's frequent after solar flares or near the
diameter. - Solar Flares: A sudden, violent eruption sunspot cycle's peak. They are also seen
of electrically charged particles, releasing on other planets, such as Jupiter and
energy from the magnetic fields around Saturn.
- The Sunspot Cycle: Astronomers have sunspots. Temperatures can reach
studied sunspots for centuries, learning 20,000,000 ºC, and flares may last less
that the Sun rotates and discovering an than an hour. Conclusion:
11-year sunspot cycle. This cycle starts
with few sunspots, which increase and
initially form between the Sun’s equator - Coronal Mass Ejections: Parts of the The Sun, a seemingly simple ball of fire, is
and poles. The number of sunspots rises, Sun’s corona that are ejected into space. a complex and dynamic celestial body,
peaking at over 100, then decreases as When these particles hit Earth’s driving our solar system and life on Earth.
high-latitude spots vanish and new ones magnetosphere, they can cause Its energy production, internal structure,
appear near the equator. The cycle then geomagnetic storms, potentially affecting and solar activity continue to fascinate
repeats, with the number of sunspots communication systems and power grids. scientists and remind us of the immense
dropping to a minimum before rising power and wonder of the universe.
again.
Seasons, Eclipses, and Tides: Unveiling
- Auroras: Auroras are bands of light in the Natural Phenomena
sky caused by the interaction between the
- Solar Eruptions: solar wind and Earth's magnetosphere.
They occur when electrically charged
particles are directed toward the magnetic Introduction:
poles, striking atoms and gas molecules in
Seasons, tides, and eclipses are natural Sun. A common misconception is that to longer days and warmer temperatures
phenomena that have fascinated humans winter happens when Earth is farther from (summer). The hemisphere tilted away
for centuries. In the past, many cultures the Sun, which is not true. gets indirect sunlight, leading to shorter
had myths and misconceptions about days and cooler temperatures (winter).
them, but science has provided clear
explanations. This report explores both Scientific Explanation:
ancient beliefs and scientific truths while Solstices and Equinoxes:
also looking at important astronomical
events happening in 2025.
The Earth's axis is tilted at 23.5 degrees
relative to its orbit around the Sun. This - A solstice is an astronomical event that
tilt means that different parts of Earth occurs twice a year when the Sun reaches
Seasons: receive varying amounts of sunlight its highest or lowest point in the sky
throughout the year. When a hemisphere relative to the equator. This results in the
is tilted toward the Sun, it experiences longest or shortest day of the year.
A season is a division of the year summer. When tilted away, it experiences
characterized by specific weather winter.
patterns, daylight hours, and climate - Summer Solstice: Occurs around June 21
conditions. Seasons are primarily caused in the Northern Hemisphere and
by Earth's axial tilt (23.5°) and its orbit Earth's Axial Tilt (23.5°) December 21 in the Southern Hemisphere.
around the Sun. The Sun is at its highest point in the sky,
directly over the Tropic of Cancer (23.5°N).
Earth's Revolution Around The Sun: This marks the beginning of summer in
Early Misconceptions: that hemisphere. Longest day of the year.

As Earth orbits the Sun in a nearly circular

Many ancient cultures believed that gods path, the angle of sunlight changes in each - Winter Solstice: Occurs around
or spirits controlled the seasons. Some hemisphere. The hemisphere tilted toward December 21 in the Northern Hemisphere
thought that seasons occurred because the Sun gets more direct sunlight, leading and June 21 in the Southern Hemisphere.
Earth moved closer or farther from the The Sun is at its lowest point in the sky,
directly over the Tropic of Capricorn - An equinox is an astronomical event that - While equinoxes bring almost equal day
(23.5°S). This marks the beginning of occurs twice a year when the Sun is and night lengths, daylight is still slightly
winter in that hemisphere. Shortest day of directly above the equator, causing nearly longer due to atmospheric refraction,
the year. equal lengths of day and night across the which bends sunlight and makes the Sun
world. appear above the horizon a little longer
than it actually is.
Fun Facts:

- The Mayan pyramid of Chichén Itzá in

- Vernal Equinox: Occurs around March Mexico is aligned so that, during the
- The North Pole experiences 24 hours of 20–21 each year. Marks the beginning of
daylight on the Summer Solstice and 24 equinox, the sunlight creates a serpent-
spring in the Northern Hemisphere and shaped shadow on the staircase. The
hours of darkness on the Winter Solstice autumn in the Southern Hemisphere. The
(Polar Day & Polar Night). Great Sphinx and Pyramids of Egypt also
Sun is directly over the equator and align with the equinox sunrise.
moving northward toward the Tropic of
Cancer.
- Some ancient civilizations, like the
Mayans and Egyptians, built structures - Even though the Sun is directly overhead
aligned with solstices (e.g., Stonehenge in at the equator, the hottest days usually
- Autumnal Equinox: Occurs around come weeks or months later due to the
England). September 22–23 each year. Marks the time it takes for Earth’s surface to heat up
beginning of autumn in the Northern (this is called seasonal lag).
Hemisphere and spring in the Southern
- The word "solstice" comes from Latin: Hemisphere. The Sun is directly over the
"Sol" (Sun) + "Sistere" (to stand still) → equator and moving southward toward
Meaning "the Sun stands still" because it the Tropic of Capricorn. Notable Dates:
appears to pause at its highest or lowest
point before reversing direction.
Fun Facts: In Philippine time, this 2025:
- March 20, 2025: Vernal (Spring) Equinox
at 6:01 PM.
- Mid-latitude regions experience four Many ancient civilizations feared eclipses,
distinct seasons due to varying solar believing they were caused by dragons,
angles throughout the year. demons, or gods. Some thought that
- June 21, 2025: Summer Solstice at 10:42 eclipses predicted disasters or wars. A
AM. common misconception is that eclipses
Eclipses: can damage your eyes instantly, but this
happens only if you look directly at the
- September 23, 2025: Autumnal Equinox Sun without proper protection.
at 2:19 AM.
An eclipse is when one celestial object, like
the moon, passes into the shadow of
another celestial object, like the Earth. Scientific Explanation:
- December 21, 2025: Winter Solstice at Two types include – solar and lunar
11:03 PM. eclipse.
- Solar Eclipse: A solar eclipse occurs when
the Moon passes in a direct line between
Seasonal Variations Across the Globe: - Solar eclipse: the moon passes between the Sun and the Earth, blocking out the
the Earth and the sun, blocking sunlight Sun’s rays and casting a shadow on parts
from reaching Earth. of the planet.
- Equatorial regions (e.g., Ecuador,
Indonesia) experience little temperature
change since they receive almost constant - Lunar eclipse: the Earth passes between - Types of Shadow:
sunlight. the moon and the sun, casting a shadow
on the moon.
- Penumbra: a larger and relatively lighter
- Polar regions (e.g., Antarctica) have shadow than the umbra. If the penumbra
extreme seasons, with 24-hour daylight in Early Misconceptions: passes over you, then only a small part of
summer and 24-hour darkness in winter.
the Sun will be blocked out from your witness an annular solar eclipse while lose its characteristic whitish gray color
point of view. other parts see a total solar eclipse. and become a sunset red due to refraction
from the Earth’s atmosphere.

- Umbra: a small and very dark shadow. If - Annular Solar Eclipse: The Moon passes
you’re in a place on Earth where the through the center of the Sun but its disk - Types of Lunar Eclipse:
umbra is cast, the entire central portion of isn’t big enough to cover the entire disk of
the Sun will be blocked out from your the Sun, leaving a ring of light visible.
perspective. - Partial Lunar Eclipse: The Moon, Earth,
and Sun align in such a way that only part
- Lunar Eclipse: A lunar eclipse occurs of the Moon passes through the umbra
- Types of Solar Eclipse: when the Earth comes between the Sun cast by the Earth.
and the Moon, casting a shadow on the
Moon.
- Partial Solar Eclipse: The Moon covers - Total Lunar Eclipse: The Moon, Earth, and
only a part of the Sun and casts a Sun are perfectly aligned, and the Moon
penumbra on Earth. - Types of Shadow: falls under the umbra of the Earth. The
Moon loses its characteristic whitish gray
color and becomes a sunset red.
- Total Solar Eclipse: The entire Sun is - Penumbra: a larger and relatively lighter
completely blocked out by the Moon. This shadow than the umbra. If the Moon
can only happen when the Moon is near passes through the penumbra, it will - Penumbral Lunar Eclipse: The Moon
Perigian, the point of the Moon’s orbit appear only slightly darker than its usual passes through the penumbra of the
when it is closest to the Earth. hue. Earth, appearing only slightly darker than
its usual hue.

- Hybrid Solar Eclipse: A rare type of - Umbra: a small and very dark shadow. If
eclipse where some parts of the Earth the Moon falls under the umbra, it will Common Question:
 - Partial Solar Eclipse: March 29 (Europe, Many ancient people believed gods or sea
N. Asia, N. Africa, N. America - Midday) creatures controlled the tides. A common
- Can eclipse alter the pregnancy of misconception is that the Moon's gravity
domestic pigs? simply "pulls" water up, but tides are
- Total Lunar Eclipse: September 7–8 actually caused by the interaction of
(Europe, Asia, Australia, Africa, Americas - gravity and motion between the Earth,
- Solar and lunar eclipses do NOT emit Night of Sept 7 - early hours of Sept 8) Moon, and Sun.
harmful radiation that could affect animals
or humans. The light changes during an
eclipse are simply due to the blocking of Early Misconceptions:
the Sun’s rays, not any dangerous energy - Partial Solar Eclipse: September 21
being released. During a solar eclipse, (Antarctica, New Zealand, South Pacific -
there’s a brief period of darkness—this Afternoon)
can confuse animals, causing them to - Aristotle's Viewpoint: In the late 1600s,
change behavior which may cause stress. Isaac Newton identified the force that
However, this temporary confusion is not Tides: causes the rise and fall of tides along
enough to cause physical harm like coastlines. According to Newton’s law of
miscarriages. gravitation, the gravitational pull of the
moon on Earth and Earth’s waters is the
Tides are the regular rise and fall of ocean
major cause of tides. The sun also causes
levels caused by the gravitational pull of
tides, but they are smaller because the sun
Notable Dates: the moon and sun. Tides are a type of
is so much farther from Earth than the
wave motion that move across the ocean.
moon is.
High tide is when the water level is
- Total Lunar Eclipse: March 13–14 highest. Low tide is when the water level is
(Europe, Asia, Australia, Africa, Americas - lowest.
Scientific Explanation:
Night of March 13 8:56 PM)

Ancient Beliefs:
- The Role of the Moon’s Gravity: The
Moon’s gravity pulls on Earth’s oceans,
creating a bulge of water on the side - Tidal Cycle: Most coastal areas process impacts marine ecosystems in
facing the Moon. At the same time, a experience two high tides and two low various ways:
second bulge forms on the opposite side tides per day due to Earth's rotation. The
due to the centrifugal force created by time between tides shifts slightly each day
Earth's rotation. These two bulges cause because the Moon is also moving in its - Intertidal zone: species living here must
high tide, while areas between them orbit. adapt to varying conditions such as
experience low tide. changes in temperature, salinity, and
- The Sun’s Influence on Tides: The Sun’s oxygen levels.
gravitational pull also affects tides, but Common Questions:
since it's much farther than the Moon, its - Why do fishermen and sailors rely on
effect is weaker. tide predictions for navigation? - Nutrient cycling: exposed tidal flats can
experience nutrient-rich sediment
Spring Tides: During new moon and the - Fishermen and sailors rely on tide deposition, which supports plant growth
full moon, Earth, the sun, and the moon predictions because tides affect water when submerged.
are aligned. The combined gravitational depth and currents. For fishing, certain
pull of the sun and the moon results in fish species are more abundant during
higher high tides and lower low tides. This specific tidal conditions. For navigation, - Biodiversity: the fluctuation of tides
creates spring tides. low tides can expose shallow areas or allows for a wide range of species to thrive
underwater obstacles, while high tides in different stages, creating a diverse
may make certain routes passable. ecosystem.
- Neap Tides: During the first quarter and Knowing the tidal schedule helps avoid
the third quarter phases of the moon, the accidents, ensures smoother navigation,
moon and the sun are at right angle to and optimizes fishing conditions.
- Why are tidal forces slowing Earth’s
each other in relation to Earth. The
- Why do tides affect marine ecosystems, rotation?
gravitational forces of the sun and moon
work against each other. As a result, the exposing and submerging tidal flats?
daily tidal range is small. This creates neap - Tides cause periodic submersion and
tides. exposure of tidal flats (coastal areas that
are covered and uncovered by water). This
- Tidal forces between the Earth and the
Moon cause a transfer of energy. The
Moon’s gravity creates tidal bulges on Lesson Agenda: - Kepler’s Laws
Earth, and as Earth rotates, these bulges
try to align with the Moon. This process
creates friction, which gradually slows - Formation of the Solar System - Newton’s Explanation of Kepler’s Laws
Earth’s rotation over time. This effect,
known as tidal friction, causes the length
of a day to increase by about 1.7 - The Nebular Hypothesis - The Inner Planets
milliseconds per century. At the same
time, it transfers angular momentum to
the Moon, causing it to move slightly
- Formation of the Planets - Mercury
farther away from Earth each year (about
3.8 cm).

- Formation of Solid Earth - Venus

Conclusion:

- Formation of Earth’s Atmosphere - Earth

While eclipses, tides, and seasons often

spark misconceptions, understanding the
science behind them dispels myths and - Formation of Earth’s Ocean - Mars
deepens our appreciation of natural
processes. By correcting these
misunderstandings, we can approach - Models of the Solar System - The Outer Planets
these phenomena with curiosity and
respect, fostering a stronger connection to
the world around us.
- Early Models - Jupiter
PLANETS OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM (astro)
 - Matter spread throughout the universe. - The protoplanets’ gravity attracted other
Some of this matter gathers into clouds of planetesimals in the solar nebula. These
- Saturn dust and gas. collided with the protoplanets and added
their masses to the protoplanets.

- Uranus - The rotating clouds of dust and gas from

which the sun and planets formed is called - Moons are the smaller bodies that orbit
the solar nebula. Energy from collisions the planets. Planets and moons are
- Neptune and pressure from gravity caused the smaller and denser than the protoplanets.
center of the solar nebula to become
hotter and denser.
Formation of the Solar System Formation of the Inner planets:

Formation of the Planets:

The Nebular Hypothesis: - The four protoplanets that become
Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars were
- Small bodies from which a planet close to the sun. They contained large
The French mathematician Pierre-Simon, originated in the early stages of formation percentages of heavy elements, such as
marquis de Laplace, advanced a of the solar system are called iron and nickel.
hypothesis that is now known as the planetesimals.
nebular hypothesis. Laplace’s hypothesis
states that the sun and the planets - Other lighter elements may have been
condensed at about the same time out of - Some planetesimals joined together blown or boiled away by radiation from
a rotating cloud of gas and dust called a through collisions and through the force of the sun. As the denser material sank to the
nebula. gravity to form larger bodies called centers of the planets, layers formed.
protoplanets.
- Today, the inner planets have solid - When Earth first formed it was extremely - A dense core of iron and nickel
surfaces that are similar to Earth’s surface. hot due to three main energy source:
The inner planets are smaller, rockier, and
denser than the outer planets. - A thick mantle of iron and magnesium-
rich rock

Formation of the Outer Planets: - Collisions between planetesimals

- An outer crust of lighter, silica-rich rock.

- Four other protoplanets became Jupiter, - Compression from the weight of Earth’s
Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. These outer outer layers on its inner layers
- As Earth cooled, solid rock formed on its
planets formed in the colder regions of the surface from lighter elements pushed
solar nebula. outward during differentiation. The
- Abundant radioactive materials releasing surface continued to change due to
high-energy particles that heated internal heat, impacts, and interactions
Pluto – The First Dwarf Planet: surrounding rocks. with the developing atmosphere.

- Pluto is smaller than Earth’s moon, and it - Young Earth was hot enough to melt Formation of Earth’s Atmosphere:
can be best described as an ice ball that is iron, causing denser materials like molten
made of frozen gases and rock. Its orbit is iron to sink to the core and lighter
very tilted. Because of its characteristics, materials to rise, a process called
differentiation. - Earth’s atmosphere formed through
many astronomers disagreed with Pluto’s differentiation, with lighter gases like
classification as a planet. hydrogen and helium rising to create the
original atmosphere.
- This formed three layers:
Formation of Solid Earth:
- Earth’s gravity would have been too - As the water cycled back into the
weak to hold these gases unless they were atmosphere through evaporation, some of
cold. The sun heated the gases enough so - Earth’s Present Atmosphere: Some of these chemicals combined to form salt.
that they escaped Earth’s gravity. these organisms, such as cyanobacteria Through this process, the oceans have
and early green plants, used carbon become salty.
dioxide during photosynthesis. About 2
billion years ago, the percentage of oxygen
- These gases were probably blown away in the atmosphere increased rapidly.
by the solar wind. Also, Earth’s magnetic Models of the Solar System:
field, which protects the atmosphere from
the solar wind, might not have been fully
developed. Formation of Earth’s Ocean:
Early Models:

- Outgassing: The volcanic eruptions - Early on, icy bodies, such as comets,
collided with Earth. Water from these Ptolemy’s Geocentric Model: Ptolemy’s
released large amounts of gases, mainly model was Earth-centered, meaning the
water vapor, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, bodies then become part of Earth’s
atmosphere. As Earth cooled, water vapor believed that Earth was the center of the
methane, sulfur dioxide, and ammonia. universe and that all celestial bodies (the
This process called outgassing, formed a condensed form rain.
sun, planets, and stars) revolved around it.
new atmosphere.

- Over millions years, rainfall fell to Earth

- The solar radiation caused by ammonia and ran over the land, through rivers, and
and some of the water vapor in the into the ocean. As more dissolved solids - To explain the observed retrograde
atmosphere to break down. Some of the were carried to the oceans, the motion, where planets sometimes
remaining oxygen formed ozone. The concentration of certain chemicals in the appeared to move backward in the sky,
ozone collected high atmospheric layer oceans increased. Ptolemy introduced the concept of
around Earth and shielded Earth’s surface epicycles – small circular paths that
from the harmful ultraviolet radiation of planets made as they revolved in larger
the sun. circles around Earth.
 Law of Equal Areas: A line drawn from the Together, these forces create a curved,
Sun to a planet sweeps out equal areas in elliptical orbit, with gravity keeping it
Copernicus’s Heliocentric Model: equal time intervals. moving forward. Newton also noted that
Copernicus proposed a sun-centered weaker gravity to greater distances results
model, or heliocentric model, in which the in larger, slower orbits, explaining why
Sun, not Earth, was the center of the outer planets have longer orbital periods.
universe. In this model, the planets, Law of Period: The square of a planet’s
including Earth, revolved around the Sun orbital period (p) is proportional to the
at different speeds and distances. cube of its average distance (a) from the
Sun. The Inner Planets:

Newton’s Explanation of Kepler’s Laws: - Mercury: The closest planet to the Sun,
- Copernicus explained retrograde motion mercury completes an orbit in 88 days and
as an illusion caused when faster-moving rotates every 69 days. Named after the
planets, like Earth, passed slower-moving Newton explained Kepler’s laws by Roman messenger god, it has a heavily
planets in their orbits, making them combining the effects of inertia and cratered surface and long cliffs.
appear to move backward. gravity.

Kepler’s Law: Inertia: A planet’s natural tendency is to - Mercury lacks a significant atmosphere,
move in a straight line. causing extreme temperature variations
from 427ºC during the day to -173 ºC at
Law of Ellipses: Each planet orbits the Sun night.
in an elliptical path, with the Sun at one of Gravity: The Sun’s gravitational pull draws
the two foci of the ellipse. planets toward it.
- Venus: Venus is the hottest planet in our
solar system. It is often called the
"Morning Star" or the "Evening Star"
because it shines brightly in the sky before - Mars, the fourth planet from the Sun, - Saturn: Saturn is known for its
sunrise or after sunset. orbits in 687 days and has a 24-hour, 37- magnificent rings. It is the second-largest
minute rotation with seasons similar to planet in our solar system. It has a vast
Earth. Mars has massive volcanoes and the family of moons, with over 80 known
4000 km Valles Marineris canyon. moons orbiting around it. Saturn is the
sixth planet from the Sun, with an orbital
- Venus, the second planet from the Sun, period of 29.5 years and a temperature of
has an orbital period of 225 days and The Outer Planets: -176ºC.
rotates slowly, taking 243 days to
complete one rotation. Venus’s
atmosphere is 90% carbon dioxide with a
pressure 90 times that of Earth. - Jupiter: Jupiter is often called the "King of
the Planets" because it's the largest planet - Made of hydrogen and helium, with a
in our solar system. Its size is so enormous rocky iron core, Saturn is the least dense
that you could fit more than 1,300 Earths planet in the solar system. Saturn’s rings
- Earth: Earth is where we live! It's the only inside it. Jupiter is the fifth planet from the
known planet in the universe that are two times the planet’s diameter. Most
Sun, with a mass over 300 times that of ring debris likely comes from comets or
supports life as we know it. Earth is often Earth.
called the "Blue Planet" because it's other celestial bodies.
covered mostly with water.

- Uranus: Uranus is famously known for its

- Mars: Mars is the fourth planet from the - Jupiter’s atmosphere is composed of 92% sideways tilt, as it spins on its side
Sun and is often called the "Red Planet" hydrogen and helium, with distinctive compared to other planets. It's the
because of its reddish appearance. It has alternating light and dark bands. The seventh planet from the Sun, discovered
two small moons named Phobos and average temperature in the outer by William Hershel in 1781. It’s about 3
Deimos. atmosphere is -160ºC and it experiences billion kilometers away, with an orbital
massive thunderstorms. period of nearly 84 years.
 - Read, point and say. It's known for its
magnificent rings. Saturn
- Uranus has at least 27 moons and 12 thin Review Quiz:
rings. Its unique rotation axis is nearly
parallel to its orbit, unlike other planets.
The atmosphere is mostly hydrogen and - Read, point and say. It's the farthest
- Read, point and say. It's the smallest planet from the Sun. Neptune
helium, with methane giving it a blue planet in our solar system. Mercury
green color.

- Read, point and say. It's the coldest

- Neptune: Neptune is the eighth and planet in our solar system. Uranus
farthest planet from the Sun in our solar
system. It is located billions of miles away
from Earth, making it one of the most
- Read, point and say. It's the hottest
distant planets we know. It is similar to
planet in our solar system. Venus
Uranus in size and has an orbital period of
nearly 164 years and a rotation of about
16 hours. It has at least 13 moons and six
rings. - Read, point and say. It's often called the
"Red Planet". Mars

- Read, point and say. It's the largest

- John Couch Adams and Urbain Leverrier planet in our solar system. Jupiter
calculated its position, and Johann Galle
confirmed it in the mid-1800s. Neptune’s
atmosphere, mainly hydrogen, helium,
- Read, point and say. It's the only known
and methane, gives it a bluish color and
planet that supports life. Earth
has active weather with the strongest
wind in the solar system.