Dissertacao Ludmilagargano Pdfa
Dissertacao Ludmilagargano Pdfa
Dissertacao Ludmilagargano Pdfa
FACULDADE DE FARMÁCIA
Belo Horizonte
2020
LUDMILA PERES GARGANO
Belo Horizonte
2020
UNIVERSIDADE FEDERAL DE MINAS GERAIS
Reitora
Profa. Sandra Regina Goulart Almeida
Vice-Reitor
Prof. Alessandro Fernandes Moreira
Pró-Reitor de Pós-Graduação
Prof. Fábio Alves da Silva Júnior
Pró-Reitor de Pesquisa
Prof. Mário Fernando Montenegro Campos
Vice-Diretora
Profa. Micheline Rosa Silveira
Coordenadora
Profa. Juliana Alvares Teodoro
Sub-Coordenadora
Profa. Clarice Chemello
Colegiado do Programa
Profa. Djenane Ramalho de Oliveira e Profa. Wânia da Silva Carvalho
Profa. Cristina Mariano Ruas e Prof. Augusto Afonso G. Júnior
Profa. Micheline Rosa Silveira
Profa. Cristiane Aparecida M. de Pádua e Profa. Clarice Chemello
Discente Ludmila Peres Gargano e Natália Dias Brandão
AGRADECIMENTOS
Aos meus familiares e amigos, em especial aos meus pais, à Camila e ao Dinho,
que me oferecem suporte diário, em todas as minhas escolhas e aventuras. Meu
amor por vocês é incondicional.
“You can see a lot by just looking.”
Yogi Berra
APRESENTAÇÃO
ARTIGO
ARTIGO
1 INTRODUÇÃO ......................................................................................... 18
2 REFERENCIAL TEÓRICO ....................................................................... 20
2.1 Doença Pulmonar Obstrutiva Crônica ................................................ 20
2.1.1 Fisiopatologia ............................................................................. 21
2.1.2 Manifestações sistêmicas e Comorbidades ............................... 25
2.1.3 Exacerbação .............................................................................. 31
2.1.4 Etiologia e Fatores de Risco ...................................................... 32
2.1.5 Epidemiologia ............................................................................ 36
2.1.6 Sinais e sintomas ....................................................................... 39
2.1.7 Diagnóstico e classificação ........................................................ 41
2.2 Tratamento da dpoc ........................................................................... 43
2.2.1 Tratamento farmacológico ......................................................... 44
2.2.2 Inibidores da Fosfodiesterase 4 - IPDE4 .................................... 45
2.2.3 Glicocorticorteróides inalatórios ................................................. 45
2.2.4 Broncodilatadores beta-2-agonistas (SABA/LABA) .................... 47
2.2.5 Agentes antimuscarínicos (SAMA/LAMA) .................................. 49
3 A ASSISTÊNCIA FARMACÊUTICA DO SUS .......................................... 51
3.1 O Componente Especializado da Assistência Farmacêutica .............. 51
4 DATASUS e linkage ................................................................................. 54
5 ANÁLISES DE SOBREVIDA .................................................................... 56
6 Real-Word Evidence e AVALIAÇÃO DE DESEMPENHO DE
TECNOLOGIAS EM SAÚDE ........................................................................... 57
7 JUSTIFICATIVA ....................................................................................... 59
8 OBJETIVOS ............................................................................................. 60
8.1 Objetivo geral ..................................................................................... 60
8.2 Objetivos específicos ......................................................................... 60
9 MÉTODOS............................................................................................... 61
9.1 Desenho e período do estudo ............................................................ 61
9.2 População .......................................................................................... 61
9.3 Fonte de dados .................................................................................. 62
9.4 Aspectos éticos .................................................................................. 62
9.5 Variáveis do Estudo ........................................................................... 62
9.5.1 Variável Resposta ...................................................................... 62
9.5.2 Variáveis Explicativas ................................................................ 62
9.6 Análise estatística .............................................................................. 63
9.6.1 Análise descritiva ....................................................................... 63
9.6.2 Análise de sobrevida.................................................................. 64
10 ARTIGO: ANÁLISE DE SOBREVIDA DE PACIENTES COM DPOC EM
UMA COORTE DE TREZES ANOS NO SISTEMA ÚNICO DE SAÚDE NO
BRASIL ........................................................................................................... 65
10.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 66
10.2 Material and methods ..................................................................... 68
10.2.1 Study design and population ......................................................... 68
10.2.2 Outcome measures ....................................................................... 70
The events of interest for survival analysis were defined as death. All patients
were followed from the index date until death or until December 2015 (right
censoring), and loss of follow-up was defined as informative censoring. .. 70
10.2.3 Variables and statistical analysis ................................................... 70
10.3 Results ............................................................................................ 71
10.0.1 Baseline characteristics ................................................................. 71
10.3.2 Therapeutic regimes...................................................................... 73
10.3.3 Survival analysis in the ‘Final Cohort’ ............................................ 73
10.3.4 Univariate analysis ........................................................................ 75
10.3.5 Multivariate analysis ...................................................................... 77
10.4 Discussion ...................................................................................... 78
10.5 Conclusion ...................................................................................... 82
10.6 References ..................................................................................... 83
11 CONSIDERAÇÕES FINAIS ..................................................................... 91
12 REFERÊNCIAS ....................................................................................... 94
ANEXO 1 – Aprovação pelo comitê de ética da ufmg ....................................102
ANEXO 2 – Ata de aprovação no exame de qualificação ...............................103
ANEXO 3 – Comprovante de submissão de artigo científico ..........................104
1 INTRODUÇÃO
18
et al., 2015; PRINCE et al., 2015; SCHMIDT et al., 2011; WORLD HEALTH
ORGANIZATION, 2010).
19
2 REFERENCIAL TEÓRICO
20
partículas de poeira, cigarro ou poluentes, sendo também influenciada por
fatores intrínsecos ao hospedeiro (GOLD, 2020). A limitação do fluxo aéreo é
causada pela destruição do parênquima pulmonar, que causa enfisema1 e
estreitamento das vias aéreas. Tais modificações estruturais levam ao
aprisionamento gasoso2 e à limitação progressiva das vias aéreas (GOLD,
2020).
2.1.1 FISIOPATOLOGIA
1
Caracterizado pela presença excessiva ou incomum de ar ou de qualquer gás nos interstícios
do tecido conjuntivo. Aumento permanente do espaço aéreo distal ao bronquíolo terminal,
acompanhado de destruição das paredes alveolares.
2
Retenção de excesso de gás (“ar”) em todo ou em parte do pulmão, especialmente durante a
expiração, tanto como resultado de obstrução parcial ou completa de vias aéreas, como também
resultante de anormalidades focais da complacência pulmonar.
21
Quadro 1 - Características histopatológicas da DPOC.
Enfisema Enfisema proximal acinar: destruição dos bronquíolos respiratórios
com preservação relativa dos alvéolos distais
Enfisema paracinar: destruíção dos bronquíolos respiratórios até
os alvéolos terminais
3
As pequenas vias aéreas englobam os bronquíolos terminais e os sacos alveolares.
4
A limitação ventilatória prejudica a movimentação do diafragma, o que leva o paciente a utilizar
a musculatura agonista para respirar e causa a sensação de dispneia, que é definida como
percepção do esforço para respirar.
22
Ao contrário do que acontece nos pulmões saudáveis, onde as pequenas
vias aéreas são mantidas infladas por anexos alveolares da parede ricos em
elastina, as pequenas vias aéreas no DPOC permanecem estreitadas devido à
hipertrofia e fibrosamento da parede periférica bronquiolar, ruptura de anexos
alveolares devido ao enfisema e oclusão terminal por muco e exsudato
inflamatório (BARNES et al., 2015)
Fonte:
(BARNES et al., 2015) *Os anexos alveolares foram definidos como paredes alveolares que se
estendem radialmente a partir da parede externa do bronquíolo não respiratório
23
neutrófilos e macrófagos nos pulmões e pela ativação das células epiteliais e
produção de muco. Ainda, a presença das células inflamatórias que liberam
proteases e fatores de crescimento contribuem para o enfisema, degradação da
elastina, remodelação e dano tecidual (BARNES et al., 2015; BARNES; CELLI,
2009; ZUO et al., 2019).
Gráfico 1 - Níveis de inflamação em pacientes fumantes e não fumantes, com DPOC moderada, severa
ou durante a exacerbação.
24
Tanto a exposição à fumaça do cigarro e poluentes quanto os próprios
mecanismos endógenos de ativação das células inflamatórias contribuem para
o aumento do estresse oxidativo. O aumento do número de neutrófilos,
macrófagos e linfócitos e os altos níveis de Espécies Reativas de Oxigênio
(ERO) contribuem para o desenvolvimento da doença por diversos mecanismos
como, por exemplo, pela expressão de citocinas pró-inflamatórias (como IL-1 e
TNF-α), tanto local quando sistemicamente. Este mecanismo está relacionado
também à atrofia muscular, contribuindo para o processo de
descondicionamento físico do indivíduo e piora da qualidade de vida (BARNES
et al., 2015; ZUO et al., 2019).
5
Definido como outras condições crônicas.
25
over” da inflamação do parênquima pulmonar. Outra hipótese é de que a
manifestação pulmonar seria apenas um dos aspectos do comprometimento de
diversos órgãos, devido ao estado inflamatório sistêmico (BARNES; CELLI,
2009).
26
Figura 2 - Fisiopatologia das manifestações sistêmicas e locais da DPOC.
Sistema Descrição
Embolia pulmonar (EP) Estudos reportaram a prevalência de 25% de EP em pacientes com
DPOC, entretanto os dados disponíveis ainda são escassos e
controversos.
Devido à semelhança com os sintomas das exacerbações, acredita-
se que a EP possa estar subdiagnosticada nos pacientes.
28
Sistema Descrição
elevados níveis de TNF-alfa, do stress oxidativo e do aumento do
esforço ventilatório.
A prevalência de Diabetes Mellitus em pacientes com DPOC varia
de 1,6 a 16%. Apesar de estas doenças apresentarem o tabagismo
como fator de risco em comum, as razões para esta associação
ainda são desconhecidas. Entretanto, a ausência do risco
aumentado de diabetes entre pacientes com asma, sugere alguma
associação com os mecanismos inflamatórios da DPOC.
Anemia normocítica Assim como outras doenças inflamatórias crônicas, a DPOC pode
causar supressão hematopoiética. Estudos demonstraram que a
prevalência de anemia em pacientes com DPOC varia de 21 a 23%.
Os níveis de hemoglobina estão fortemente associados ao aumento
da dispneia e diminuição da capacidade funcional.
Especula-se que a anemia esteja mais relacionada com os
componentes inflamatórios que afetam a vida útil dos eritrócitos e a
eritropoiese, do que com a caquexia e desnutrição.
29
morte na DPOC foram identificados por Celli e colaboradores (2004) e compõem
o índice multidimensional BODE (Body mass index, airway Obstruction,
Dyspnea, and Exercise capacity) sendo eles: o índice de massa corporal (IMC),
o grau de obstrução ao fluxo aéreo, a dispnéia funcional e a capacidade de
realização de exercícios (CELLI et al., 2004; DIVO et al., 2012). O índice foi
validado e tem oferecido informações úteis no prognóstico de pacientes. Além
disso, há evidências apontando que, além do risco de morte, os altos escores do
índice BODE se relacionam à qualidade de vida relacionada à saúde
(HOLANDA; ARAUJO, 2010).
30
Figura 3 - Comorbidoma desenvolvido por Divo e colaboradores (2012).
2.1.3 EXACERBAÇÃO
31
invasores secundários à exacerbação, e não como fatores causais (BARNES,
2014; FERNANDES et al., 2017).
32
por DPOC (RABAHI, 2013). Entretanto, dados epidemiológicos demonstram que
o tabagismo não é a única causa da doença. Estudos que avaliaram a proporção
de não-fumantes e fumantes entre pessoas diagnosticadas com DPOC,
relataram cerca de 25-45% dos pacientes diagnosticados nunca fumaram
(SALVI; BARNES, 2009).
DPOC: Doença Pulmonar Obstrutiva Crônica; GOLD 1: pacientes com VEF1 ≥ 80% do
valor esperado; GOLD 2: pacientes com VEF1 50-79% do esperado; GOLD 3: pacientes com
VEF1 30-49% do esperado; GOLD 4: pacientes com VEF1 < 30% do esperado.
33
quedas expressivas nas últimas décadas. Segundo dados do Instituto Nacional
de Câncer (INCA), em 1989, o percentual de tabagistas na população brasileira
acima de 18 anos era de 34,8%, tendo reduzido para 14,7% no ano de 2013
(Gráfico 3). Essa redução deve-se principalmente às ações e políticas públicas
voltadas para o controle do tabagismo, como a criação de ambientes livres de
fumaça de cigarro, o que tem demonstrado também repercussões benéficas
sobre as taxas de hospitalizações por doenças coronarianas (CAMARGOS et
al., 2008; INCA, 2019; WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION, 2010).
Apesar de sua manifestação tardia – por volta dos 40-50 anos de idade –
os fatores de risco para DPOC podem ser identificados desde os primeiros anos
de vida. Svanes e colaboradores demonstraram que ter tido infecções
34
respiratórias durante a infância, tabagismo materno ou histórico de asma
(incluindo histórico familiar) contribuem para o desenvolvimento da doença na
vida adulta da mesma forma que o cigarro (Tabela 2) (POSTMA; BUSH; VAN
DEN BERGE, 2015).
Tabela 2. Fatores de risco para DPOC nos diferentes estágios da vida.
35
alterações de função pulmonar em pacientes com exposição à fumaça de lenha
foram inferiores às alterações observadas naqueles em que a exposição era
proveniente do uso do cigarro (MOREIRA et al., 2008). Entretanto, não foram
encontrados estudos que comparassem o impacto dos poluentes em áreas
urbanas – proveniente principalmente da queima de combustíveis fósseis – com
as exposições de áreas rurais.
2.1.5 EPIDEMIOLOGIA
36
Estas diferenças inviabilizam as comparações entre os países (CELLI;
WEDZICHA, 2019; ROSENBERG; KALHAN; MANNINO, 2015; RYCROFT et al.,
2012).
37
Outro estudo, de Rycroft e colaboradores (2012), avaliou dados de
prevalência de estudos realizados em 11 países (Austrália, Canadá, França,
Alemanha, Itália, Japão, Holanda, Espanha, Suécia, Reino Unido e Estados
Unidos da América) e encontrou prevalências que variam de 0,2 a 37%.
Semelhantemente a outros estudos, a prevalência e as taxas de mortalidade
foram maiores em homens e em indivíduos acima de 75 anos (RYCROFT et al.,
2012).
38
2.1.6 SINAIS E SINTOMAS
39
Figura 6 - Características clínicas e radiológicas dos fenótipos clássicos de pacientes com DPOC.
40
2.1.7 DIAGNÓSTICO E CLASSIFICAÇÃO
41
importantes que devem ser levados em consideração na classificação da
gravidade da doença e, consequentemente, na farmacoterapia do paciente são:
presença de comorbidades e o histórico e risco de exacerbações.
42
2.2 TRATAMENTO DA DPOC
43
A tabela 3 a seguir sumariza algumas opções terapêuticas para o tratamento
da DPOC, e seus principais efeitos respiratórios e sistêmicos.
Tabela 3. Efeitos respiratórios e sistêmicos das terapias atuais para DPOC.
44
et al., 2015). A revisão sistemática com meta-análise de Scott e colalboradores
(2015) demonstrou que, dentre os 14 medicamentos incluídos na revisão,
apenas o indacaterol (beta-2-agonista de ultralonga ação) e a associação de
salmeterol e fluticasona estiveram associados a uma redução nas mortes por
todas as causas. Entretanto, estudos de mundo real com longos períodos de
observação ainda são necessários para reforçar tais achados,
45
disfonia, traumas, osteopenia, catarata, glaucoma, Diabetes Mellitus, supressão
adrenal, infecções – incluindo tuberculose – e pneumonias (COSTA; RUFINO,
2013, 2017a; FERNANDES et al., 2017; GOLD, 2020).
Por isso, é possível notar mudanças no perfil das principais diretrizes para
o tratamento da DPOC ao longo dos anos, que modificaram gradualmente a
recomendações para prescrição de ICS. O gráfico 4 mostra a proporção de
pacientes com DPOC que em uso de ICS nos Estados Unidos e na Europa, entre
os anos de 2000 a 2007 (SUISSA; BARNES, 2009).
46
Figura 8. Estrutura molecular dos principais corticosteróides inalatórios utilizados para tratamento
da asma e da DPOC.
Beclometasona Betametasona
Budesonida Fluticasona
Mometasona
47
O primeiros medicamentos desenvolvidos desta classe apresentam um
curto período de ação (aproximadamente 4 a 6 horas), e por isso são conhecidos
como SABA – do inglês short-acting beta2-agonists – e são representados pelo
salbutamos, fenoterol e terbutalina. Já o salmeterol e o formoterol apresentam
período de ação longo, (LABA – do inglês long-acting beta2-agonists) (Figura 9)
(COSTA; RUFINO, 2013).
Salmeterol Formoterol
Longa duração
Vilanterol Indacaterol
Ultra longa ação
Olodaterol
48
2.2.5 AGENTES ANTIMUSCARÍNICOS (SAMA/LAMA)
49
sintomas persistentes (grupo D segundo a classificação GOLD) (CALZETTA;
MATERA; CAZZOLA, 2018; FERNANDES et al., 2017; GOLD, 2020)
50
3 A ASSISTÊNCIA FARMACÊUTICA DO SUS
51
Beclometasona: cápsula inalante ou pó inalante de 200 e 400mcg e
aerossol de 200 mcg e 250mcg;
Budesonida: cápsula inalante de 200 mcg e 400 mcg ou pó inalante e
aerossol oral de 200 mcg;
Formoterol + budesonida: cápsula inalante ou pó inalante de 6mcg + 200
mcg ou de 12 mcg + 400 mcg;
Fenoterol: aerossol de 100 mcg;
Formoterol: cápsula ou pó inalante de 12 mcg;
Salbutamol: aerossol de 100 mcg e solução inalante de 5 mg/mL;
Salmeterol: aerossol oral ou pó inalante de 50 mcg;
Prednisona: comprimidos de 5mg e 20 mg;
Prednisolona: solução oral de fosfato sódico de prednisolona 4,02 mg/mL
(equivalente a 3,0 mg de prednisolona/mL);
Hidrocortisona: pó para solução injetável de 100 mg e 500 mg;
Brometo de ipratrópio: solução inalante de 0,25 mg/mL e aerossol oral de
0,02 mg/dose.
52
incorporarem os medicamentos a nível estadual. A tabela 5 demonstra quais
estados fornecem o brometo de tiotrópio e suas respectivas datas de
incorporação. Szpak e colaboradores avaliaram as ações e os custos das
demandas judiciais do medicamento brometo de tiotrópio no Estado do Paraná,
e encontraram um total de 2.654 demandas judiciais geradas para solicitação do
medicamento e somaram cerca de 3,4 milhões de reais, entre os anos 2010 a
2016 (SZPAK et al., 2020).
Tabela 4 - Estados que fornecem o tiotrópio atualmente por meio das Secretarias de Saúde e
protocolos próprios.
Estado Data incorporação
SP 26/07/2007
MG 03/04/2012
GO 02/01/2014
DF 2014
BA Sem protocolo vigente
PE 2012
CE 2010
MA Sem protocolo publicado
ES 05/05/2009
AL 09/07/2012
PA 18/07/2012
53
4 DATASUS E LINKAGE
54
Junior e colaboradores (2018), que adotaram identificadores, ou variáveis
comuns, às bases de dados – como nome, CPF, sexo e data de nascimento –
para unificar as informações da cada paciente por meio do método linkage,
integrando os dados do SIA, SIH e SIM, e fornecendo ao paciente um registro
único de identificação. Este processo permitiu a criação de um Banco de Dados
Nacional de Saúde, centralizado no indivíduo, com dados clínicos,
epidemiológicos e econômicos de mundo real (JUNIOR et al., 2018; QUEIROZ
et al., 2010)
55
5 ANÁLISES DE SOBREVIDA
56
6 REAL-WORD EVIDENCE E AVALIAÇÃO DE DESEMPENHO DE
TECNOLOGIAS EM SAÚDE
57
Paralelamente, o desenvolvimento dos sistemas de prescrição e
prontuários eletrônicos, a inserção dos bigdatas e a disseminação e
acessibilidade aos sistemas informatizados, as chamadas “Evidências de Mundo
Real” surgiram como uma ferramenta importante para preencher a lacuna de
evidência deixada pelos ECR. Dados de mundo real – do inglês real-world data
(RWD) – foi definido por Corrigan-Curay e colaboradores (2018) como
informações relacionadas ao status de saúde do paciente ou ao serviço de saúde
prestado rotineiramente, coletado de diferentes fontes, como prontuários
eletrônicos e dados administrativos. Dessa forma, RWD apresenta o potencial
de fornecer informações mais precisas e diversas sobre o uso seguro e eficaz
de inovações, tanto antes como depois da aprovação regulatória (HUBBARD,
2015).
58
7 JUSTIFICATIVA
59
8 OBJETIVOS
60
9 MÉTODOS
9.2 POPULAÇÃO
Critérios de Inclusão:
61
Critérios de Exclusão:
62
Sexo;
Idade ao diagnóstico (média e faixa etária);
Índice de Massa Corporal (IMC);
Região de nascimento (Sudeste; Sul; Centro-Oeste; Norte; Nordeste;
Naturalizados e Estrangeiros) e região de residência (Sudeste; Sul;
Centro-Oeste; Norte; Nordeste)
Data de entrada na coorte.
63
9.6.2 ANÁLISE DE SOBREVIDA
64
10 ARTIGO: ANÁLISE DE SOBREVIDA DE PACIENTES COM DPOC EM
UMA COORTE DE TREZES ANOS NO SISTEMA ÚNICO DE SAÚDE NO
BRASIL
Abstract
Result: 39,014 patients were included in the cohort. The fixed-dose combination
(FDC) of budesonide/formoterol was the most frequent treatment (86% of cases),
followed by long-acting beta-2-agonists (LABA) medicines in monotherapy
(10.8%). Patient’s survival at 1, 5, and 10 years were 97.7%, 92.9%, and 83.7%,
respectively. The multivariate analysis showed that male patients, over 65 years
old, underweight or obese had an increased risk of death. The final model also
showed that the mixed-dose or free-dose regimens seem to be a protective factor
when compared to the FDC formoterol/budesonide.
65
10.1 INTRODUCTION
The goals of treating COPD is to reduce death and the risk of hospitalization, to
improve exercise tolerance and quality of life, and to control symptoms. The
impact of medication on lung function and disease progression is still
controversial, and few studies have assessed its impact on survival time and
mortality during long periods of follow-up. Although there is no evidence that
pharmacological treatment is capable of directly modifying mortality rates,
randomized clinical trials (RCTs) have documented that some bronchodilator
therapy may be able to reduce lung function decline (5). Overall,
pharmacotherapy can affect exacerbation and hospitalization rates, physical
condition (6), and the frequency and severity of exacerbations, which are closely
related to increased risk of death, decline in lung function and worsening in quality
of life (7,8). Furthermore, besides an improvement in socioeconomic status
improvement and a reduction in smoking rates, an increase in adherence to
prescribed medication seems to be closely related to a reduction in Brazilian
morbidity and mortality rates due to COPD (9), suggesting that the role of
medicines are even more prominent in Brazil.
The most common medicines used in the pharmacological treatment for symptom
relief are beta2-agonists, anticholinergics and mucolytic agents. The last review
of the leading international guideline for COPD - GOLD - recommends a “step-
by-step” approach based on the disease severity (10). Therapy is initiated with
short-acting bronchodilators, as needed, for symptom relief. For patients with
persistent symptoms, the use of one or two classes of long-acting bronchodilators
is recommended. Phosphodiesterase-4 (PDE₄) inhibitors are a new class for
66
COPD treatment and recent evidence supports its use with caution (11). Special
concerns about inhaled glucocorticoids (ICS) safety in recent years, including an
increased risk of pneumonia, has resulted changes in pharmacotherapy in the
past years, with the ICS/LABA combination now being recommended only for a
restricted group of patients who show frequent exacerbations and a high
eosinophil count, or a history/clinical record of associated asthma (10,12,13).
In Brazil, the Clinical Protocol and Therapeutic Guidelines for COPD define which
medicines should be provided by SUS through programs in primary care.
Currently, only long- (LABA) and short-acting beta-2-agonists (SABA), short-
acting antimuscarinic agents (SAMA), and inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) are listed
in the national formulary. However, the current protocol, which dates from 2013,
recommends ICS for patients with severe COPD, with ≥ 2 exacerbations in the
last year. Medicines not listed in SUS by federal authority may be provided at the
expenses of the individual States; otherwise 100% co-payment This is the case
for long-acting antimuscarinic agents (LAMA), which are only currently provided
by 11 State Health Departments among the 27 Federative States of Brazil.
While RCTs are designed to provide the best possible evidence on efficacy,
different limitations inherent in the studies design could impact on the reliability
and external validity of the results to the general population. For instance, the
highly controlled environment and the patient selection criteria, designed to
assure internal validity, may not fully reflect real-world clinical practice provided
due to potentially older patients and with more health problems than seen in
clinical trials (14). Moreover, RCT results may not apply to the health context of
different countries and communities around the world, and there could be issues
of adherence to prescribed medicines in routine care. Consequently, especially
in universal health care systems, it becomes fundamental to assess the
effectiveness, safety and value of funded technologies and update clinical
guidelines accordingly (15).
The objective of this study is to fulfil the gap regarding the survival of COPD
patients in Brazil and to identify risk factors associated with survival in an open
cohort with 13 years of follow-up. In addition, assess which treatments are
associated with better outcomes among this population with currently only
regional data available in Brazil (16).
67
10.2 MATERIAL AND METHODS
Patients were included in the ‘Eligible cohort’ if they received the following
medicines for COPD treatment: beclomethasone, budesonide,
formoterol/budesonide, fenoterol, formoterol, salbutamol and salmeterol; and
were diagnosed according to the tenth revision of the international classification
of diseases (ICD-10) with J44.0 – chronic obstructive pulmonary disease with
(acute) lower respiratory infection; J44.1 – chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
with (acute) exacerbation; or J44.8 – chronic obstructive pulmonary disease,
unspecified. This diagnosis were assessed in the first-dispensing. The index date
was defined as the first-dispensing date of the aforementioned medicines in the
observation window.
Further exclusions were subsequently applied to the ‘Eligible cohort’ to control for
potential confounders of patient primary diagnosis and to allow at least one year
of follow-up to all patients. Consequently, we excluded patients with an index date
after December 31, 2014, and patients on medication for three months or less,
to guarantee the assessment of patients who persisted in treatment for longer
periods of time in order to more accurately evaluate its effectiveness. We also
excluded patients aged less than 30 years since COPD usually manifests itself
from adulthood. After these exclusions, this subset of data was nominated the
‘Final cohort’ and comprised the analytical cohort for this study (see Fig. 1)
68
Figure 1. Cohort selection flowchart.
*medicines in fixed-dose combination; SUS: National Health System; SIM: Mortality Information
System; SIH/SUS: Hospital Information System; SIA/SUS Outpatient Information System; Others:
less frequent medicines
69
10.2.2 OUTCOME MEASURES
The events of interest for survival analysis were defined as death. All patients
were followed from the index date until death or until December 2015 (right
censoring), and loss of follow-up was defined as informative censoring.
70
records in the database from three years prior to the index date (22,23). The
higher the CCI, the greater the patients’ severity; low severity corresponds to a
CCI between 0-1, and high severity to a CCI ≥2 (24). In addition, a general patient
frailty (Frailty Index) was calculated as the number of in-hospital days for any
cause during the two years prior to the index date (25).
The survival rate was assessed through the Kaplan Meier method, and the log-
rank test was used to compare the curves (according to the patient's baseline
characteristics and therapeutic regimes). Potential determinants that could
impact on the survival rate were evaluated by univariate analysis, with a level of
significance of 5%. Clinically relevant variables previously demonstrated in the
literature to be risk factors for COPD, such as underweight or asthma, and those
with a p-value less than 0.20 in the univariate analysis were included in the
Multivariable Cox proportional hazards model. Adjusted hazard ratios (HR) and
95% CIs were calculated in the multivariable model, and its suitability was
assessed by residue analysis. Schoenfeld residuals was used to check the
proportional hazards assumption (26). Multicollinearity in the multivariable model
between response variables was assessed using variance inflation factor test
(VIF), and all variables presented values less than 5, which was considered
adequate.
The statistical analysis was performed using R version 4.0.2 R Foundation for
Statistical Computing, considering a significance level of 5%.
Ethics Statement
10.3 RESULTS
We identified 51,326 patients in the ‘Eligible Cohort’ and 39,014 patients in the
‘Final Cohort’, with a follow-up mean of 30.9 and 37.8 months. The characteristics
of included patients was similar in both cohorts. Mean age in ‘Final cohort’ was
64.4 years. Most patients lived in the Southeastern region in Brazil. Skin color
71
data was not available for approximately half of the patients, with white skin color
the most common (33.3%) among those with data available. Patients started to
enter in the cohort in 2003, and most of them (75.9%) entered in recent years
(2011 to 2015). Patients included showed low to moderate comorbidity and frailty
scores, with CCI median and Frailty Index median values close to 1.
Table 1. Baseline characteristics of patients included in the Cohort from 2000 to 2015.
Comorbidities and Median CCI (IQR) 1.0 (1.0, 1.0) 1.0 (1.0, 1.0)
72
frailty Median Frailty Index (IQR) 1.0 (1.0, 1.0) 1.0 (1.0, 1.0)
*2011 to 2014 for ‘Final Cohort’
Of all patients included in the ‘Final Cohort’, 10.1% showed at least one
hospitalization registry due to respiratory causes. The most important respiratory
cause of hospitalization in both cohorts was pneumonia, representing 7.1% of all
patients in ‘Final cohort’. The frequency of hospitalization due to the selected
causes, and survival rates, stratified for causes of hospitalization, for patients
included in the ‘Final Cohort’ can be seen in appendix Table A1.
Final cohort
First-dispensed medicine n %
LABA/ICS* 43,919 85.6
LABA monotherapy 5,531 10.8
LABA/ICS* + SABA 864 1.7
ICS monotherapy 620 1.2
Infrequent regimes 392 0.8
LABA/ICS* = Fixed-dose combination; LABA monotherapy = formoterol or salmeterol; SABA
monotherapy = salbutamol or fenoterol; ICS monotherapy = budesonide or beclomethasone.
A total of 2,078 deaths occurred in the ‘Final Cohort’ (5.3%). The patient’s survival
rates at 1, 5, and 10 years were 97.7%, 92.9%, and 83.7%, respectively (Table
2) (appendix Fig. A1). The survival curves categorized by the characteristics of
73
the patients in the Final Cohort can be seen in Figure 2. When assessed by age,
elderly patients (> 65 years) had significantly shorter survival rates than the
others, the same was identified among male patients, when survival by sex was
assessed. Underweight patients also had worse results in the log-rank analysis.
Table 3. Annual survival rate of COPD patients in the Final cohort.
Final cohort
Figure 2. Kaplan-Meier curves for patient survival in the Final cohort. Longitudinal survival by: A -
skin color; B - patient's sex; C - Body Mass Index category; D - age group. Survival rates were
estimated by Kaplan-Meier methodology and compared by log rank t
74
When assessed by therapeutic regimens, Kaplan-Meier and Cox regression
indicated that the mixed-dose regimes showed better results when compared to
the FDC [HR 0.53 (CI 95% 0.41 - 0.69) (see appendix Fig. A2 for the Kaplan-
Meier curves). The patient’s survival rate for FDC, free dose regime and mixed-
dose regime subgroups in 10 years were 83.0%, 85.3% and 90.0%, respectively
(appendix Table A2).
The univariate and multivariate analysis was performed only for the Final Cohort.
The univariate analysis indicated a higher risk of treatment failure for male [HR
1.70 (CI 95% 1.56 - 1.86)] and elderly patients [HR 2.90 (CI 95% 2.65 - 3.18)].
The categories of BMI underweight [HR 2.96 (CI 95% 2.53 - 3.47)], normal weight
[HR 1.85 (CI 95% 1.68 - 2.04)] and overweight [HR 1.16 (CI 95% 1.04 - 1.31)]
were also risk factors in COPD for survival. A lower risk was found for patients in
the Southeast region [HR 0.74 (CI 95% 0.67 - 0.83)] (Table 5).
All the variables included in the univariate analysis can be seen in Table 5.
Table 4. Univariate analysis of characteristics associated with treatment failure in COPD
75
Variable HR (95% IC) p-value
Age group
Adult 1
Elderly 2.90 (2.65 - 3.18) <0.001
BMI
Underweight 2.96 (2.53 - 3.47) <0.001
Normal weight 1.85 (1.68 - 2.04) <0.001
Overweight 1.16 (1.04 - 1.31) 0.01
Obesity 1.08 (0.94 - 1.27) 0.3
Skin color
Yellow (asian) 1.13 (0.89 - 1.44) 0.3
White 1.07 (0.92 - 1.21) 0.4
Brown 0.89 (0.75 - 1.05) 0.2
Black 0.99 (0.74 - 1.32) 0.9
Entry date (additional year) 1.64 (1.59 - 1.70) <0.001
Asthma diagnosis 0.42 (0.39 - 0.47) <0.001
Lung cancer 3.09 (2.51 - 3.80) <0.001
CCI 1.21 (1.20 - 1.23) <0.001
Frailty index 1.01 (1.01 - 1.01) <0.001
Hospitalization due to
Pneumonia 2.87 (2.59 - 3.18) <0.001
Respiratory infections 3.05 (2.30 - 4.05) <0.001
Bronchitis/emphysema 2.26 (1.77 - 2.91) <0.001
Cardiovascular events 2.74 (2.46 - 3.05) <0.001
COPD exacerbations 2.60 (2.12 - 3.18) <0.001
Asthma 1.28 (0.99 - 1.65) 0.06
Other RD 3.87 (3.28 - 4.56) <0.001
Pharmacological class
ICS 0.51 (0.31 - 0.84) 0.007
LABA 1.30 (1.12 - 1.50) <0.001
LABA+ICS 1.11 (0.98 - 1.26) 0.1
SABA 0.79 (0.44 - 1.43) 0.4
SABA+ICS 0.43 (0.11 - 1.70) 0.2
SABA+LABA+ICS 0.49 (0.36 - 0.66) <0.001
First-dispensed medicines
Budesonide 0.57 (0.32 - 1.04) 0.06
Formoterol 1.24 (1.06 - 1.46) 0.006
Formoterol/budesonide 1.15 (1.02 - 1.31) 0.02
Formoterol/budesonide + Salbutamol 0.54 (0.39 - 0.74) <0.001
Salmeterol 1.74 (1.15 - 2.62) 0.008
Infrequent medicines 0.55 (0.42 - 0.73) <0.001
Dispensed regime
FDC 1
Free-dose regime 1.01 (0.89 - 1.16)
<0.001
Mixed-dose regime 0.53 (0.41 - 0.69)
Dispensed regime (expanded)
76
Variable HR (95% IC) p-value
FDC 1
ICS + bronchodilator (both free) 0.61 (0.38 - 0.96)
Only bronchodilator 1.18 (1.02 - 1.36)
Only ICS 0.50 (0.31 - 0.82) <0.001
FDC + bronchodilator AND ICS (free) 0.28 (0.07 - 1.11)
FDC + bronchodilator (free) 0.56 (0.42 - 0.76)
FDC + ICS (free) 0.48 (0.25 - 0.92)
Age group: 30 years ≥ Adult < 65 years, Elderly ≥65 years; BMI: underweight < 18.5 kg/m², 18.5
kg/m² ≥ normal weight ˃ 24.9 kg/m², 25.0 kg/m² ≥ overweight ˃ 29.9 kg/m², obesity ≥ 30.0 kg/m²;
CCI = Charlson Comorbidity Index; Other RD = other respiratory diseases; ICS = inhaled
corticosteroid; SABA = short-acting beta-2-agonist; LABA = long-acting beta-2-agonist.
The multivariate analysis has been performed only for the ‘Final cohort’, with the
inclusion of variables from the univariate analysis with significance level p <0.20
in addition to relevant clinical variables. The following patient characteristics were
associated independently with an increased risk of treatment failure: being male
(HR 1.49; 95% CI 1.36 - 1.62); being over 65 years old (HR 2.59; 95% CI 2.36 -
2.85); being underweight (HR 2.58; 95% CI 2.20 - 3.02) or obese (HR 1.34; 95%
CI 1.15 - 1.55). Moreover, having been hospitalized for airway infections, COPD
exacerbations, pneumonia, or other respiratory diseases also demonstrated a
strong risk relationship with treatment failure. On the other hand, living in the
Southeast of Brazil represented a protective factor for patients with COPD (HR
0.83; 95% CI 0.74 - 0.93).
The multivariate analysis showed, with respect to the regimes, that the mixed-
dose or free-dose regimens tend to be a protective factor when compared to the
FDC of formoterol/budesonide. The proportion of salbutamol use during the
follow-up period also showed protection (HR 0.39, 95% CI 0.17 - 0.87), that is,
the longer the time of salbutamol use during the cohort, the greater the survival.
Risk factors for treatment failure identified in this model were: having used
formoterol as monotherapy (HR 1.93; 95% CI 1.38 - 2.69), and salmeterol as
monotherapy (HR 2.79; 95% CI 1.69 - 4.59). All results are described in Table 6.
Table 5. Estimated Hazard Ratio at a 95% Confidence Interval according to the Cox Proportional
analysis model for the Final cohort from 2000 to 2015 (n = 39,014)
77
Variable HR (IC 95%) p
Male sex 1.48 (1.35 - 1.62) <0.001
Age >65 years 2.64 (2.41 - 2.90) <0.001
Underweight 2.59 (2.21 - 3.03) <0.001
Obesity 1.34 (1.15 - 1.56) <0.001
Southwest 0.83 (0.74 - 0.93) 0.001
Hospitalization for airway infections (except pneumonia) 1.59 (1.18 - 2.13) 0.002
Hospitalization for COPD exacerbations 1.54 (1.25 - 1.90) <0.001
Hospitalization for other respiratory diseases 2.68 (2.25 - 3.19) <0.001
Hospitalization for pneumonia 2.31 (2.07 - 2.58) <0.001
Proportion of use of salbutamol 0.37 (0.16 - 0.83) 0.016
Free-dose regime 0.59 (0.43 - 0.79) <0.001
Mixed-dose regime 0.71 (0.53 - 0.95) 0.020
Formoterol monotherapy 1.96 (1.40 - 2.74) <0.001
Salmeterol monotherapy 2.71 (1.63 - 4.50) <0.001
10.4 DISCUSSION
78
Studies evaluating the survival of COPD patients include specific subgroups, with
much lower survival rates seen in patients on long-term oxygen therapy (survival
of 80.9% and 7.1% in 1 and 10 years) (30); or patients with a long history of
smoking (survival of 16.0% in 10 years) (31). Some studies have assessed the
survival of patients with COPD after hospitalization or admitted to intensive care
centers (32,33). However, it is difficult to compare our findings with these studies
in view of methodological differences, divergences in diagnostic methods and risk
classification.
Mortality and survival rates among men and women with COPD also differ
between studies. Our data corroborates those from Sunyer and colleagues (34)
who demonstrated better survival among women. Two studies of mortality rates
among COPD patients in the United States of America, Spain, Chile, Venezuela,
Uruguay (35) and Brazil (36), also reported worse rates among men compared
to women. Higher mortality among men with COPD was also observed in the
Global Burden of Disease (GBD) data across countries (37). However, Machado
and colleagues (38) showed better survival rates among men.
79
A systematic review followed by a network meta-analysis of clinical trials by Scott
et al. (2015) investigated if pharmacotherapy changes mortality rates. Despite the
limitation concerning this analysis, the study showed that among 14 different
pharmacological treatments for COPD, only indacaterol – an ultra-long-acting
beta-2-agonist – and the combination of salmeterol and fluticasone propionate –
an ICS – were associated with a reduction in the all-cause mortality risk (47). Both
medicines are not available in SUS. However, as mentioned, the ICS/LABA
combination is now only recommended for a restricted group of patients who
show frequent exacerbations and a high eosinophil count, or a history/clinical
record of associated asthma (10,12,13).
Until 2016, the addition of ICS to long-acting bronchodilators basal treatment was
only recommended for patients with frequent exacerbations (48,49). Typically
less than 20% of COPD patients would have an indication for treatment with ICS,
whereas studies show that more than 70% of diagnosed patients are typically
being treated with an ICS and approximately 50% of newly diagnosed patients
are started with an LABA/ICS FDC (50). Our study showed that this proportion
is even higher, suggesting a need to review the medical prescription for patients
with COPD. However, it is important to consider, that according to the PLATINO
study, under diagnosis is the hallmark of COPD in Brazil (51), and the less severe
forms – the so-called GOLD A and B with no indication of ICS – are frequently
not diagnosed. It could have happened that the diagnosed cases were in
categories that recommended ICS use. This advice is likely to change with more
recent data (10,12,13).
When analyzing the rationale behind treatment choices, we find that reasons to
justify FDCs is still controversial. The main reasons are patient's convenience
and treatment adherence. Some studies have assessed effectiveness and cost-
effectiveness of LABA/ICS FDC, but overtreatment, effectiveness peak in
different times, lack of titration, potential to increase polypharmacy and need of
different inhaler devices are still important issues regarding FDCs in general (12).
An FDC with an ICS has the potential to lead to over medication with steroids,
since COPD treatment is indicated according to the disease stage, and can
change according to the frequency of exacerbations and symptoms. It may be
necessary for the patient to use bronchodilator as a rescue medication when
80
symptoms increase and with only bronchodilator and corticosteroid FDC
prescribed, patients may exceed the optimal dosing of ICS, increasing the risk of
adverse events related to these medicines (12). Since the indication of ICS is
restricted to a specific group of patients due to its safety profile and the
risk/benefit ratio, such associations in fixed-doses may become questionable,
hence the recent advice. Contributing to this hypothesis, the final model proposed
in our study, showed a worse result for COPD patients’ survival who started
therapy with an FDC regime when compared to those who used free- or mixed-
regimens, after controlling for other variables.
The pharmacoeconomic issues of FDC should also be pointed. Despite the lack
of evidence of the cost-effectiveness of FDCs in clinical care justifying their
funding at higher prices, especially in LMIC, new presentations are being made
available with increasing prices including new inhalers devices. Inhalers devices
represents one of the major sources of expenditures with medicines to manage
patients with COPD, driven by the continuous development of new-patented
models (52). In this context, pharmacist interventions, such as patient education,
may be an alternative to improve adherence while reducing medicine costs for
patients with COPD (53,54).
SABAs are typically used as a rescue medication since they provide fast
symptom relief, and are recommended as an initial pharmacological treatment for
all patients with COPD (10). Here we can see the importance of this rescue
medication, as the proportion on salbutamol in the cohort showed a protective
effect, according to our final multivariate model. However, short-acting
bronchodilators are also available in primary care in SUS, and tiotropium is
available only in a few states. For these reasons, the total information about its
use was not available in the database used in this study since our chosen
datasets do not collect utilization data from primary care pharmacies. This
represents a limitation to our findings.
Other limitations included the fact that he national database centered in the
patient used in the study only provides data uptil 2015. Whilst the creation of this
dataset was achievable due to the linkage methods, the complexity of this
process hampers its frequent update. Nevertheless, up-to-date data is still
81
needed to assess whether changes in guidelines especially for LABA/ ICS FDCs
have an effect on prescription trends and patient outcomes.
Lacking data about patients with COPD not treated within SUS, and data about
medicines not dispensed by the Strategic Component of Pharmaceutical Care –
such as tiotropium bromide and ipratropium bromide – are also limitations.
The quality of the data used in this study also depends on the registration and
feeding processes of the secondary information into the original database.
Incorrect or incomplete data - an inherent limitation of secondary databases –
may under or overestimate the analysis performed. Moreover, changes in
pharmacotherapy and treatment adherence were not assessed.
10.5 CONCLUSION
The results presented here contribute to the knowledge of COPD patients' profile,
survival rate and related risk factors. They also provide new evidence that
supports the debate about the care and pharmacotherapy of these patients in
SUS. We identified that male patients, aged over 65 years, with obesity or
underweight have worst survival rates. Furthermore, this study presents real-
world evidence of better outcomes for those patients that received medications
based on prescriptions of products for COPD with formulations containing free
doses regime or mixed-dose regime, especially given concerns with ICS and ICS/
LABA FDCs in patients with COPD.
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the
public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. The authors declare no conflicts of
interest.
82
10.6 REFERENCES
3. WHO. No Title [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2020 Jul 17]. Available from:
https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/noncommunicable-diseases
6. Barnes PJ, Burney PGJ, Silverman EK, Celli BR, Vestbo J, Wedzicha JA,
et al. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Nat Rev Dis Prim [Internet].
2015;1(December):1–22. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrdp.2015.76
7. Ho TW, Tsai YJ, Ruan SY, Huang CT, Lai F, Yu CJ. In-hospital and one-
year mortality and their predictors in patients hospitalized for first-ever chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease exacerbations: A nationwide population-based
study. PLoS One. 2014;9(12):1–16.
83
11. Janjua S, Fortescue R, Poole P. Phosphodiesterase-4 inhibitors for
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev.
2020;2020(5).
13. Chalmers JD, Keir HR. 10 years since TORCH: Shining a new light on the
risks of inhaled corticosteroids in COPD. Eur Respir J [Internet]. 2017;50(3).
Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1183/13993003.01582-2017
17. Junior AAG, Pereira RG, Gurgel EI, Cherchiglia M, Dias LV, Ávila J, et al.
Building the National Database of Health Centred on the Individual:
Administrative and Epidemiological Record Linkage - Brazil, 2000-2015. Int J
Popul Data Sci. 2018;3(1).
18. Acurcio F de A, Guerra Junior AA, da Silva MRR, Pereira RG, Godman B,
Bennie M, et al. Comparative persistence of anti-tumor necrosis factor therapy in
ankylosing spondylitis patients: a multicenter international study. Curr Med Res
Opin [Internet]. 2020;36(4):677–86. Available from:
https://doi.org/10.1080/03007995.2020.1722945
84
19. Lemos LLP de, Guerra Júnior AA, Santos M, Magliano C, Diniz I, Souza
K, et al. The Assessment for Disinvestment of Intramuscular Interferon Beta for
Relapsing-Remitting Multiple Sclerosis in Brazil. Pharmacoeconomics.
2018;36(2):161–73.
20. Diniz IM, Guerra AA, de Lemos LLP, Souza KM, Godman B, Bennie M, et
al. The long-term costs for treating multiple sclerosis in a 16-year retrospective
cohort study in Brazil. PLoS One. 2018;13(6):1–14.
21. Gomes RM, Barbosa WB, Godman B, Costa J de O, Junior NGR, Filho
CS, et al. Effectiveness of maintenance immunosuppression therapies in a
matched-pair analysis cohort of 16 years of renal transplant in the brazilian
national health system. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020;17(6).
22. Charlson ME, Pompei P, Ales KL, MacKenzie CR. A new method of
classifying prognostic comorbidity in longitudinal studies: development and
validation. J Chronic Dis [Internet]. 1987;40(5):373–83. Available from:
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0021968187901718
25. Neovius M, Arkema E V., Olsson H, Eriksson JK, Kristensen LE, Simard
JF, et al. Drug survival on TNF inhibitors in patients with rheumatoid arthritis
comparison of adalimumab, etanercept and infliximab. Ann Rheum Dis.
2015;74(2):354–60.
27. Brakema EA, Tabyshova A, Kleij RMJJ Van Der, Sooronbaev T, Lionis C,
Anastasaki M, et al. The socioeconomic burden of chronic lung disease in low-
85
resource settings across the globe – an observational FRESH AIR study. 2019;1–
10.
28. Brakema EA, van Gemert FA, van der Kleij RMJJ, Salvi S, Puhan M,
Chavannes NH, et al. COPD’s early origins in low-and-middle income countries:
what are the implications of a false start? npj Prim Care Respir Med [Internet].
2019;29(1):2018–20. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41533-019-
0117-y
32. Lash TL, Johansen MB, Christensen S, Baron JA, Rothman KJ, Hansen
JG, et al. Hospitalization rates and survival associated with COPD: A nationwide
danish cohort study. Lung. 2011;189(1):27–35.
33. Wildman MJ, Sanderson CFB, Groves J, Reeves BC, Ayres JG, Harrison
D, et al. Survival and quality of life for patients with COPD or asthma admitted to
intensive care in a UK multicentre cohort: The COPD and Asthma Outcome Study
(CAOS). Thorax. 2009;64(2):128–32.
34. Sunyer J, Antó JM, Mcfarlane D, Domingo A, Tobías A, Barceló MA, et al.
Sex differences in mortality of people who visited emergency rooms for asthma
and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med.
1998;158(3):851–6.
35. De Torres JP, Cote CG, López M V., Casanova C, Díaz O, Marin JM, et
al. Sex differences in mortality in patients with COPD. Eur Respir J.
2009;33(3):528–35.
36. Graudenz GS, Gazotto GP. Mortality trends due to chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease in Brazil. Rev Assoc Med Bras. 2014;60(3):255–61.
86
37. Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation. Global Burden of Diseases
(GBD) [Internet]. 2017. Available from: https://vizhub.healthdata.org/gbd-
compare/
38. Machado MCL, Krishnan JA, Buist SA, Bilderback AL, Fazolo GP,
Santarosa MG, et al. Sex differences in survival of oxygen-dependent patients
with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med.
2006;174(5):524–9.
43. Hanson C, Rutten EP, Wouters EFM, Rennard S. Influence of diet and
obesity on COPD development and outcomes. Int J COPD. 2014;9:723–33.
46. Sattar N, McInnes IB, McMurray JJ V. Obesity a Risk Factor for Severe
COVID-19 Infection: Multiple Potential Mechanisms. Circulation. 2020;44(0):1–8.
87
47. Scott DA, Woods B, Thompson JC, Clark JF, Hawkins N, Chambers M, et
al. Mortality and drug therapy in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease: A network meta-analysis. BMC Pulm Med. 2015;15(1):1–13.
51. Moreira GL, Manzano BM, Gazzotti MR, Nascimento OA, Perez-Padilla R,
Menezes AMB, et al. PLATINO, a nine-year follow-up study of COPD in the city
of São Paulo, Brazil: the problem of underdiagnosis. J Bras Pneumol.
2014;40(1):30–7.
88
Soc Adm Pharm [Internet]. 2018;14(10):909–14. Available from:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sapharm.2017.10.008
Appendix
Table A 1. Frequency and survival rate of patients hospitalized due to respiratory and
cardiovascular events, lung cancer and asthma diagnosis.
Figure A 1. Kaplan-Meier survival rate of COPD patients from 2000 to 2015 in the Final cohort.
89
Figure A 2. Kaplan-Meier curve for COPD patients survival in the Final cohort comparing fixed, free,
and mixed dose schedules.
Year Nº1 Survival (95% IC)2 Nº1 Survival (95% IC)2 Nº1 Survival (95% IC)2
1 33,058 97.6 (97.4 – 97.8) 4,778 97.6 (97.1 – 98.0) 1,178 99.6 (99.2 – 99.9)
2 26,723 96.1 (95.9 – 96.4) 3,593 95.9 (95.2 – 96.5) 1,144 98.7 (98.0 – 99.3)
3 14,161 95.2 (95.0 – 95.5) 1,457 94.6 (93.7 – 95.5) 996 98.1 (97.3 – 99.0)
4 11,482 94.0 (93.6 – 94.3) 1,137 94.0 93.0 – 95.0) 862 97.0 (96.0 – 98.1)
5 9,620 92.8 (92.4 – 93.2) 966 93.0 (91.9 – 94.2) 756 96.3 (95.0 – 97.5)
6 7,117 91.4 (91.0 – 91.9) 793 92.3 (91.0 – 93.6) 531 95.5 (94.1 – 97.0)
7 5,396 89.7 (89.1 – 90.3) 670 90.4 (88.8 – 92.1) 449 93.8 (91.9 – 95.7)
8 3,654 88.4 (87.7 – 89.1) 486 88.0 (85.9 – 90.1) 330 92.1 (89.8 – 94.5)
9 2,419 85.7 (84.8 – 86.7) 313 86.7 (84.3 – 89.1) 211 90.7 (87.9 – 93.6)
10 1,473 83.1 (81.8 – 84.4) 216 85.4 (82.7 – 88.2) 131 90.0 (86.9 – 93.2)
11 726 79.9 (77.9 – 81.9) 154 81.4 (77.4 – 85.6) 45 88.0 (83.2 – 93.1)
Fixed-dose combination = formoterol/budesonide; Mixed-dose regime = when the FDC was
dispensed plus any other medicine (in free dose)
1
Number of patients in risk on the first month of the year; 2Referent to the last month of the year
with event recorded
90
11 CONSIDERAÇÕES FINAIS
91
Ao elucidar as características sociodemográficas e os principais fatores de risco
associados à sobrevida dos pacientes com DPOC, o presente trabalho traz
importantes descobertas que podem auxiliar a conduta clínica e o melhor
cuidado. Diferentemente dos estudos internacionais que avaliam os fatores
associados à sobrevida de pacientes hospitalizados, o presente estudo traz
dados inéditos sobre a população inserida na comunidade, com diagnóstico
espirométrico. Neste contexto, a sobrevida em 1 e 10 anos foi de 97,7 e 83,7%,
respectivamente.
92
Diversas considerações devem ser feitas a respeito das associações em dose
fixa. Primeiramente, com relação aos benefícios que tem justificado o
desenvolvimento de novas associações são potenciais atuações sinérgicas entre
dois fármacos, neutralizações mútuas de eventos adversos, dentre outros.
Entretanto, a melhora da adesão e a comodidade do paciente são as principais
razões para tal. Em segundo lugar, aspectos relacionados à farmacodinâmica
dos fármacos envolvidos nas associações podem colocar em cheque a
segurança e a obtenção da dose ideal para cada fármaco, aumentando a chance
de reações adversas, principalmente entre pacientes idosos. Possibilidade de
sobreposições de terapia devido ao desconhecimento da composição das
associações, por parte dos prescritores, também devem ser consideradas no
âmbito da segurança. Por último, aspectos farmacoeconômicos devem ser
considerados, já que estes produtos tem sido lançados com maiores valores
agregados, e não há evidências que demonstrem sua custo-efetividade em
países de baixa e média renda (GODMAN; ALRASHEEDY; D LEONG, 2020).
93
12 REFERÊNCIAS
BEWICK, V.; CHEEK, L.; BALL, J. Statistics review 12: Survival analysis. Critical
Care, v. 8, n. 5, p. 389–394, 2004.
94
BRAZIL, M. OF H. Methodological guidelines Health technology perfomance
assessment. [s.l: s.n.].
95
CHATILA, W. M. et al. Comorbidity in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
Respiratory Investigation, v. 53, n. 6, p. 249–258, 2015.
CIAPPONI, A. et al. The epidemiology and burden of COPD in latin America and
the caribbean: Systematic review and meta-analysis. COPD: Journal of Chronic
Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, v. 11, n. 3, p. 339–350, 2014.
DINIZ, I. M. et al. The long-term costs for treating multiple sclerosis in a 16-year
retrospective cohort study in Brazil. PLoS ONE, v. 13, n. 6, p. 1–14, 2018.
96
EJIOFOR, S.; TURNER, A. M. Pharmacotherapies for COPD. Clinical Medicine
Insights: Circulatory, Respiratory and Pulmonary Medicine, v. 7, n. 1, p. 17–
34, 2013.
HO, T. W. et al. In-hospital and one-year mortality and their predictors in patients
hospitalized for first-ever chronic obstructive pulmonary disease exacerbations:
A nationwide population-based study. PLoS ONE, v. 9, n. 12, p. 1–16, 2014.
HUBBARD, T. ET AL. Real World Evidence: Executive Summary A New Era for
Health Care Innovation. The Network for excellence in Health Innovation, n.
September, p. 1–19, 2015.
97
JUNIOR, A. A. G. et al. Building the National Database of Health Centred on the
Individual: Administrative and Epidemiological Record Linkage - Brazil, 2000-
2015. International Journal of Population Data Science, v. 3, n. 1, 2018.
98
MUKA, T. et al. The global impact of non-communicable diseases on healthcare
spending and national income : a systematic review. 2015.
POSTMA, D. S.; BUSH, A.; VAN DEN BERGE, M. Risk factors and early origins
of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. The Lancet, v. 385, n. 9971, p. 899–
909, 2015.
PRINCE, M. J. et al. The burden of disease in older people and implications for
health policy and practice. The Lancet, v. 385, n. 9967, p. 549–562, 2015.
QUAN, H. et al. Coding algorithms for defining comorbidities in. Medical Care, v.
43, n. 11, 2005a.
99
RABAHI, M. F. Epidemiologia da DPOC: Enfrentando Desafios Epidemiology of
COPD: Facing Challenges. Pulmão RJ, v. 22, n. 2, p. 4–8, 2013.
SCOTT, D. A. et al. Mortality and drug therapy in patients with chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease: A network meta-analysis. BMC Pulmonary Medicine, v. 15,
n. 1, p. 1–13, 2015.
SHERMAN, R. E. et al. Real-world evidence - What is it and what can it tell us?
New England Journal of Medicine, v. 375, n. 23, p. 2293–2297, 2016.
100
STOPA, S. R. et al. Use of and access to health services in Brazil, 2013 National
Health Survey. Revista de Saude Publica, v. 51, p. 1S-10S, 2017.
VOS, T. et al. Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years
lived with disability for 328 diseases and injuries for 195 countries, 1990-2016: A
systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016. The Lancet,
v. 390, n. 10100, p. 1211–1259, 2017.
101
ANEXO 1 – APROVAÇÃO PELO COMITÊ DE ÉTICA DA UFMG
102
ANEXO 2 – ATA DE APROVAÇÃO NO EXAME DE QUALIFICAÇÃO
103
ANEXO 3 – COMPROVANTE DE SUBMISSÃO DE ARTIGO CIENTÍFICO
104