Jump to content

Raccoon

Frae Wikipedia, the free beuk o knawledge
Reveesion aes o 18:05, 20 September 2015 bi Dexbot (Collogue | contribs) (Bot: Parsoid bug phab:T107675)
Raccoon
California raccoon (P. l. psora), Lower Klamath National Wildlife Refuge in California
Scientific classification
Kinrick: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Cless: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Faimily: Procyonidae
Genus: Procyon
Species: P. lotor
Binomial name
Procyon lotor
Native range in red, introduced range in blue
Synonyms

Ursus lotor Linnaeus, 1758

The raccoon (Listeni/ræˈkuːn/, Procyon lotor), whiles spelled racoon,[2] an aa kent as the common raccoon,[3] North American raccoon,[4] northren raccoon[5] an colloquially as coon,[6] is a medium-sized mammal native tae North Americae. The raccoon is the lairgest o the procyonid family, haein a body lenth o 40 tae 70 cm (16 tae 28 in) an a body wecht o 3.5 tae 9 kg (8 tae 20 lb). Its grayish coat maistly consists o dense underfur which insulates against cauld wather. Twa o the raccoon's maist distinctive features are its extremely dexterous front paws an its facial mask, which are themes in the mythology o several Native American ethnic groups. Raccoons are noted for thair intelligence, wi studies shawin that thay are able tae remember the solution tae tasks for up tae three years.[7] The diet o the omnivorous raccoon, which is uisually nocturnal, consists o aboot 40% invertebrates, 33% plant foods, an 27% vertebrates.

The oreeginal habitats o the raccoon are deciduous an mixed forests, but due tae thair adaptability thay hae extended thair range tae mountainous auries, coastal marshes, an urban auries, whaur some homeowners consider them tae be pests. As a result o escapes an deliberate introductions in the mid-20th century, raccoons are nou an aa distributed across mainlan Europe, Caucasie, an Japan.

Tho previously thocht tae be solitary, thare is nou evidence that raccoons engage in gender-specific social behaviuor. Related females eften share a common area, while unrelated males live thegither in groups o up tae fower ainimals tae maintain thair poseetions against foreign males during the mating season, an ither potential invaders. Home range sizes vary anywhere frae 3 hectares (7 acres) for females in ceeties tae 50 km2 (20 sq mi) for males in prairies. Efter a gestation period o aboot 65 days, twa tae five young, kent as "kits", are born in spring. The kits are subsequently raised bi thair mither until dispersal in late faw. Awtho captive raccoons hae been kent tae live over 20 years, thair life expectancy in the wild is anly 1.8 tae 3.1 years. In mony auries, hunting an vehicular injury are the twa maist common causes o daith.

Etymology

The mask o a raccoon is eften interrupted bi a broun-black streak that extends frae forehead tae neb.[8]

The wird "raccoon" wis adoptit intae Inglis frae the native Powhatan term, as uised in the Virginia Colony. It wis recorded on Captain John Smith's leet o Powhatan wirds as aroughcun, an on that o William Strachey as arathkone.[9] It haes an aa been identified as a Proto-Algonquian root *ahrah-koon-em, meanin "[the] ane who rubs, scrubs an scratches wi its haunds".[10]

Seemilarly, Spainyie colonists adoptit the Spainyie wird [mapache] error: {{lang}}: text has italic markup (help) frae the Nahuatl mapachitli o the Aztecs, meanin "[the] ane who taks everythin in its haunds".[11] In mony leids, the raccoon is named for its characteristic dousing behaviour in conjunction wi that language's term for bear, for example [Waschbär] error: {{lang}}: text has italic markup (help) in German, [orsetto lavatore] error: {{lang}}: text has italic markup (help) in Italian, [mosómedve] error: {{lang}}: text has italic markup (help) in Hungarian an araiguma (アライグマ) in Japanese. In French an Portuguese (in Portugal), the washing behaviour is combined wi these leids' term for rat, yielding, respectively, [raton laveur] error: {{lang}}: text has italic markup (help) an ratão-lavadeiro. The raccoon's scienteefic name, Procyon lotor, is neo-Latin, meanin "before-dog washer", wi lotor Latin for "washer" an Procyon Latinized Greek frae προ-, "afore" an κύων, "dug".

The colloquial abbreviation coon is uised in wirds lik coonskin for fur claedin an in phrases lik auld coon as a self-designation o trappers.[12] In the 1830s, the U.S. Whig Party uised the raccoon as an emblem, causin them tae be pejoratively kent as 'coons' bi thair poleetical opponents, who saw them as too sympathetic tae African-Americans. Suin efter that it became an ethnic slur,[13] especially in uise atween 1880 an 1920 (see coon sang), an the term is still considered offensive.[14]

Taxonomy

Skins o P. lotor an P. cancrivorus
Skulls o P. lotor an P. cancrivorus

In the first decades efter its discovery bi the members o the expedeetion o Christopher Columbus, who wis the first person tae leave a written record aboot the species, taxonomists thocht the raccoon wis relatit tae mony different species, includin dogs, cats, badgers an parteecularly bears.[15] Carl Linnaeus, the faither o modren taxonomy, placed the raccoon in the genus Ursus, first as Ursus cauda elongata ("long-tailed bear") in the seicont edeetion o his Systema Naturae (1740), then as Ursus Lotor ("washer bear") in the tenth edition (1758–59).[16] In 1780, Gottlieb Conrad Christian Storr placed the raccoon in its ain genus Procyon, which can be translated as either "before the dog" or "doglike".[17] It is an aa possible that Storr haed its nocturnal lifestyle in mind an chose the star Procyon as eponym for the species.[18]

Description

Skull wi dentition: 2/2 molars, 4/4 premolars, 1/1 canines, 3/3 incisors

Physical characteristics

Skeleton

Heid tae hindquarters, raccoons meisur atween 40 an 70 cm (16 an 28 in), nae includin the bushy tail which can meisur atween 20 an 40 cm (8 an 16 in), but is uisually nae much langer than 25 cm (10 in).[19] The shoulder height is atween 23 an 30 cm (9 an 12 in).[20] The body wecht o an adult raccoon varies considerably wi habitat, makin the raccoon ane o the maist variably sized mammals. It can range frae 2 tae 14 kilogram (4 tae 30 lb), but is uisually atween 3.5 an 9 kilogram (8 an 20 lb). The smallest specimens are foond in Southern Florida, while those near the northren leemits o the raccoon's range tend tae be the lairgest (see Bergmann's rule).[21] Males are uisually 15 tae 20% heavier than females.[22] At the beginning o winter, a raccoon can weigh twice as much as in spring acause o fat storage.[23] The lairgest recorded wild raccoon weighed 28.4 kg (62.6 lb) an measurt 140 cm (55 in) in tot lenth, bi far the lairgest size recordit for a procyonid.[24][25]

The maist characteristic physical featur o the raccoon is the aurie o black fur aroond the ees, which contrasts sharply wi the surroondin white face coloring. This is reminiscent o a "bandit's mask" an haes thus enhanced the animal's reputation for mischief.[26] The slichtly rounded lugs are an aa bordered bi white fur. Raccoons are assumed tae recognise the facial expression an posture o ither members o thair species mair quickly acause o the conspicuous facial coloration an the alternating licht an dark rings on the tail.[27][28] The dark mask mey an aa reduce glare an thus enhance night vision.[28] On ither pairts o the body, the lang an stiff guard hairs, which shed moisture, are uisually colored in shades o gray an, tae a lesser extent, broun.[29] Raccoons wi a very dark coat are mair common in the German population acause individuals wi such coloring war amang those initially released tae the wild.[30] The dense underfur, which accounts for awmaist 90% o the coat, insulates against cauld wather an is componed o 2 tae 3 cm (0.8 tae 1.2 in) lang hairs.[29]

Baculum or "penis bone"

The raccoon, whose method o locomotion is uisually considered tae be plantigrade, can staund on its hind legs tae examine objects wi its front paws.[31] As raccoons hae short legs compared tae thair compact torso, thay are uisually nae able either tae run quickly or jump great distances.[32] Thair tap speed over short distances is 16 tae 24 km/h (10 tae 15 mph).[33][34] Raccoons can swim wi an average speed o aboot 5 km/h (3 mph) an can stay in the watter for several oors.[35] For climbing doun a tree headfirst—an unusual ability for a mammal o its size—a raccoon rotates its hind feet sae thay are pynt backwards.[36] Raccoons hae a dual cooling system tae regulate thair temperature; that is, thay are able tae baith sweat an pant for heat dissipation.[37]

Raccoon skulls hae a short an wide facial region an a voluminous braincase. The facial lenth o the skull is less nor the cranial, an thair nasal banes are short an quite broad. The auditory bullae are inflated in form, an the sagittal crest is weakly developed.[38] The dentition — 40 teeth wi the dental formula:3.1.4.23.1.4.2 — is adapted tae thair omnivorous diet: the carnassials are nae as sharp an pyntit as those o a full-time carnivore, but the molars are nae as wide as those o a herbivore.[39] The penis bane o males is aboot 10 cm (4 in) lang an strangly bent at the front end.[40] Seiven o the thirteen identified vocal calls are uised in communication atween the mither an her kits, ane o these bein the birdlike twittering o newborns.[41]

Bottom side o the front paw wi visible vibrissae on the tips o the deegits

Senses

The maist important sense for the raccoon is its sense o touch.[42] The "hyper sensitive"[43] front paws are pertected bi a thin horny layer which becomes pliable when wet.[44] The five deegits o the paws hae no wabbing atween them, which is unusual for a carnivoran.[45] Awmaist twa-thirds o the aurie responsible for sensory perception in the raccoon's cerebral cortex is specialised for the interpretation o tactile impulses, mair nor in ony ither studied animal.[46] Thay are able tae identify objects afore touching them wi vibrissae locatit abuin thair sharp, nonretractable claws.[47] The raccoon's paws lack an opposable thumb; thus, it daes nae hae the agility o the haunds o primates.[48] Thare is no observed negative effect on tactile perception when a raccoon stands in watter ablo 10 °C (50 °F) for oors.[49]

Raccoons are thocht tae be color blind or at least poorly able tae distinguish color, tho thair ees are well-adapted for sensing green licht.[50] Awtho thair accommodation o 11 dioptre is comparable tae that o humans an thay see well in twilight acause o the tapetum lucidum behind the retina, visual perception is o subordinate importance tae raccoons acause o thair poor lang-distance vision.[51] In addition tae bein useful for orientation in the dark, thair sense o smell is important for intraspecific communication. Glandular secretions (uisually frae thair anal glands), urine an feces are uised for merking.[52] Wi thair broad auditory range, thay can perceive tones up tae 50–85 kHz as well as quiet noises, lik those produced bi earthworms underground.[53]

Intelligence

Zoologist Clinton Hart Merriam describit raccoons as "clever beasts", an that "in certain directions their cunnin surpasses that o the fox." The animal's intelligence gae rise tae the epithet "sly coon".[54] Anly a few studies hae been undertaken tae determine the mental abilities o raccoons, maist o them based on the ainimal's sense o touch. In a study bi the ethologist H. B. Davis in 1908, raccoons war able tae open 11 o 13 complex locks in fewer than 10 tries an haed no problems repeating the action when the locks war rearranged or turned upside doun. Davis concluded thay understood the abstract principles o the lockin mechanisms an thair learning speed wis equivalent tae that o rhesus macaques.[55] Studies in 1963, 1973, 1975 an 1992 concentrated on raccoon memory showed thay can remember the solutions tae tasks for up tae three years.[7] In a study bi B. Pohl in 1992, raccoons war able tae instantly differentiate atween identical an different seembols three years efter the short initial learning phase.[7] Stanislas Dehaene reports in his book The Number Sense raccoons can distinguish boxes containing twa or fower grapes frae those containing three.[56]

Behaviour

Social behaviour

Eastern raccoons (P. l. lotor) in a tree: The raccoon's social structur is grouped intae what Ulf Hohmann calls a "three class society".

Studies in the 1990s bi the ethologists Stanley D. Gehrt an Ulf Hohmann indicated raccoons engage in gender-specific social behaviours an are nae teepically solitary, as wis previously thocht.[57][58] Related females eften live in a sae-cried "fission-fusion society", that is, thay share a common aurie an occasionally meet at feedin or restin grunds.[59] Unrelated males eften form loose male social groups tae maintain thair poseetion against foreign males during the mating season—or against ither potential invaders.[60] Such a group daes nae uisually consist o mair nor fower individuals.[61] Syne some males shaw aggressive behaviour towards unrelatit kits, mithers will isolate themses frae ither raccoons until thair kits are big enough tae defend themsels.[62] Wi respect tae these three different modes o life prevalent amang raccoons, Hohmann cried thair social structur a "three class society".[63] Samuel I. Zeveloff, professor o zoology at Weber State University an author o the beuk Raccoons: A Natural History, is mair cautious in his interpretation an concludes at least the females are solitary maist o the time an, accordin tae Erik K. Fritzell's study in North Dakota in 1978, males in auries wi law population densities are solitary as well.[64]

The shape an size o a raccoon's home range varies dependin on age, sex, an habitat, wi adults claiming auries mair nor twice as lairge as juveniles.[65] While the size o home ranges in the inhospitable habitat o North Dakota's prairies lie atween 7 an 50 km2 (3 an 20 sq mi) for males an atween 2 an 16 km2 (1 an 6 sq mi) for females, the average size in a marsh at Lake Erie wis 0.5 km2 (0.19 sq mi).[66] Irrespective o whether the home ranges o adjacent groups owerlap, thay are maist likely nae actively defended ootside the mating saison if food supplies are sufficient.[67] Odor marks on prominent spots are assumed tae establish home ranges an identify individuals.[68] Urine an feces left at shared raccoon latrines mey provide additional information aboot feedin grunds, syne raccoons war observed tae meet thare later for collective eatin, sleepin an playin.[69]

Concernin the general behaviour patterns o raccoons, Gehrt pynts oot that "typically ye'll find 10 tae 15 percent that will dae the opposite"[70] o whot is expectit.

On an apple tree

Diet

Tho uisually nocturnal, the raccoon is whiles active in daylight tae tak advantage o available food soorces.[71] Its diet consists o aboot 40% invertebrates, 33% plant material an 27% vertebrates.[72] Syne its diet consists o such a variety o different foods, Zeveloff argues the raccoon "mey well be ane o the warld's maist omnivorous ainimals".[73] While its diet in ware an early simmer consists maistly o insects, worms, an ither ainimals already available early in the year, it prefers fruits an nits, such as acorns an wawnits, which emerge in late simmer an hairst, an represent a rich calorie soorce for building up fat needed for winter.[74] Contrary tae popular belief, raccoons eat active or lairge prey, such as birds an mammals, anly occasionally, syne thay prefer prey that is easier tae catch, specifically fish, amphibians an bird eggs.[75] When food is plentiful, raccoons can develop strang individual preferences for specific foods.[76] In the northren pairts o thair range, raccoons go intae a winter rest, reducing thair activity drastically as lang as a permanent snow cover maks searching for food impossible.[77]

Dousin

Captive raccoons eften douse thair food afore eating.

Ane aspect o raccoon behaviour is sae well kent that it gies the animal pairt o its scienteefic name, Procyon lotor; "lotor" is neo-Latin for "washer". In the wild, raccoons eften dabble for underwater food near the shore-line. Thay then eften pick up the food item wi thair front paws tae examine it an rub the item, whiles tae remove unwanted pairts. This gies the appearance o the raccoon "washin" the fuid. The tactile sensitivity o raccoons' paws is increased if this rubbin action is performed underwater, syne the watter softens the haurd layer covering the paws.[78] Houiver, the behaviour observed in captive raccoons in which thay carry thair food tae watter tae "wash" or douse it aforeeatin haes nae been observed in the wild.[79] Naturalist Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, believed that raccoons dae nae hae adequate saliva production tae moisten food tharebi necessitating dousing, but this hypothesis is nou considered tae be incorrect.[80] Captive raccoons douse thair food mair frequently when a watterin hole wi a layout seemilar tae a stream is nae farther away than 3 m (10 ft).[81] The widely acceptit theory is that dousing in captive raccoons is a fixed action pattern frae the dabbling behaviour performed when foraging at shores for aquatic foods.[82] This is supported bi the observation that aquatic foods are doused mair frequently. Cleaning dirty food daes nae seem tae be a reason for "washing".[81] Experts hae cast doubt on the veracity o observations o wild raccoons dousing food.[83]

Reproduction

Raccoons uisually mate in a period triggered bi increasin daylight atween late Januar an mid-Mairch.[84] Houiver, thare are lairge regional differences which are nae completely explicable bi solar conditions. For example, while raccoons in soothren states teepically mate later than average, the mating saison in Manitoba an aa peaks later than uisual in Mairch an extends till Juin.[85] During the mating season, males restlessly roam thair home ranges in rake o females in an attempt tae court them during the three- tae fower-day period when conception is possible. These encounters will eften occur at central meeting places.[86] Copulation, includin foreplay, can last over an oor an is repeated over several nights.[87] The weaker members o a male social group an aa are assumed tae get the opportunity tae mate, syne the stranger ones canna mate wi aw available females.[88] In a study in soothren Texas during the mating seasons frae 1990 tae 1992, aboot ane third o aw females mated wi mair nor ane male.[89] If a female daes nae acome pregnant or if she loses her kits early, she will whiles acome fertile again 80 tae 140 days later.[90]

An Eastern raccoon (P. l. lotor) kit

Efter uisually 63 tae 65 days o gestation (awtho anywhere frae 54 tae 70 days is possible), a litter o teepically twa tae five young is born.[91] The average litter size varies widely wi habitat, rangin frae 2.5 in Alabama tae 4.8 in North Dakota.[92] Larger litters are mair common in auries wi a heich mortality rate, due, for example, tae hunting or severe winters.[93] While male yearlings uisually reach thair sexual maturity anly efter the main mating season, female yearlings can compensate for heich mortality rates an mey be responsible for aboot 50% o aw young born in a year.[94] Males hae no pairt in raising young.[95] The kits (an aa cried "cubs") are blind an deaf at birth, but thair mask is already visible against thair licht fur.[96] The birth wecht o the aboot 10 cm (4 in)-lang kits is atween 60 an 75 g (2.1 an 2.6 oz).[97] Thair lug canals open efter aroond 18 tae 23 days, a few days afore thair ees open for the first time.[98] Ance the kits weigh aboot 1 kg (2 lb), thay begin tae explore ootside the den, consuming solit food for the first time efter sax tae nine weeks.[99] Efter this pyntin, thair mither suckles them wi decreasing frequency; thay are uisually weaned bi 16 weeks.[100] In the faw, efter thair mither haes shawn them dens an feedin grunds, the juvenile group splits up.[101] While mony females will stay close tae the home range o thair mither, males can whiles move mair nor 20 km (12 mi) away.[102] This is considered an instinctive behaviour, preventin inbreedin.[103] Houiver, mither an affspring mey share a den during the first winter in cauld auries.[104]

Life expectancy

Young Florida raccoon (P. l. elucus) crossing a road

Captive raccoons hae been kent tae live for mair nor 20 years.[105] Houiver, the species' life expectancy in the wild is anly 1.8 tae 3.1 years, dependin on the local conditions in terms o traffic volume, hunting, an wather severity.[106] It is nae unusual for anly hauf o the young born in ane year tae survive a full year.[107] Efter this pyntin, the annual mortality rate drops tae atween 10% an 30%.[108] Young raccoons are vulnerable tae losin thair mither an tae starvation, parteecularly in lang an cauld winters.[109] The maist frequent naitural cause o daith in the North American raccoon population is distemper, which can reach epidemic proportions an kill maist o a local raccoon population.[110] In auries wi hivy vehicular traffic an extensive hunting, these factors can accoont for up tae 90% o aw daiths o adult raccoons.[111] The maist important naitural predators o the raccoon are bobcats, coyotes, an great horned owls, the latter mainly preying on young raccoons. In thair introduced range in the umwhile Soviet Union, thair main predators are wolves, lynxes an eagle owls.[112] Houiver, predation is nae a significant cause o daith, especially acause lairger predators hae been exterminated in mony auries inhabited bi raccoons.[113]

Range

Mississippi Delta raccoon (P. l. megaloudus) searching for food on a lake shore

Habitat

Awtho thay hae thrived in sparsely wooded auries in the last decades, raccoons depend on vertical structures tae climb when thay feel threatened.[114] Therefore, thay avoid open terrain an auries wi heich concentrations o beech trees, as beech bark is too smooth tae climb.[115] Tree hollows in auld oaks or ither trees an rock crevices are preferred bi raccoons as sleeping, winter an litter dens. If such dens are unavailable or accessing them is inconvenient, raccoons uise burrows dug bi ither mammals, dense undergrowth or tree crotches.[116] In a study in the Solling range o hills in Germany, mair nor 60% o aw sleepin places war uised anly ance, but those uised at least ten times accounted for aboot 70% o aw uises.[117] Syne amphibians, crustaceans, an ither ainimals foond aroond the shore o lochs an rivers are an important pairt o the raccoon's diet, lawland deciduous or mixed forests abundant wi watter an marshes sustain the heichest population densities.[118] While population densities range frae 0.5 tae 3.2 ainimals per square kilometer (1.3 tae 8.3 ainimals per square mile) in prairies an dae nae uisually exceed 6 ainimals per square kilometer (15.5 ainimals per square mile) in upland haurdwid forests, mair nor 20 raccoons per square kilometer (51.8 ainimals per square mile) can live in lawland forests an marshes.[119]

Distribution in North America

An albino Florida raccoon (P. l. elucus) in Virginia Key, Florida

Raccoons are common throughout North Americae frae Canadae tae Panama, whaur the subspecies Procyon lotor pumilus coexists wi the crab-eating Raccoon (Procyon cancrivorus).[120] The population on Hispaniola wis exterminated as early as 1513 bi Spainyie colonists who huntit them for thair meat.[121] Raccoons war an aa exterminated in Cuba an Jamaica, whaur the last sightings war reportit in 1687.[122] When thay war still considered separate species, the Bahamas raccoon, Guadeloupe raccoon an Tres Marias raccoon war classifee'd as endangered bi the IUCN in 1996.[123]

Thare is evidence that in pre-Columbian times raccoons war numerous anly alang rivers an in the woodlands o the Sootheastren Unitit States.[124] As raccoons war nae mentioned in earlier reports o pioneers exploring the central an north-central pairts o the Unitit States,[125] thair initial spread mey hae begun a few decades afore the 20th century. Syne the 1950s, raccoons hae expandit thair range frae Vancouver Island—umwhile the northernmost leemit o thair range—far intae the northren portions o the fower sooth-central Canadian provinces.[126] New habitats which hae recently been occupied bi raccoons (aside frae urban auries) include moontain ranges, such as the Western Rocky Mountains, prairies an coastal marshes.[127] Efter a population explosion stairtin in the 1940s, the estimatit nummer o raccoons in North Americae in the late 1980s wis 15 tae 20 times higher than in the 1930s, when raccoons war comparatively rare.[128] Urbanisation, the expansion o agricultur, deliberate introductions, an the extermination o naitural predators o the raccoon hae probably caused this increase in abundance an distribution.[129]

Distribution outside North America

As a result o escapes an deliberate introductions in the mid-20th century, the raccoon is nou distributed in several European an Asian countries. Sightings hae occurred in aw the countries bordering Germany, which hosts the lairgest population ootside o North Americae.[130] Anither stable population exists in northren Fraunce, whaur several pet raccoons war released bi members o the U.S. Air Force near the Laon-Couvron Air Base in 1966.[131] Furthermore, raccoons hae been kent tae be in the area aroond Madrid syne the early 1970s. In 2013 the ceety authorized "the capture an daith o ony specimen" foond.[132]

Aboot 1,240 ainimals war released in nine regions o the umwhile Soviet Union atween 1936 an 1958 for the purpose o establishing a population tae be huntit for thair fur. Twa o these introductions war successful — ane in the sooth o Belaroushie atween 1954 an 1958, an anither in Azerbaijan atween 1941 an 1957. Wi a seasonal hairst o atween 1,000 an 1,500 ainimals, in 1974 the estimatit size o the population distributed in the Caucasus region wis aroond 20,000 ainimals an the density wis fower ainimals per square kilometer (10 ainimals per square mile).[133]

Distribution in Japan

In Japan, up tae 1,500 raccoons war importit as pets each year efter the success o the anime series Rascal the Raccoon (1977). In 2004, the descendants o discardit or escaped ainimals lived in 42 o 47 prefecturs.[134][135][136] The population o raccoons in Japan grew frae 17 prefectures in 2000 tae aw 47 prefectures in 2008.[137]

Distribution in Germany: Raccoons killed or foond dead bi hunters in the huntin years 2000-2001, 2001-2002 and 2002-2003 in the admeenistrative destricts o Germany

Distribution in Germany

In Germany—whaur the racoon is cried the Waschbär (literally, "wash-bear" or "washing bear") due tae its habit o "dousin" fuid in watter—twa pairs o pet raccoons war released intae the German countryside at the Edersee reservoir in the north o Hesse in Aprile 1934 bi a forester upon request o thair ainer, a poultry farmer.[138] He released them twa weeks afore receiving permission frae the Prussian hunting office tae "enrich the fauna." [139] Several prior attempts tae introduce raccoons in Germany war nae successful.[140] A seicont population wis established in eastren Germany in 1945 when 25 raccoons escaped frae a fur ferm at Wolfshagen, east o Berlin, efter an air strike. The twa populations are parasitologically distinguishable: 70% o the raccoons o the Hessian population are infected wi the roundworm Baylisascaris procyonis, but none o the Brandenburgian population haes the parasite.[141] The estimatit nummer o raccoons wis 285 ainimals in the Hessian region in 1956, over 20,000 ainimals in the Hessian region in 1970 an atween 200,000 an 400,000 ainimals in the whole o Germany in 2008.[110][142] Bi 2012 it wis estimatit that Germany nou haed mair nor a million raccoons.[143]

The raccoon wis a pertected species in Germany, but haes been declared a game animal in 14 states syne 1954.[144] Hunters an environmentalists argue the raccoon spreads uncontrollably, threatens pertected bird species an supersedes domestic carnivorans.[30] This view is opposed bi the zoologist Frank-Uwe Michler, who finds no evidence a heich population density o raccoons haes negative effects on the biodiversity o an aurie.[30] Hohmann holds that extensive hunting canna be juistifee'd bi the absence o naitural predators, acause predation is nae a significant cause o daith in the North American raccoon population.[145]

Distribution in the former USSR

Experiments in acclimatising raccoons intae the USSR began in 1936, an war repeated a further 25 times until 1962. Oweraw, 1,222 individuals war released, 64 o which came frae zoos an fur farms (38 o them haein been imports frae wastren Europe). The remainder originated frae a population previously established in Transcaucasia. The range o Soviet raccoons wis never single or continuous, as thay war eften introduced tae different locations far frae each ither. Aw introductions intae the Russian Far East failed; melanistic raccoons war released on Petrov Island near Vladivostok an some auries o soothren Primorsky Krai, but died. In Middle Asia, raccoons war released in Kyrgyzstan's Jalal-Abad Province, tho thay war later recorded as "practically absent" thare in Januar 1963. A lairge an stable raccoon population (yielding 1000–1500 catches a year) wis established in Azerbaijan efter an introduction tae the area in 1937. Raccoons apparently survived an introduction near Terek, alang the Sulak River intae the Dagestani lowlands. Attempts tae settle raccoons on the Kuban River's left tributary an Kabardino-Balkaria war unsuccessful. A successful acclimatisation occurred in Belarus, whaur three introductions (consistin o 52, 37 an 38 individuals in 1954 an 1958) teuk place. Bi Januar 1, 1963, 700 individuals war recorded in the kintra.[146]

Urban raccoons

On the roof o a hoose in Albertshausen, Germany

Due tae its adaptability, the raccoon haes been able tae uise urban areas as a habitat. The first sightings war recorded in a suburb o Cincinnati in the 1920s. Syne the 1950s, raccoons hae been present in metropolitan areas lik Washington, DC, Chicago, an Toronto.[147] Syne the 1960s, Kassel haes hosted Europe's first an densest population in a lairge urban area, wi aboot 50 tae 150 ainimals per square kilometer (130 tae 390 ainimals per square mile), a figure comparable tae those o urban habitats in North Americae.[147][148] Home range sizes o urban raccoons are anly 3 tae 40 hectares (7.5 tae 100 acres) for females an 8 tae 80 hectares (20 tae 200 acres) for males.[149] In smaw touns an suburbs, mony raccoons sleep in a nearby forest efter foraging in the dounset area.[147][150] Fruit an insects in gairdens an leftowers in municipal waste are easily available food soorces.[151] Furthermore, a lairge nummer o addeetional sleeping auries exist in these auries, such as hollows in auld gairden trees, cottages, garages, abandoned houses, an attics. The percentage o urban raccoons sleeping in abandoned or occupied houses varies frae 15% in Washington, DC (1991) tae 43% in Kassel (2003).[152]

Health

Raccoon roundworm Baylisascaris procyonis larvae

Raccoons can carry rabies, a lethal disease caused bi the neurotropic rabies virus carried in the saliva an transmittit bi bites. Its spread began in Florida an Georgie in the 1950s an wis facilitated bi the introduction o infectit individuals tae Virginie an North Dakota in the late 1970s.[153] O the 6,940 documentit rabies cases reportit in the United States in 2006, 2,615 (37.7%) war in raccoons.[154] The U.S. Depairtment o Agricultur, as well as local authorities in several U.S. states an Canadian provinces, haes developed oral vaccination programs tae fecht the spread o the disease in endangered populations.[155][156][157] Anly ane human fatality haes been reportit efter transmission o the rabies virus strain commonly kent as "raccoon rabies".[158] Amang the main symptoms for rabies in raccoons are a generally sickly appearance, impaired mobility, abnormal vocalisation, an aggressiveness.[159] Thare mey be no visible signs at aw, houiver, an maist individuals dae nae shaw the aggressive behaviour seen in infected canids; rabid raccoons will eften retire tae thair dens instead.[30][141][159] Organisations lik the U.S. Forest Service encourage people tae stay away frae ainimals wi unusual behaviour or appearance, an tae notify the proper authorities, such as an animal control officer frae the local health department.[160][161] Syne healthy ainimals, especially nouricin mothers, will occasionally forage during the day, daylicht activity is nae a reliable indicator o illness in raccoons.[71]

Unlik rabies an at least a dozen ither pathogens carried bi raccoons, distemper, an epizootic virus, daes nae affect humans.[162] This disease is the maist frequent naitural cause o daith in the North American raccoon population an affects individuals o aw age groups.[110] For example, 94 o 145 raccoons died during an outbreak in Clifton, Ohio, in 1968.[163] It mey occur alang wi a follaein inflammation o the harn (encephalitis), causin the animal tae display rabies-lik symptoms.[153] In Germany, the first aicht cases o distemper war reportit in 2007.[110]

Some o the maist important bacterial diseases which affect raccoons are leptospirosis, listeriosis, tetanus, an tularemia. Awtho internal parasites weaken thair immune systems, well-fed individuals can carry a great mony roundworms in thair digestive tracts wioot shawin symptoms.[164] The larvae o the Baylisascaris procyonis roundworm, which can be contained in the feces an seldom causes a severe illness in humans, can be ingestit when cleaning raccoon latrines wioot wearing breathing pertection.[165]

While nae endemic, the Trichinella worm daes infect racoons,[166] an unnercuiked racoon meat haes caused trichinosis in humans.[167]

Raccoons and humans

Conflicts

A skunk an a California raccoon (P. s. psora) share cat food morsels in a Hollywood, California, back yard

The increasin nummer o raccoons in urban auries haes resulted in diverse reactions in humans, rangin frae outrage at thair presence tae deliberate feedin.[168] Some wildlife experts an maist public authorities caution against feedin wild ainimals acause thay might acome increasingly obtrusive an dependent on humans as a food soorce.[169] Ither experts challenge such arguments an gie advice on feedin raccoons an ither wildlife in thair beuks.[170][171] Raccoons wioot a fear o humans are a concern tae those who attribute this trait tae rabies, but scientists pyntin oot this behaviour is much mair likely tae be a behavioural adjustment tae livin in habitats wi regular contact tae humans for mony generations.[172] Raccoons uisually dae nae prey on domestic cats an dugs, but individual cases o killins hae been reportit.[173]

A Florida raccoon (P. l. elucus) in the Florida Everglades approaches a group o humans, hopin tae be fed.

While overturned waste containers an raided fruit trees are juist a nuisance tae homeowners, it can cost several thoosand dollars tae repair damage caused bi the uise o attic space as dens.[174] Relocatin or killin raccoons wioot a permit is forbidden in mony urban auries on grunds o animal welfare. These methods uisually anly solve problems wi parteecularly wild or aggressive individuals, syne adequate dens are either kent tae several raccoons or will quickly be rediscovered.[161][175] Loud noises, flashin lichts an unpleasant odors hae proven parteecularly effective in drivin away a mither an her kits afore thay would normally leave the nestin place (when the kits are aboot aicht weeks auld).[161][176] teepically, tho, anly precautionary measures tae restrict access tae fuid waste an den sites are effective in the lang term.[161][177]

Amang aw fruits an crops cultivatit in agricultural auries, sweet corn in its milk stage is parteecularly popular amang raccoons.[178] In a twa-year study bi Purdue University researchers, published in 2004, raccoons war responsible for 87% o the damage tae corn plants.[179] Lik ither predators, raccoons searching for food can break intae poultry houses tae feed on chickens, ducks, thair eggs, or feed.[161][180]

Syne raccoons in heich mortality auries hae a higher rate o reproduction, extensive hunting mey nae solve problems wi raccoon populations. Older males an aa claim lairger home ranges than younger ones, resulting in a lower population density.

Meethology, airts, an entertainment

Stylised raccoon skin as depictit on the Raccoon Priests Gorget foond at Spiro Mounds
Relatit page: Leet o feectional raccoons

In the meethology o the indigenous fowks o the Americas, the raccoon wis the subject o folk tales.[181] Stories such as "How raccoons catch so many crayfish" frae the Tuscarora centered on its skills at foraging.[182] In ither tales, the raccoon played the role o the trickster which outsmarts ither ainimals, lik coyotes an wolves.[183] Amang others, the Dakota Sioux believe the raccoon haes naitural spirit powers, syne its mask resembled the facial pentins, twa-fingered swashes o black an white, uised during rituals tae connect tae spirit beings.[184] The Aztecs linked supernatural abilities especially tae females, whose commitment tae thair young wis associated wi the role o wise weemen in thair society.[185]

The raccoon an aa appears in Native American airt across a wide geographic range. Petroglyphs wi engraved raccoon tracks war foond in Lewis Canyon, Texas;[186] at the Crow Hollow petroglyph site in Grayson County, Kentucky;[187] an in river drainages near Tularosa, New Mexico an San Francisco, California.[188] A true-tae-detail figurine made o quartz, the Ohio Mound Builders' Stone Pipe, wis foond near the Scioto River. The meanin an signeeficance o the Raccoon Priests Gorget, which features a stylized cairvin o a raccoon an wis foond at the Spiro Mounds, Oklahoma, remains unkent.[189][190]

In Western cultur, several autobiographical novels aboot livin wi a raccoon hae been written, maistly for children. The best-kent is Sterling North's Rascal, which recounts how he raised a kit during World War I. In recent years, anthropomorphic raccoons played main roles in the animatit televeesion series The Raccoons, the computer-animatit film Over the Hedge, the live action film Guardians of the Galaxy an the video gemme series Sly Cooper.

File:Coonskin cap.JPG
Coonskin cap

Huntin an fur trade

The fur o raccoons is uised for claedin, especially for coats an coonskin caps. At present, it is the material uised for the inaccurately named "sealskin" cap worn bi the Royal Fusiliers o Great Breetain.[191] Historically, Native American tribes nae anly uised the fur for winter claedin, but an aa uised the tails for ornament.[192] The famous Sioux leader Spotted Tail teuk his name frae a raccoon skin hat wi the tail attached he acquired frae a fur trader. Syne the late 18th century, various types o scent hoonds, cried "coonhounds", which are able tae tree ainimals hae been bred in the United States.[193] In the 19th century, when coonskins occasionally even served as means o payment, several thoosand raccoons war killed each year in the United States.[194] This nummer rose quickly when automobile coats became popular efter the turn o the 20t century. In the 1920s, wearing a raccoon coat wis regarded as status symbol amang college students.[195] Attempts tae breed raccoons in fur farms in the 1920s an 1930s in North Americae an Europe turned oot nae tae be profitable, an farming wis abandoned efter prices for lang-haired pelts dropped in the 1940s.[196][197] Awtho raccoons haed acome rare in the 1930s, at least 388,000 war killed during the huntin saison o 1934/35.[198]

Automobile coat made oot o raccoon fur (1906, U.S.)

Efter persistent population increases began in the 1940s, the seasonal hunt reached aboot ane million ainimals in 1946/47 an twa million in 1962/63.[199] The broadcast o three televeesion episodes aboot the frontiersman Davy Crockett an the film Davy Crockett, King of the Wild Frontier in 1954 an 1955 led tae a heich demand for coonskin caps in the United States, awtho it is unlikely either Crockett or the actor who played him, Fess Parker, actually wore a cap made frae raccoon fur.[200] The seasonal hunt reached an aw-time heich wi 5.2 million ainimals in 1976/77 an ranged atween 3.2 an 4.7 million for maist o the 1980s. In 1982, the average pelt price wis $20.[201] As o 1987, the raccoon wis identified as the maist important wild furbearer in North Americae in terms o revenue.[202] In the first hauf o the 1990s, the seasonal hunt dropped tae 0.9 frae 1.9 million due tae decreasing pelt prices.[203]

While primarily huntit for thair fur, raccoons war an aa a soorce o fuid for Native Americans an early American settlers.[204] Accordin tae Ernest Thompson Seton, young specimens killed wioot a fecht are palatable, whauras auld raccoons caught efter a lengthy battle are inedible.[205] Raccoon meat wis extensively eaten during the early years o Californie, whaur it wis sold in the San Francisco mercat for $1–3 apiece.[206] American slaves occasionally ett raccoon at Christmas, but it wis nae necessarily a dish o the poor or rural. The first edrrtion o The Joy of Cooking, released in 1931, contained a recipe for preparing raccoon, an US Preses Calvin Coolidge's pet raccoon Rebecca wis oreeginally sent tae be served at the White House Thanksgiving Dinner.[207][208][209] Awtho the idea o eatin raccoons seems repulsive tae maist mainstream consumers syne thay see them as endearin, cute, an/or varmints, several thoosand raccoons are still eaten each year in the Unitit States.[210][211][212][213]

Pen wi climbin facilities, hidin places an a watterin hole (on the lawer left side)

Pet raccoons

Raccoons are whiles kept as pets, which is discouraged bi mony experts acause the raccoon is nae a domesticatit species. Raccoons mey act unpredictably an aggressively an it is uisually impossible tae teach them tae obey commands.[214] In places whaur keepin raccoons as pets is nae forbidden, such as in Wisconsin an ither U.S. states, an exotic pet permit mey be required.[215][216]

Thair propensity for unruly behaviour exceeds that o captive skunks, an are even less trustworthy when allowed tae roam freely. Acause o thair intelligence an nimble forelimbs, even inexperienced raccoons are easily capable o unscrewin jars, uncorkin bottles an openin door latches, wi mair experienced specimens haein been recordit tae open duir knobs.[54] Sexually mature raccoons eften shaw aggressive naitural behaviours such as bitin during the matin saison.[217] Neutering them at aroond five or sax months o age decreases the chances o aggressive behaviour developin.[218] Raccoons can acome obese an suffer frae ither disorders due tae poor diet an lack o exercise.[219] When fed wi cat food over a lang time period, raccoons can develop gout.[220] Wi respect tae the research results regarding thair social behaviour, it is nou required bi law in Austria an Germany tae keep at least twa individuals tae prevent loneliness.[221][222] Raccoons are uisually kept in a pen (indoor or outdoor), an aa a legal requirement in Austria an Germany, rather than in the apartment whaur thair naitural curiosity mey result in damage tae property.[221][222][223]

When orphaned, it is possible for kits tae be rehabilitatit an reintroduced tae the wild. Houiver, it is uncertain whether thay readapt well tae life in the wild.[224] Feedin unweaned kits wi cow's milk rather than a kitten replacement milk or a seemilar product can be dangerous tae thair health.[225]

Notes

  1. ↑ Timm, R., Cuarón, A.D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K. (2008). "Procyon lotor". IUCN Reid Leet o Threatened Species. Version 2008. Internaitional Union for Conservation o Naitur. Retrieved 22 Mairch 2009. Cite has empty unkent parameter: |last-author-amp= (help)CS1 maint: uises authors parameter (link) CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Database entry includes a brief justification of why this species is of least concern
  2. ↑ Seidl, Jennifer; McMordie, W. (1982). Fowler, F. G.; Fowler, H. W.; Sykes, John Bradbury (ed.). The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 851. ISBN 978-0-19-195872-4.CS1 maint: multiple names: eeditors leet (link)
  3. ↑ Zeveloff, p. 42
  4. ↑ Zeveloff, p. 1
  5. ↑ Larivière, Serge (2004). "Range expansion of raccoons in the Canadian prairies: review o hypotheses". Wildlife Society Bulletin. Lawrence, Kansas: Allen Press. 32 (3): 955–963. doi:10.2193/0091-7648(2004)032[0955:REORIT]2.0.CO;2. ISSN 0091-7648.
  6. ↑ Zeveloff, p. 2
  7. ↑ a b c Hohmann, pp. 71–72
  8. ↑ MacClintock, p. 5
  9. ↑ Ither attestit colonial spellins o the Powhatan wird include: racone, arrathcune, arathcoon, aroucoun, an rahaughcun. Journal o the Illinois State Historical Society, Vol 55, p. 400.
  10. ↑ Holmgren, Virginia C. (1990). Raccoons: In Folklore, History & Today's Backyards. Capra Pres. p. 157.
  11. ↑ Holmgren, p. 52
  12. ↑ Holmgren, pp. 75–76; Zeveloff, p. 2
  13. ↑ Sotiroupoulos, Karen, Staging Race: Black Performers in Turn of the century America, Harvard University Press, 2006, pg. 91
  14. ↑ "Radio Talk Show Host Fired for Racial Slur Against Condoleezza Rice – Politics | Republican Party | Democratic Party | Political Spectrum". FOXNews.com. 22 Mairch 2006. Retrieved 19 Mairch 2010.
  15. ↑ Holmgren, pp. 47–67
  16. ↑ Holmgren, pp. 64–67; Zeveloff, pp. 4–6
  17. ↑ Holmgren, pp. 68–69; Zeveloff, p. 6
  18. ↑ Hohmann, p. 44; Holmgren, p. 68
  19. ↑ Hohmann, p. 77; Lagoni-Hansen, p. 15; Zeveloff, p. 58
  20. ↑ Lagoni-Hansen, p. 16
  21. ↑ Zeveloff, pp. 58–59
  22. ↑ Lagoni-Hansen, p. 18
  23. ↑ Hohmann, p.47–48; MacClintock, p. 44; Zeveloff, p. 108
  24. ↑ MacClintock, p. 8; Zeveloff, p. 59
  25. ↑ Boitani, Luigi, Simon & Schuster's Guide to Mammals. Simon & Schuster/Touchstone Books (1984), ISBN 978-0-671-42805-1
  26. ↑ Bartussek, p.6; Zeveloff, p. 61
  27. ↑ Hohmann, pp. 65–66
  28. ↑ a b MacClintock, pp. 5–6; Zeveloff, p. 63
  29. ↑ a b Zeveloff, p. 60
  30. ↑ a b c d Michler, Frank-Uwe; Köhnemann, Berit A. (Mey 2008). "Ökologische und ökonomische Bedeutung des Waschbären in Mitteleuropa – Eine Stellungnahme". "Projekt Waschbär" (in German). Retrieved 7 December 2008.
  31. ↑ Hohmann, p. 57; Zeveloff, p. 71–72
  32. ↑ Hohmann, p. 93; Zeveloff, p. 72
  33. ↑ MacClintock, p. 28
  34. ↑ Saunders, Andrew D. (Mairch 1989). "Raccoon". Adirondack Mammals. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press. p. 256. ISBN 978-0-8156-8115-1.
  35. ↑ MacClintock, p. 33; Zeveloff, p. 72
  36. ↑ MacClintock, p. 30; Zeveloff, p. 72
  37. ↑ MacClintock, p. 29; Zeveloff, p. 73
  38. ↑ Heptner & Sludskii 2002, pp. 1375–1376
  39. ↑ Zeveloff, p. 64
  40. ↑ Hohmann, p. 27; MacClintock, p. 84
  41. ↑ Hohmann, p. 66; MacClintock, p. 92; Zeveloff, p. 73
  42. ↑ Bartussek, p. 13; Hohmann, p. 55; Zeveloff, p. 70
  43. ↑ Hohmann, p. 55
  44. ↑ Hohmann, pp. 56–59; MacClintock, p. 15
  45. ↑ Zeveloff, p. 69
  46. ↑ Hohmann, p. 56
  47. ↑ Hohmann, p. 57; Zeveloff, p. 70
  48. ↑ MacClintock, p. 15; Zeveloff, p. 70
  49. ↑ Hohmann, pp. 60–62
  50. ↑ Hohmann, p. 63; MacClintock, p. 18; Zeveloff, p. 66
  51. ↑ Hohmann, pp. 63–65; MacClintock, pp. 18–21; Zeveloff, pp. 66–67
  52. ↑ Hohmann, pp. 67–70; MacClintock, p. 17; Zeveloff, pp. 68–69
  53. ↑ Hohmann, pp. 66, 72; Zeveloff, p. 68
  54. ↑ a b Merriam, C. H. (1884), The mammals o the Adirondack region, northeastern New York : with an introductory chapter treating o the location an boondaries o the region, its geological history, topography, climate, general features, botany, an faunal position, New York : Published by the author, pp. 91-95
  55. ↑ Davis, H. B. (October 1907). "The Raccoon: A Study in Animal Intelligence". The American Journal of Psychology. Champaign, Illinois: University of Illinois Press. 18 (4): 447–489. doi:10.2307/1412576. JSTOR 1412576.
  56. ↑ Dehaene, Stanislas (1997). The number sense. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 12. ISBN 0-19-511004-8.
  57. ↑ Gehrt, Stanley D. (1994). "Raccoon social organization in South Texas". Cite journal requires |journal= (help) (Dissertation at the University of Missouri-Columbia)
  58. ↑ Hohmann, pp. 133–155
  59. ↑ Bartussek, pp. 10–12; Hohmann, pp. 141–142
  60. ↑ Hohmann, pp. 152–154
  61. ↑ Bartussek, p. 12; Hohmann, p. 140
  62. ↑ Hohmann, pp. 124–126, 155
  63. ↑ Hohmann, p. 133
  64. ↑ Zeveloff, pp. 137–139
  65. ↑ MacClintock, p. 61
  66. ↑ MacClintock, pp. 60–61
  67. ↑ Zeveloff, pp. 137–138
  68. ↑ Zeveloff, pp. 68–69
  69. ↑ Hohmann, pp. 142–147
  70. ↑ Riddell, Jill (2002). "The City Raccoon and the Country Raccoon". Chicago Wilderness Magazine. Chicago Wilderness Magazine. Retrieved 7 December 2008.
  71. ↑ a b Bartussek, p. 10; Zeveloff, p. 99
  72. ↑ Hohmann, p. 82
  73. ↑ Zeveloff, p. 102
  74. ↑ Hohmann, pp. 85–88; MacClintock, pp. 44–45
  75. ↑ Hohmann, p. 83
  76. ↑ MacClintock, p. 44
  77. ↑ MacClintock, pp. 108–113
  78. ↑ Hohmann, p. 55; Zeveloff, p. 7
  79. ↑ Lagoni-Hansen, p. 41; MacClintock, pp. 56–57
  80. ↑ Holmgren, p. 70; Lagoni-Hansen, p. 41; MacClintock, p. 57; Zeveloff, p. 7
  81. ↑ a b MacClintock, p. 57
  82. ↑ Hohmann, pp. 44–45; Lagoni-Hansen, pp. 41–42; MacClintock, p. 57; Zeveloff, p. 7
  83. ↑ Holmgren, p. 22 (pro); Lagoni-Hansen, p. 41 (contra); MacClintock, p. 57 (contra)
  84. ↑ Hohmann, p. 150; MacClintock, p. 81; Zeveloff, p. 122
  85. ↑ Zeveloff, p. 122
  86. ↑ Hohmann, pp. 148–150; Lagoni-Hansen, p. 47; MacClintock, pp. 81–82
  87. ↑ Hohmann, pp. 150–151
  88. ↑ Hohmann, pp. 153–154
  89. ↑ Gehrt, Stanley; Fritzell, Erik K. (Mairch 1999). "Behavioural aspects o the raccoon matin seestem: determinants o consortship success". Animal behaviour. Amsterdam: Elsevier. 57 (3): 593–601. doi:10.1006/anbe.1998.1037. ISSN 0003-3472. PMID 10196048.
  90. ↑ Hohmann, p. 125; Lagoni-Hansen, p. 45; Zeveloff, p. 125
  91. ↑ Hohmann, p. 131; Zeveloff, pp. 121, 126
  92. ↑ Lagoni-Hansen, p. 50; Zeveloff, p. 126
  93. ↑ Bartussek, p. 32; Zeveloff, p. 126
  94. ↑ Hohmann, p. 163; MacClintock, p. 82; Zeveloff, pp. 123–127
  95. ↑ Bartussek, p. 12; Hohmann, p. 111; MacClintock, p. 83
  96. ↑ Hohmann, pp. 114, 117; Zeveloff, p. 127
  97. ↑ Zeveloff, p. 127
  98. ↑ Hohmann, p. 117
  99. ↑ Hohmann, p. 119; MacClintock, pp. 94–95
  100. ↑ Zeveloff, p. 129
  101. ↑ Hohmann, pp. 126–127. Zeveloff, p. 130
  102. ↑ Hohmann, p. 130; Zeveloff, pp. 132–133
  103. ↑ Hohmann, p. 128; Zeveloff, p. 133
  104. ↑ Zeveloff, p. 130
  105. ↑ Bartussek, p. 6
  106. ↑ Zeveloff, pp. 118–119
  107. ↑ Hohmann, p. 163; Zeveloff, p. 119
  108. ↑ Hohmann, p. 163
  109. ↑ MacClintock, p. 73
  110. ↑ a b c d Michler, Frank-Uwe; Köhnemann, Berit A. (Juin 2008). "Erste Ergebnisse". "Projekt Waschbär" (in German). Retrieved 7 December 2008.
  111. ↑ Hohmann, p. 162
  112. ↑ Heptner & Sludskii 2002, p. 1390
  113. ↑ Zeveloff, pp. 111–112
  114. ↑ Hohmann, pp. 93–94; Zeveloff, p. 93
  115. ↑ Hohmann, p. 94
  116. ↑ Hohmann, pp. 97–101; Zeveloff, pp. 95–96
  117. ↑ Hohmann, p. 98
  118. ↑ Hohmann, p. 160; Zeveloff, p. 98
  119. ↑ Hohmann, p. 160; Zeveloff, p. 97
  120. ↑ Hohmann, pp. 12, 46; Zeveloff, pp. 75, 88
  121. ↑ Holmgren, p. 58
  122. ↑ Holmgren, pp. 58–59
  123. ↑ Zeveloff, pp. 42–45
  124. ↑ Zeveloff, p. 77
  125. ↑ Zeveloff, p. 78
  126. ↑ Zeveloff, p. 75
  127. ↑ Zeveloff, p. 76
  128. ↑ Zeveloff, pp. 75–76
  129. ↑ Zeveloff, pp. 76–78
  130. ↑ Lagoni-Hansen, pp. 89–90
  131. ↑ Hohmann, p. 13
  132. ↑ Burger, Stephen (22 Julie 2013). "Madrid declares war on plague of raccoon an parrot invaders". The Guardian. Retrieved 4 Mey 2015.
  133. ↑ Lagoni-Hansen, pp. 90–92
  134. ↑ Yoshida, Reiji (16 September 2004). "Raccoons – new foreign menace?". The Japan Times Online. The Japan Times Ltd. Retrieved 7 December 2008.
  135. ↑ "Raccoons take big bite out of crops". The Japan Times Online. The Japan Times Ltd. 19 Februar 2008. Retrieved 7 December 2008.
  136. ↑ Ikeda, Tohru; Asano, Makoto; Matoba, Yohei, Abe, Go (2004). "Present Status of Invasive Alien Raccoon and its Impact in Japan" (PDF). Global Environmental Research. Tsukuba, Japan: Center for Global Environmental Research, National Institute for Environmental Studies. 8 (2): 125–131. ISSN 1343-8808. Retrieved 7 December 2008.
  137. ↑ 山﨑晃司・佐伯緑・竹内正彦・及川ひろみ (2009). "茨城県でのアライグマの生息動向と今後の管理課題について" (PDF). 県自然博物館研究報告. 12: 41–49. Retrieved 3 Julie 2011.
  138. ↑ Hohmann, pp. 9–10
  139. ↑ Hohmann, p. 10
  140. ↑ Hohmann, p. 11; Lagoni-Hansen, p. 84
  141. ↑ a b Hohmann, p. 182
  142. ↑ Hohmann, p. 11
  143. ↑ Schulz, Matthias (3 August 2012). "Raccoon Invasion: Germany Overrun by Hordes of Masked Omnivores". Retrieved 4 Mey 2015.
  144. ↑ Hohmann, pp. 18, 21
  145. ↑ Hohmann, pp. 14–16
  146. ↑ Heptner & Sludskii 2002, pp. 1380–1383
  147. ↑ a b c Michler, Frank-Uwe (25 Juin 2003). "Untersuchungen zur Raumnutzung des Waschbären (Procyon lotor, L. 1758) im urbanen Lebensraum am Beispiel der Stadt Kassel (Nordhessen)" (PDF) (in German): 7. Retrieved 7 December 2008. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) (Diploma thesis at the University of Halle-Wittenberg)
  148. ↑ Hohmann, p. 108
  149. ↑ Michler, Frank-Uwe; Köhnemann, Berit A. "Stand der Wissenschaft". "Projekt Waschbär" (in German). Gesellschaft für Wildökologie und Naturschutz e.V. Retrieved 7 December 2008.
  150. ↑ Bartussek, p. 20
  151. ↑ Bartussek, p. 21
  152. ↑ Bartussek, p. 20; Hohmann, p. 108
  153. ↑ a b Zeveloff, p. 113
  154. ↑ Blanton, Jesse D.; Hanlon, Cathleen A.; Rupprecht, Charles E. (15 August 2007). "Rabies surveillance in the United States during 2006". Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. Schaumburg, Illinois: American Veterinary Medical Association. 231 (4): 540–556. doi:10.2460/javma.231.4.540. ISSN 0003-1488. PMID 17696853.
  155. ↑ "National Rabies Management Program Overview". Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service. United States Department of Agriculture. 25 September 2009. Retrieved 28 December 2010.
  156. ↑ "Raccoons and Rabies". Official website of the State of Tennessee. Tennessee Department of Health. Retrieved 7 December 2008.
  157. ↑ "Major operation related to raccoon rabies – Close to one million vaccinated baits will be spread in the Estrie and Montérégie regions from August 18 to 23, 2008". Gouvernement du Québec. 18 August 2008. Retrieved 28 December 2010.
  158. ↑ Silverstein, M. A.; Salgado, C. D.; Bassin, S.; Bleck, T. P.; Lopes, M. B.; Farr, B. M.; Jenkins, S. R.; Sockwell, D. C.; Marr, J. S.; Miller, G. B. (14 November 2003). "First Human Death Associated with Raccoon Rabies". Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. Atlanta, Georgia: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 52 (45): 1102–1103. PMID 14614408. Retrieved 7 December 2008.
  159. ↑ a b Rosatte, Rick; Sobey, Kirk; Donovan, Dennis; Bruce, Laura; Allan, Mike; Silver, Andrew; Bennett, Kim; Gibson, Mark; Simpson, Holly; ; Davies, Chris; Wandeler, Alex; Muldoon, Frances (1 Julie 2006). "Behavior, Movements, and Demographics of Rabid Raccoons in Ontario, Canada: Management Implications". Journal of Wildlife Diseases. USA: The Wildlife Disease Association. 42 (3): 589–605. doi:10.7589/0090-3558-42.3.589. ISSN 0090-3558. PMID 17092890. Retrieved 7 December 2008.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors leet (link)
  160. ↑ "The Raccoon—Friend or Foe?". Northeastern Area State & Private Forestry – USDA Forest Service. Retrieved 7 December 2008.
  161. ↑ a b c d e Link, Russell. "Raccoons". Living with Wildlife. Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife. Archived frae the original on 24 Mairch 2008. Retrieved 7 December 2008.
  162. ↑ MacClintock, p. 72; Zeveloff, p. 114
  163. ↑ Zeveloff, p. 112
  164. ↑ MacClintock, pp. 73–74; Zeveloff, p. 114
  165. ↑ Hohmann, pp. 169, 182
  166. ↑ Winslow, Price, Heafie, Herman, "Trichinosis in Marayland Racoons," Bulletin Wildlife Disease Assn, Vol 2 July 1966
  167. ↑ CDC, Parasites--Trichinellosis (also known as Trichinosis)
  168. ↑ Hohmann, pp. 103–106
  169. ↑ Bartussek, p. 34
  170. ↑ Holmgren, pp. 117–121
  171. ↑ Harris, Stephen; Baker, Phil (2001). Urban Foxes. Suffolk: Whittet Books. pp. 78–79. ISBN 978-1-873580-51-6.
  172. ↑ Bartussek, p. 24; Hohmann, p. 182
  173. ↑ "Raccoons rampaging Olympia". seattlepi.com. Seattle Post-Intelligencer. 23 August 2006. Retrieved 7 December 2008.
  174. ↑ Michler, Frank-Uwe (25 Juin 2003). "Untersuchungen zur Raumnutzung des Waschbären (Procyon lotor, L. 1758) im urbanen Lebensraum am Beispiel der Stadt Kassel (Nordhessen)" (PDF) (in German): 108. Retrieved 7 December 2008. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) (Diploma thesis at the University of Halle-Wittenberg)
  175. ↑ Bartussek, p. 32; Hohmann, pp. 142–144, 169
  176. ↑ Bartussek, p. 40
  177. ↑ Bartussek, pp. 36–40; Hohmann, p. 169
  178. ↑ Hohmann, pp. 87–88; MacClintock, p 49–50
  179. ↑ MacGowan, Brian J.; Humberg, Lee A.; Beasley, James C.; DeVault, Travis L.; Retamosa, Monica I.; Rhodes, Jr., Olin E. (Juin 2006). "Corn and Soybean Crop Depredation by Wildlife" (PDF). Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, Purdue University: 6. Retrieved 17 December 2008. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors leet (link)
  180. ↑ Hohmann, p. 82; MacClintock, pp. 47–48
  181. ↑ Holmgren, pp. 25–46
  182. ↑ Holmgren, pp. 41–43
  183. ↑ Holmgren, pp. 26–29, 38–40
  184. ↑ Holmgren, pp. 15–17
  185. ↑ Holmgren, pp. 17–18
  186. ↑ Pamela LeBlanc Pictographs, petroglyphs on rocks record beliefs o earliest Texans at austin360.com [Error: unknown archive URL] (archived [Date missing]). American Statesman. December 13, 2008
  187. ↑ Rock Art of Kentucky. Fred E. Coy, Thomas C. Fuller, Larry G. Meadows, James L. Swauger University Press of Kentucky, 2003 p. 60 and Fig. 65A
  188. ↑ Schaafsma, P. Indian Rock Art of the Southwest Albuq., U.NM, 1992
  189. ↑ Wade, Edwin L (25 September 1986). [Raccoon at Google Books The Arts of the North American] Check |url= value (help). ISBN 978-0-933920-56-9. Retrieved 19 Mairch 2010.
  190. ↑ Holmgren, p. 45
  191. ↑ A Dictionary of Military Uniform: W.Y.Carman ISBN 0-684-15130-8
  192. ↑ Holmgren, p. 18
  193. ↑ "Black and Tan Coonhound History". American Kennel Club. American Kennel Club. Retrieved 11 December 2008.
  194. ↑ Holmgren, p. 74; Zeveloff, p. 160
  195. ↑ Holmgren, p. 77
  196. ↑ Zeveloff, p. 161
  197. ↑ Schmidt, Fritz (1970). Das Buch von den Pelztieren und Pelzen (in German). Munich: F. C. Mayer Verlag. pp. 311–315.
  198. ↑ Holmgren, p. 77; Zeveloff, pp. 75, 160, 173
  199. ↑ Zeveloff, pp. 75, 160
  200. ↑ Zeveloff, p. 170
  201. ↑ The Red Panda, Olingos, Coatis, Raccoons, and Their Relatives: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan for Procyonids and Ailurids By A. R. Glatston, IUCN/SSC Mustelid, Viverrid & Procyonid Specialist Group Edition: illustrated Published by IUCN, 1994, p. 9 ISBN 2-8317-0046-9, ISBN 978-2-8317-0046-5
  202. ↑ The Red Panda, Olingos, Coatis, Raccoons, and Their Relatives: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan for Procyonids and Ailurids By A. R. Glatston, IUCN/SSC Mustelid, Viverrid & Procyonid Specialist Group Published by IUCN, 1994, p. 9
  203. ↑ Zeveloff, pp. 160–161
  204. ↑ Holmgren, pp. 18–19, Zeveloff, p. 165
  205. ↑ Seton 1909, pp. 1028
  206. ↑ Goldman & Jackson 1950, pp. 14–17
  207. ↑ Harriet Jacobs, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, Digireads.com Publishing, 2005, p.72.
  208. ↑ San Diego's Hilarious History By Herbert Lockwood, William Carroll Published by Coda Publications, 2004, p. 46.
  209. ↑ Jen O'Neill. White House Life: Filling the Position of First Pet. findingdulcinea.com. November 12, 2008. .
  210. ↑ Twohey, Megan (18 Januar 2008). "Raccoon dinner: Who's game? Illinois, it turns out, has bountiful supply of the critters – and fans and foodies are gobbling them up – Chicago Tribune". Archives.chicagotribune.com. Retrieved 19 Mairch 2010.
  211. ↑ Hill, Lee (13 Januar 2009). "The other dark meat: Raccoon is making it to the table | McClatchy". Mcclatchydc.com. Retrieved 19 Mairch 2010.
  212. ↑ "Mammals: Raccoon – (Procyon lotor)". Mdc.mo.gov. Archived frae the original on 22 Juin 2008. Retrieved 19 Mairch 2010.
  213. ↑ "Raccoon". Nebraska Wildlife Species Guide. Nebraska Game and Parks Commission. Archived frae the original on 23 October 2008. Retrieved 7 December 2008.
  214. ↑ Bartussek, p. 44; Hohmann, pp. 173–174
  215. ↑ MacClintock, p. 129
  216. ↑ Bluett, Robert; Craven, Scott (1999). "The Raccoon (Procyon lotor)" (PDF). Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System: 2. Retrieved 7 December 2008. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  217. ↑ Bartussek, p. 44; Hohmann, pp. 185–186
  218. ↑ Hohmann, p. 186
  219. ↑ Hohmann, p. 185
  220. ↑ Hohmann, p. 180
  221. ↑ a b Gutachten über Mindestanforderungen an die Haltung von Säugetieren (PDF) (in German). Bonn, Germany: Bundesministerium für Verbraucherschutz, Ernährung und Landwirtschaft. 10 Juin 1996. pp. 42–43. Retrieved 31 Januar 2009.
  222. ↑ a b Mindestanforderungen an die Haltung von Säugetieren (PDF) (in German). Bundesministerium für Gesundheit und Frauen. 17 December 2004. p. 23. Retrieved 21 August 2010.
  223. ↑ Bartussek, p. 44; Hohmann, pp. 184, 187; MacClintock, p. 130–131
  224. ↑ MacClintock, p. 130
  225. ↑ Bartussek, p. 44; Hohmann, pp. 175–176

References

Freemit airtins

Taen frae "https://sco.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Raccoon&oldid=494908"