Agriculture and Natural Resources

Understanding the

Composting Process

Suzanne Smith Hirrel An understanding of composting, environmental control, is the best

Extension Specialist - the biological decomposition of organic situation. Such a project can result in
Waste Management matter, is necessary for both the back­ a high-quality compost that has value
yard and municipal system composter. both as a product for home use and
Time, volume, type, use and end commercial market demand for land­
Tom Riley
product quality are considerations in scapers, golf courses, nurseries, etc.
Extension Specialist -
the composting process. Research with poultry litter and
Environmental Policy, poultry litter compost indicates
Section Leader - Another consideration is the potential in rice-producing areas
Environmental and long-term survival of composting as a where soil salinity limits normal crop
Natural Resources workable solution to the waste production. Excellent results have also
management dilemma. Slight been experienced with application to
mismanagement on the scale of a cut or leveled rice fields.
municipal composting operation can
result in an odor problem that threat­
ens the entire concept of composting The System
for the public. For the purpose of this
discussion, consider the anaerobic The compost world is an ecosystem
decomposition process undesirable. all its own. Understanding the
Anaerobic digestion (occurring in the decomposition process and what does
absence of oxygen) can be an accept­ the work in each stage will help this
able method of organic decomposition ecosystem function at peak performance
if done in a controlled environment. A and produce a high-quality product.
sealed process allows the control of
odors that would otherwise result in In an aerobic composting process
unacceptable public reaction. (occurring in the presence of oxygen),
the microorganisms (bacteria, fungi,
actinomycetes) and invertebrates
(worms, millipedes, sowbugs) that
decompose yard and food wastes
require oxygen and water. Products of
the composting process include compost,
carbon dioxide, heat and water.

The heat produced increases the

temperature in the compost pile to as
high as 160°F. This increased temper­
Arkansas Is
Figure 1. Composting Process in Action
ature results in increased water
Our Campus
evaporation. As the process nears
Proper management and a com­ completion (1 month to 2 years), the
plete understanding of the composting pile temperature lowers. The conver­
Visit our web site at: process, along with some level of sion of carbon (C) in waste to carbon
http://www.uaex.edu

University of Arkansas, United States Department of Agriculture, and County Governments Cooperating
dioxide results in reduction in weight and volume of Carbon to nitrogen ratios. When combining
the pile. Nitrogen (N) in food and yard waste is organic materials to make compost, the carbon-to-
necessary for microorganisms to carry out decomposi­ nitrogen (C:N) ratio is important. Microorganisms in
tion effectively. Finished compost takes on many of compost digest (oxidize) C as an energy source and
the characteristics of humus. The rate at which the ingest N as a protein source. The C:N proportion
final compost is achieved depends on factors should be approximately 30 parts C to 1 part N by
discussed here. weight. Table 1 lists C:N ratios for commonly used
materials.

Microorganisms in Composting Table 1. Carbon to Nitrogen Ratios for Selected

Materials (by weight)
Microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi and Material C:N
actinomycetes account for most of the decomposition,
Materials with High N Values
as well as the rise in temperature that occurs in the
composting process. Vegetable wastes 12-10:1
Coffee grounds 20:1
Tiny millipedes, insects, sowbugs and earthworms
are primary agents of physical decay. They break up Grass clippings 12-25:1
waste debris and transport microorganisms. The Cow manure 20:1
speed at which organic materials decompose depends
on the decomposers, type of organic materials and Horse manure 25:1
composting method used. The food web of the compost Poultry litter 13-18:1
pile on page 4 shows the relationships in the process.
Materials with High C Values
Aerobic vs. anaerobic microorganisms. Leaves 30-80:1
Aerobic organisms thrive at oxygen levels greater Corn stalks 60:1
than 5 percent (air is about 21 percent oxygen). They
are the preferred microorganisms since they provide Straw 40-100:1
the most rapid and effective composting. Anaerobic Bark 100-130:1
microorganisms thrive when the compost pile is
oxygen deficient. Anaerobic conditions are undesirable. Paper 150-200:1
The products of anaerobic decomposition cause compost Wood chips & sawdust 100-500:1
piles to smell badly.
See composting fact sheet FSA 2087 for a more
Aerobic bacteria are the most important initiators detailed list.
of decomposition and temperature increase within the
compost pile. Several types of bacteria thrive between When the C:N ratio is too high, there is too little
the temperatures of 55°-155°F. The initial temperature N and decomposition slows. When the C:N ratio is too
of the compost pile is usually related to air temperature. low, there is too much N and it will vaporize as
At temperatures below 70°F, helpful bacteria do ammonia gas and lead to odor problems.
not thrive.

While high temperatures (above 140°F) kill most

pathogenic organisms and weed seeds, the most
effective decomposing bacteria are those that grow at
moderate temperatures 70°-100°F. Temperature
changes during the process depend on materials
being composted, compost method and the water
available. Pile temperatures between 90°-140°F
indicate rapid decomposition. A temperature probe or
a soil thermometer can be used to keep track of pile
temperature. The management of the compost process
is the determining factor in the destruction of weed
seeds, disease organisms and other pathogens. Well-
managed systems result in excellent control.
Ill-managed systems result in an inconsistent product. Figure 2. Carbon:Nitrogen Ratio Effects on Composting
 Most materials available for composting do not fit adequate moisture without limiting aeration. Too
the ideal 30:1 ratio, so blending of different materials much moisture causes nutrients to leach out, odors
is needed. are produced and decomposition slowed. A “squeeze”
test is an easy way to gauge moisture content. The
In general, coarse, dried-out materials contain material should feel damp to the touch, with just a
little nitrogen. Woody materials are high in C, low in drop or two of liquid expelled when the material is
N. Green wastes such as grass clippings, fresh weeds squeezed tightly. Turning a “too wet” compost pile
and kitchen wastes contain high proportions of N. allows air to circulate. Adding dry material can fix
Keep in mind that the C:N ratios in Table 1 are excess moisture problems. Piles too dry can be
estimates and are provided as a guide. With experi­ watered while turning.
ence, composters develop procedures resulting in
workable mixtures for materials available.
Temperature
Particle size. Microbial activity occurs on the
surface of particles. Breaking particles into smaller Heat generated by the decomposing microorganisms
pieces allows the microorganisms to digest more increases the compost temperature. Temperatures
material, multiply faster and generate more heat. between 90° and 140°F indicate rapid composting.
Chopping, shredding or chipping materials Temperatures greater than 140°F reduce the activity
accelerates the composting process. of most organisms. A temperature probe or soil
thermometer can be used to keep track of compost
temperatures. While the backyard composters may
not be interested in monitoring pile temperatures, it
is an excellent tool for demonstrations and large-scale
composters.

Under optimum conditions and with frequent

turning, usable compost might be produced in as little
as one month. However, composting can survive most
forms of neglect, especially if a one- or two-year wait
for finished compost is acceptable. The composting
method you choose will be influenced by when the
Figure 3. Smaller Particles Compost Faster Than Larger Ones
finished product is needed and the investment dollars
available to the project.
Aeration replaces oxygen-deficient air in the
center of the compost pile with fresh air. Rapid
aerobic decomposition occurs only when there is
enough oxygen present. Air movement throughout the
References
compost pile is affected by spaces between particles in
the compost pile and by moisture content. If the Composting to Reduce the Waste Stream, Northeast
material becomes water saturated, the air movement Regional Agricultural Engineering Service,
decreases. Regular mixing or turning of the pile fluffs Cooperative Extension.
up the material and increases air movement,
enhances aeration and decreases compaction. Composting: Waste to Resources, Cornell Cooperative
Extension Service.
Moisture is needed for bacterial decomposition. A
moisture content of 40-60 percent provides The Rodale Guide to Composting, Rodale Press.
 Source: Dr. Daniel L. Dindal

Acknowledgment is given to DR. CLIFF SNYDER, former Extension soils specialist, University of Arkansas Division of Agriculture,
Cooperative Extension Service, Little Rock, for technical assistance.

Printed by University of Arkansas Cooperative Extension Service Printing Services. Printed on Recycled Paper

SUZANNE SMITH HIRREL is Extension specialist - waste Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, Acts of May 8 and
management and TOM RILEY is Extension specialist - environmental June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture,
policy, section leader - environmental and natural resources, University Director, Cooperative Extension Service, University of Arkansas. The
of Arkansas Division of Agriculture, Cooperative Extension Service, Arkansas Cooperative Extension Service offers its programs to all
Little Rock. eligible persons regardless of race, color, national origin, religion,
gender, age, disability, marital or veteran status, or any other legally
FSA6036-PD-12-04R protected status, and is an Equal Opportunity Employer.