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=[[Spathiphyllum wallisii]]=
{{F}}

{{Tassobox
|nome=''Spathiphyllum''
|statocons=
|immagine=Peace lily - 1 - cropped.jpg
|didascalia=Spathiphyllum wallisii (fiore).
<!-- CLASSIFICAZIONE: -->
|dominio= [[Eukaryota]]
|regno=[[Plantae]]
|sottoregno=
|superdivisione=[[Tracheophyta]]
|divisione=[[Magnoliophyta]]
|sottodivisione=
|superclasse=
|classe=[[Liliopsida]]
|sottoclasse=
|infraclasse=
|superordine=
|ordine=[[Arales]]
|sottordine=
|infraordine=
|superfamiglia=
|famiglia=[[Araceae]]
|sottofamiglia=
|tribù=
|sottotribù=
|genere='''Spathiphyllum'''
|specie=wallisii
<!-- CLASSIFICAZIONE APG -->
|FIL? = si
|regnoFIL=[[Plantae]]
|clade1=[[Angiosperme]]
|clade2=[[Mesangiosperme]]
|clade3=[[Monocotiledoni]]
|ordineFIL=[[Alismatales]]
|famigliaFIL=[[Araceae]]
|sottofamigliaFIL=[[Monsteroideae]]
|tribùFIL=[[Spathiphylleae]]
|genereFIL='''[[Spathiphyllum]]'''
|genereautoreFIL=[[Heinrich Wilhelm Schott|Schott]], [[1832]]
|specieFIL='''S. wallisii'''<br/><small>[[Eduard August von Regel|Regel]], 1877</small>
|specieautoreFIL=[[Eduard August von Regel|Regel]]
<!-- NOMENCLATURA BINOMIALE -->
|biautore=[[Eduard August von Regel|Regel]]
|binome=Spathiphyllum wallisii
|bidata= [[1877]]
<!-- ALTRO: -->
|sinonimi=
|nomicomuni=Spatafillo<br />Giglio della pace <br />
{{en}} Peace lily<ref>{{cita|Gardener}}</ref><ref>{{cita|Ferguson}}</ref><br />
{{en}} White sails<ref name="modern-gardener">{{cita|Ellis}}</ref><br />
{{en}} Spathe flower<ref>{{cita|Dehgan|pag. 223}}</ref>
|suddivisione=[[Specie]]
|suddivisione_testo=<div align=center>[[#Tassonomia|vedi testo]]</div>}}

Lo '''spatafillo''' ('''''Spathiphyllum wallisii''''' <small>[[Eduard August von Regel|Regel]], 1877</small>) o '''giglio della pace''' è una [[pianta da appartamento]] molto popolare, della famiglia delle [[Araceae]].<ref name="modern-gardener" /> 
Il nome del [[genus]] significa "foglia [[Spadice|spata]]" mentre l'[[Nomenclatura binomiale|epiteto]] specifico prende il nome da [[Gustav Wallis]], il collezionista di piante tedesco. 
Fu descritto per la prima volta nel 1877.

== Descrizione ==

È una [[pianta erbacea]] [[pianta perenne|perenne]] che produce fiori dalla tipica struttura [[aroide]], con [[inflorescenza]] densamente popolata chiamata [[spadice]] avvolta da un grande [[bràttea|ipsofillo]] chiamato [[Brattea|spata]]; occasionalmente vengono prodotte due spate, con la superiore più piccola. 
Lo spadice è generalmente color crema o avorio quando è giovane e diventa verde con l'età;<ref>{{cita|Bercu & Făgăraş}}</ref> la spata è generalmente bianca, a volte con nervature verdi distalmente al margine, anch'essa diventa verde con l'età.
Le foglie sono basali, lucide e leggermente venate, ovali e acuminate; i [[piccioli]] sono lunghi e le foglie si inarcano con grazia. 
La pianta produce germogli alla base e col tempo diventa un cespo fitto.

''Spathiphyllum wallisii'' è una delle circa 40 [[specie]] del [[genus]] dei [[sempreverdi]] [[tropicali]]. 
Fu scoperto alla fine del [[XIX secolo]] in [[Colombia]], dove cresce allo stato selvatico. 
Il suo ampio [[areale]] naturale comprende parti del [[Messico]], le [[Isole dei Caraibi]] e la parte settentrionale del [[Sud America]].<ref>{{Cite web 
|title=Spathiphyllum wallisii Regel {{!}} Plants of the World Online {{!}} Kew Science |url=http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:89011-1 
|access-date=26 June 2022 
|website=Plants of the World Online 
|language=en}}</ref>

Sono disponibili in commercio numerose [[cultivar]], molte delle quali di origine ibrida, come il grande [[ibrido]] "Mauna Loa", che prende il nome dal [[Mauna Loa|vulcano hawaiano]], e l'ancora più grande "Sensation", entrambi molto diffusi come piante da interno; "Domino" è una varietà finemente variegata, di dimensioni intermedie.

[[File:Lepelplant 16.JPG|thumb|''Spathiphyllum wallisii''.]]

== Note ==
<references/>
==Bibliografia==

*{{cita testo 
  | cognome1=Bercu 
  | nome1=Rodica
  | cognome2=Făgăraş 
  | nome2=Marius 
  | mese= marzo
  | anno= 2010 
  | titolo=Anatomical Aspects of the Ornamental Plant Spathiphyllum wallisii Regel 
  | url=https://pubs.ub.ro/dwnl.php?id=SCSB201018V18S01A0002 
  |formato=pdf
  | rivista =Scientific Study & Research – Biology 
  | volume=18 
  | città= [[Bacău]]
  | pp=13–17  
  | cid =Bercu & Făgăraş 
  | editore = [[Università di Bacău Vasile Alecsandri|Universitatea ”Vasile Alecsandri”]]
 |accesso=29 ottobre 2024 }}

* {{cita testo 
 |cognome=Ellis 
 |nome=Sonya Patel 
 |titolo=The Modern Gardener: A Practical Guide to Houseplants, Herbs & Container Gardening 
 |data=15 marzo 2022 
 |editore=Simon and Schuster 
 |isbn=978-1-6672-0007-1 
 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ipxhEAAAQBAJ&dq=white+sails+Spathiphyllum+wallisii&pg=PT384 
 |accesso=29 ottobre 2024 
 |cid=Ellis 
 |lingua=en}}

* {{cita testo 
   | cognome=Dehgan 
   | nome=Bijan 
   |titolo=Garden Plants Taxonomy: Volume 1: Ferns, Gymnosperms, and Angiosperms (Monocots) 
   | data = 1 gennaio 2023 
   | editore = Springer Nature 
   | isbn=978-3-031-11561-5 
   | cid=Dehgan 
   | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M9ekEAAAQBAJ  
   |accesso=29 ottobre 2024 
   | lingua=en}}

==Voci correlate==
==Altri progetti==
{{interprogetto|q}}
<!-- * {{Commons category-inline|Spathiphyllum wallisii|''Spathiphyllum wallisii''}} -->
<!-- * {{Wikispecies-inline|Spathiphyllum wallisii|''Spathiphyllum wallisii''}} -->

==Collegamenti esterni==

*{{cita testo 
  | cognome=Ferguson 
  | nome=Donna
  | titolo=Houseplants: how to buy them – and keep them alive
  | url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2022/mar/12/houseplants-how-to-buy-low-maintenance-plants 
  | accesso = 29 ottobre 2024
  | rivista=[[The Guardian]] 
  | lingua=en 
  | cid=Ferguson 
  | data =12 msrzo 2022}}

*{{cita web 
  | titolo=Spathiphyllum wallisii 
  | url=https://www.gardenersworld.com/plants/spathiphyllum-wallisii/ 
  | lingua=en 
  | sito=Gardener's World 
  | cid=Gardener 
  | accesso = 29 ottobre 2024}}

*{{cita web 
  | titolo=Peace Lily
  | url=http://www.flowersofindia.net/catalog/slides/Peace%20Lily.html
  | lingua=en 
  | sito=Flowers of India
  | cid=Flowers of India 
  | accesso = 30 ottobre 2024}}

*{{cita web 
  | titolo=Peace Lily
  | url=http://toptropicals.com/catalog/uid/spathiphyllum_wallisii.htm
  | lingua=en 
  | sito=Top Tropicals
  <!-- |editore=Top Tropicals LLC --> 
  | cid=Top Tropicals
  | accesso = 30 ottobre 2024}}

*{{Cita web
   |url=https://www.flickr.com/photos/tags/spathiphyllum/clusters/
   |titolo=Spathiphyllum
   |tipo=insieme di immagini
   |sito=flickr
   | accesso = 30 ottobre 2024}}

<!-- {{Taxonbar|from=Q761494}} -->

<!-- [[Categoria:Araceae]] 
[[Categoria:Piante ornamentali]] -->

=[[Persecuzione dei musulmani]]=

<!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:Omarska2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Image from [[Penny Marshall (UK journalist)|Penny Marshall]] crew video footage of the [[Omarska camp]] where Bosnian Muslims were raped, tortured and murdered by Serbian forces during the [[Bosnian Genocide]].]] -->

'''Persecuzione dei musulmani''' si riferisce alle [[persecuzioni religiose]] inflitte ai [[musulmani]].
Per persecuzione si intendono gli atti di violenza, la tortura, la confisca o la distruzione di proprietà.
La persecuzione può estendersi al di là di quelli che percepiscono se stessi come musulmani fino a comprendere sia coloro che vengono percepiti dagli altri come musulmani sia i musulmani che sono considerati non-musulmani dai loro stessi correligionari.

==Musulmani perseguitati dagli arabi pagani==

==Persecuzione di gruppi minoritari/settari di musulmani da parte di altri gruppi di musulmani==

{{Vedi anche|takfir|Ahmadiyya|Sciismo|Kharigismo|Mutazilismo|Alauiti|Drusi}}

===Persecuzioni inflitte e patite dai Mutaziliti===

===Conflitti e persecuzioni tra sunniti e sciiti===

{{Main|Persecuzioni dei musulmani sciiti|Relazioni tra sunniti e sciiti}}

===Persecution of Ahmadis===

The [[Ahmadiyya]] regard themselves as Muslims, but are seen by many other Muslims as non-Muslims and "heretics". Armed groups, led by the umbrella organization [[Khatme Nabuwat]] ("Finality of Prophethood"), have launched violent attacks against their mosques in [http://hrw.org/reports/2005/bangladesh0605/ Bangladesh].

They committed massacres against them which resulted in 2,000 Ahmadiyya deaths in Pakistani Punjab. Eventually, martial law had to be established and Governor general Ghulam Mohamed dismissed the federal cabinet. This anti-Ahmadiyya movement led Pakistani prime minister Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto to declare that the Ahmadiyyas were "non-Muslims".<ref name="loc">[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+pk0121) Jamaat-i-Islami] Federal Research Division US Library of Congress</ref><ref>[http://www.law.harvard.edu/students/orgs/hrj/iss16/khan.shtml Persecution of the Ahmadiyya Community in Pakistan: An Analysis Under International Law and International Relations]</ref>

In 1984, the Government of [[Pakistan]], under General [[Zia-ul-Haq]], passed [[Ordinance XX]],<ref>[http://www.thepersecution.org/50years/paklaw.html Ordinance XX]</ref> which banned proselytizing by Ahmadis and also banned Ahmadis from referring to themselves as [[Muslim]]s. According to this ordinance, any Ahmadi who refers to oneself as a Muslim by words, either spoken or written, or by visible representation, directly or indirectly, or makes the call for prayer as other Muslims do, is punishable by imprisonment of up to 3 years. Because of these difficulties, [[Mirza Tahir Ahmad]] migrated to London, UK.

===Alawiti===

===Persecuzione dai takfiriti===

===Persecution of Ajlaf and Arzal Muslims in South Asia===

<!-- {{Main|Caste system among South Asian Muslims}} -->

Despite [[Islam]]'s egalitarian tenets, units of social stratification, termed as "castes" by many, have developed among Muslims in some parts of South Asia.<ref name="Britannica">[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9042918 "Islamic caste."] Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18 Oct. 2006</ref><ref name="EoI">Burton-Page, J. [http://www.brillonline.nl/subscriber/entry?entry=islam_SIM-2884 "Hindū."] Encyclopaedia of Islam. Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzeland W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2006. Brill Online.</ref> Various theories have been put forward regarding the development of castes among Indian Muslims. Majority of  sources state that the castes among Muslims developed as the result of close contact with Hindu culture and Hindu converts to Islam,<ref name="Britannica"/><ref name="EoI"/><ref>Muslim Caste in Uttar Pradesh (A Study of Culture Contact), Ghaus Ansari, Lucknow, 1960, Page 66</ref><ref name="Sikand">{{Cita web|cognome= Singh Sikand|nome= Yoginder|titolo= Caste in Indian Muslim Society|editore= Hamdard University|url= http://stateless.freehosting.net/Caste%20in%20Indian%20Muslim%20Society.htm|accesso= 18 ottobre 2006 }}</ref> while few others feel that these developed based on claims of descent from the prophet Mohammed.<ref name="Alvi">Sajida Sultana Alvi, Advice on the art of governance, an Indo-Islamic Mirror for Princes P122, State University of New York Press, ISBN 0-88706-918-5</ref><ref name="Imtiaz">Ahmad, Imtiaz, "The Ashraf-Ajlaf dichotomy in Muslim social structure in India", Indian economic and social history review 33 (1966) pgs 268-78</ref>

Sections of the ulema (scholars of Islamic jurisprudence) have declared the religious legitimacy of the caste system with the help of the concept of kafa'a{{Citazione necessaria}}. 
A classic example of scholarly literature supporting the Muslim caste system is the ''Fatawa-i Jahandari'', written by the fourteenth century Turkish scholar, Ziauddin Barani, a member of the court of  [[Muhammad bin Tughlaq]], of the Tughlaq dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate. Barani was known for his intensely casteist views, and he regarded the Ashraf Muslims as racially superior to the Ajlaf Muslims{{Citazione necessaria}}. 
He divided the Muslims into grades and sub-grades. In his scheme, all high positions and privileges were to be a monopoly of the high born Turks, not the Indian Muslims{{Citazione necessaria}}. 
Even in his interpretation of the Koranic verse "Indeed, the pious amongst you are most honored by Allah", he considered piety to be associated with noble birth.<ref name="Alvi"/> Barrani was specific in his recommendation that the "sons of Mohamed" [i.e. Ashrafs] "be given a higher social status than the low-born [i.e. Ajlaf].<ref name="Das">Das, Arbind, Arthashastra of Kautilya and Fatwa-i-Jahandari of Ziauddin Barrani: an analysis, Pratibha Publications, Delhi 1996, ISBN 81-85268-45-2 pgs 138-139</ref> His most significant contribution in the fatwa was his analysis of the castes with respect to Islam.<ref name="Das2">Ibid pg124</ref> His assertion was that castes would be mandated through state laws or "Zawabi" which would carry precedence over [[Sharia]] law whenever they were in conflict.<ref name="Das2"/> In the Fatwa-i-Jahandari (advice XXI), he wrote about the "qualities of the high-born" as being "virtuous" and the "low-born" as being the "custodians of vices". Every act which is "contaminated with meanness and based on ignominy, comes elegantly [from the Ajlaf]".<ref>Ibid p143</ref> Barani had a clear disdain for the Ajlaf and strongly recommended that they be denied education, lest they usurp the Ashraf masters{{Citazione necessaria}}. 
He sought appropriate religious sanction to that effect.<ref name="Sikand"/> Barrani also developed an elaborate system of promotion and demotion of Imperial officers ("Wazirs") that was conducted primarily on the basis of caste.<ref>Das pgs 138-139</ref>

In addition to the Ashraf/Ajlaf divide, there is also the ''Arzal'' caste among Muslims, whose members were regarded by anti-Caste activists like Babasaheb [[Ambedkar]] as the equivalent of untouchables.<ref name="Ambedkar">{{Cita libro|cognome= Ambedkar |nome= Bhimrao |wkautore= B.R. Ambedkar |titolo= Pakistan or the Partition of India |editore=  Thackers Publishers  }}</ref><ref name="Ambedkaronline">[http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00ambedkar/ambedkar_partition/410.html Web resource for ''Pakistan or the Partition of India'']</ref> The term "Arzal" stands for "degraded" and the Arzal castes are further subdivided into Bhanar, Halalkhor, Hijra, Kasbi, Lalbegi, Maugta, Mehtar etc.<ref name="Ambedkar"/><ref name="Ambedkaronline"/> The Arzal group was recorded in the 1901 census in India and its members are also called [[Dalit]] Muslims “with whom no other Muhammadan would associate, and who are forbidden to enter the mosque or to use the public burial ground”{{Citazione necessaria}}.
They are relegated to "menial" professions such as scavenging and carrying [[night soil]].<ref>[http://www.indianexpress.com/story/12109.html Dereserve these myths] by Tanweer Fazal,''Indian express''</ref>

===Altri episodi di violenza tra mussulmani===
{{vedi anche|Lista di conflitti in Medio Oriente}}

== Storia delle Persecuzioni cristiane dei musulmani ==

=== Persecuzione dei musulmani in Medio Oriente durante le Crociate ===

[[File:CrusadersThrowingHeadsOfMuslimsOverRamparts.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Crociate|Crociati]] cristiani lanciano sui bastioni teste di musulmani durante l'[[Assedio di Nicea (1097)|assedio di Nicea]] del 1097.]]

{{Main|Crociate}}

La [[Prima crociata]] fu lanciata nel 1095 da [[Papa Urbano II]] con l'obiettivo dichiarato di riprendere il controllo della città santa [[Gerusalemme]] e della [[Terra Santa]] dai [[musulmani]] che le avevano conquistate ai [[Bizantini]] nel 638 ed in parte in conseguenza della [[Lotta per le investiture]] che fu il più significativo [[Separation of church and state (medieval)|conflitto tra poteri secolare e religioso]] nell'[[Medioevo|Europa medievale]].  
Cominciò come una disputa tra il [[Sacro Romano Imperatore]] ed il [[Papa Gregorio VII|Papato gregoriano]] e diede origine al concetto politico di [[cristianità]] come unione di tutti i popoli e sovrani, sotto la guida del Papa, poiché entrambe le parti cercarono di dirigere l'opinione pubblica in proprio favore, la popolazione si ritrovò direttamente impegnata in una drammatica polemica religiosa.
Di grande importanza fu anche la serie di vittorie conseguite dai [[Turchi selgiuchidi]], che vide la fine della dominazione araba a Gerusalemme.

====Assedio di Gerusalemme del 1099====

{{Main|Assedio di Gerusalemme (1099)}}

===Persecuzione dei musulmani nell'Europa meridionale===

{{Vedi anche|Storia dell'Islam nell'Italia medievale|Storia della Sicilia islamica|Insediamento musulmano di Lucera}}

Il normanno [[Regno di Sicilia]] di [[Ruggero II di Sicilia|Ruggero II]] è stato caratterizzato dalla sua natura [[Società multietnica|multietnica]] e dalla tolleranza religiosa.<ref>{{cita web
 |cognome=Salerno
 |nome=Vincenzo
 |url=http://www.bestofsicily.com/mag/art171.htm
 |titolo=Sicilian Peoples: The Normans
 |lingua=en
 |sito=Best of Sicily
 |accesso=21 maggio 2009}}</ref>
Normanni, ebrei, arabi musulmani, greci bizantini, francesi settentrionali,<ref>Cfr. [[Michele Amari]], ''Storia dei musulmani di Sicilia'', III voll., Catania, Prampolini, 1937, vol. III, parte I, p. 222.</ref> popolazioni "longobarde"<ref>Il termine Langobardia indicava generalmente la [[Calabria]] ma importanti gruppi umani furono persuasi ad emigrare in Sicilia, prevalentemente dalle terre del [[Monferrato]] piemontese e da aree dell'attuale Lombardia, attirate dalle possibilità di far fortuna sotto il dominio capace e vivace dei Normanni.</ref> e siciliani "nativi" vissero in discreta armonia sotto il potere normanno.<ref>{{en}}{{cite encyclopedia
 | last =  | first =  | author =  | authorlink =  | coauthors =  | editor = 
 | encyclopedia =[[Enciclopedia Britannica|Encyclopædia Britannica]]
 | title = Roger II
 | url = http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9377080/Roger-II
 | accessdate = 21 maggio 2009
 | accessyear =  | accessmonth = 
 | edition = Encyclopædia Britannica Online
 | date =2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cita pubblicazione
 | cognome = Inturrisi
 | nome =  Louis
 | data = 26 aprile 1987
 | titolo = Tracing The Norman Rulers of Sicily
 | rivista = [[The New York Times]]
 | url = http://www.nytimes.com/1987/04/26/travel/tracing-the-norman-rulers-of-sicily.html?sec=&spon=&pagewanted=1
 | lingua =en
 | accesso = 21 maggio 2009
 }}</ref>
Per almeno un secolo l'[[Lingua araba|arabo]] rimase una lingua del governo e dell'amministrazione nello stato normanno e tracce permangono ancora oggi nella [[Lingua siciliana|lingua dell'isola]].<ref name="dmsmi">{{cita libro
 | cognome = Smith
 | nome = Denis Mack
 | linkautore = Denis Mack Smith
 | coautori=Moses I. Finley
 | lingua =en
 | anno=1968
 | titolo=A History of Sicily: Medieval Sicily 800—1713
 | url=http://books.google.it/books?id=xI9oAAAAMAAJ&dq=editions:LCCN68117285&pgis=1
 | editore=Chatto & Windus
 | città=[[Londra]]
 | ISBN=701113472
 }}</ref>

Tuttavia, quando i Normanni ebbero conquistato l'isola, i musulmani dovettero scegliere tra la volontaria partenza o l'assoggettamento all'autorità cristiana.
Molti musulmani scelsero di andarsene, sempre che avessero i mezzi per farlo.
Infatti la loro religione proibisce ai musulmani di vivere sotto un governo non-musulmano, se ciò possa essere evitato. Una parte della comunità islamica tuttavia rimase, anche alla luce di una importante ''[[fatwa]]'' dell'[[imam]] [[Imam al-Mazari|al-Māzarī]] che legittimava la permanenza di musulmani in ''[[Dar al-Harb]]'' purché fosse loro consentito di godere sostanziosamente del portato della Legge islamica.

“La trasformazione della Sicilia in una terra cristiana”, sottolinea Abulafia, 
“fu anche, paradossalmente, opera di coloro la cui cultura era minacciata”.<ref name=Dalli159>{{cita libro
 | cognome=Dalli
 | nome=Charles
 | curatore = Joaquim Carvalho
 | titolo=Religion, ritual and mythology: aspects of identity formation in Europe
 | url=http://www.cliohres.net/books/books.php?book=3
 | url_capitolo=http://www.cliohres.net/books/3/Dalli.pdf
 | capitolo=From Islam to Christianity: the Case of Sicily
 | lingua=en
 | formato=PDF
 | editore=PLUS, Pisa University Press
 | data = , 2006-01-10
 | p=159
 | accesso= 21 maggio 2009
 | ISBN=978-88-8492-404-9
 | cid=1}}</ref><ref>{{cita libro
 |cognome= David
 |nome= Abulafia
 |wkautore= David Abulafia
 |curatore= James M. Powell
 |titolo=Muslims under Latin Rule 1100-1300
 |data= 
 |anno= 1990
 |editore= Princeton University Press
 |città= 
 |lingua= en
 |ISBN= 978-0-608-20142-9|p= 109|capitolo= The end of Muslim Sicily}}</ref>
Nonostante la presenza di popolazione cristiana di lingua araba, alcuni contadini musulmani cominciarono ad accettare il battesimo dai [[Chiesa cristiana ortodossa|cristiani greco-ortodossi]], adottando nomi [[Chiesa greco-ortodossa|greco-ortodossi]]; in molti casi, [[servi della gleba]] cristiani aventi nomi greci, elencati nei registri di [[Monreale]], avevano genitori musulmani viventi.<ref name=Dalli159/><ref>{{cita pubblicazione
 | cognome = Johns
 | nome = Jeremy
 | data = 
 | anno = 1995
 | titolo = The Greek church and the conversion of Muslims in Norman Sicily ?
 | rivista = Byzantinische Forschungen
 | numero = 21
 | pp = 133-157
 }}
Per il cristianesimo greco-ortodosso in Sicilia si veda anche
 {{cita libro
 |autore= Vera von Falkenhausen 
 |nome= |curatore= Cosimo Damiano Fonseca
 |altri=vol. 1
 |titolo=  La Sicilia rupestre nel contesto delle civiltà mediterranee
 |data= |anno=1986 |editore= Congedo
 |città= Lecce
 |capitolo=Il monachesimo greco in Sicilia }}</ref>
Tuttavia i governanti normanni seguirono costantemente una politica di latinizzazione (intesa come conversione dell'isola al [[Cristianesimo]] romano).  
Alcuni musulmani finsero di convertirsi: un rimedio che poteva fornire protezione individuale, ma non consentire la sopravvivenza una comunità.<ref name=Dalli160>{{Cita | Dalli | p. 160 | 1 }}</ref>

Negli [[anni 1160]] iniziarono i ''[[pogrom]]'' "longobardi" (intesi nel senso di "genti lombarde", ma in realtà "piemontesi e lombarde")<ref>Fu la loro forte presenza a determinare in varie località dell'Isola l'affermarsi dei cosiddetti "[[Dialetti gallo-italici di Sicilia]]. Cfr. [[Michele Amari|M. Amari]], ''Storia dei musulmani...'' cit., pp. 224-239.</ref> contro i musulmani<ref name=Dalli160/> che in Sicilia furono sempre più separati dai cristiani, anche dal punto di vista geografico.
La maggior parte delle comunità musulmane dell'isola fu confinata oltre una frontiera interna che divideva la metà sud-occidentale dell'isola dal cristiano nord-est.
I musulmani siciliani erano una popolazione sottomessa, che dipendeva dalla benevolenza dei padroni cristiani e in ultima analisi, dalla protezione reale.
Fin tanto che si poté esprimere la protezione della Corona normanna sui suoi sudditi musulmani, le cose non precipitarono ma una violenta rivolta di alcuni nobili contro [[Guglielmo I di Sicilia|re Guglielmo il Malo]] comportò anche l'esplodere di una politica ferocemente anti-musulmana nell'isola.
La dura repressione regia della rivolta di Ruggiero Schiavo e di una parte della nobiltà, aveva nel [[1161]] salvato la vita ai sudditi musulmani della Corona. Si ricorderà, ad esempio, come fu distrutta la ribelle città di [[Piazza Armerina|Piazza]] (che allora sorgeva nell'attuale zona del [[Villa del Casale|Casale]], non a caso chiamato dei testi dell'epoca ''Casalis Sarracenorum'') e come fossa ripopolata la nuova città, fatta risorgere sul colle che ancor oggi la ospita, con genti lombarde (in maggioranza però del [[Monferrato]], di [[Novara]], di [[Asti]] e di [[Alessandria]]), che v'imposero la loro parlata che con crescenti difficoltà è in uso ancor oggi.<ref>Amari ricordava (nota n. 3, p. 233, della citata sua opera) come [[Angelo De Gubernatis]] lo avesse avvertito della "stretta parentela del dialetto monferrino con que' di [[Piazza Armerina|Piazza]], [[Nicosia (Italia)|Nicosia]], [[San Fratello|Sanfratello]] e [[Aidone]]".</ref>  
Quando [[Guglielmo II di Sicilia|re Guglielmo il Buono]] morì però nel 1189, la protezione reale venne meno e si poté dare il via a incontrastate aggressioni contro i musulmani dell'isola, facendo scomparire ogni residua speranza di coesistenza, nonostante la totale subordinazione musulmana all'elemento cristiano.

Dopo la morte di [[Enrico VI di Svevia|Enrico VI]] nel 1197 e quella di sua moglie [[Costanza d'Altavilla|Costanza]] l'anno successivo in Sicilia si verificarono tumulti politici.
Priva della protezione reale e con [[Federico II di Svevia|Federico II]] ancora fanciullo sotto la custodia del papa, la Sicilia divenne un campo di battaglia per le forze rivali tedesche e papali.
I ribelli musulmani dell'isola si schierarono con i signori della guerra tedeschi, come [[Marcovaldo di Annweiler]].
In risposta, [[Innocenzo III]] proclamò una crociata contro Marcovaldo, sostenendo che aveva stretto una diabolica alleanza con i [[Saraceni]] di Sicilia.
Nondimeno, nel 1206 lo stesso papa tentò di convincere i leader musulmani a rimanere leali.<ref>{{Cita | Dalli | pp. 160-161 | 1 }}</ref>
A quell'epoca, stava assumendo proporzioni critiche la ribellione dei musulmani, che controllavano [[Iaitas|Jato]], [[Entella]], [[Platani]], [[Celso]], [[Calatrasi]], [[Corleone]] (presa nel [[1208]]), [[Guastanella]] e [[Cinisi]].  
In altre parole, la rivolta musulmana si era estesa ad un intero tratto della Sicilia occidentale.
I ribelli erano guidati da [[Muhammad ibn 'Abbad|Muhammad b. ʿAbbād]]; che si proclamò "principe dei credenti", coniò sue monete e tentò di ottenere aiuto da altre parti del mondo musulmano.<ref name=Dalli161>{{Cita | Dalli | p. 161 | 1 }}</ref><ref>{{cita libro
 |cognome= Pierre
 |nome= Aubé
 |wkautore= Pierre Aubé
 |titolo= Roger II de Sicile: un normand en Méditerranée
 |url= http://books.google.it/books?id=A4hoAAAAMAAJ&q=ISBN+2228894141&dq=ISBN+2228894141&pgis=1
 |data= |anno= 2001
 |editore= Payot
 |città= |lingua= fr
 |ISBN= 978-2-228-89414-2
 }}</ref>

Nel [[1221]] Federico II, non più bambino, rispose con una serie di campagne contro i ribelli musulmani e le forze degli [[Hohenstaufen]] sradicarono i difensori da Jato, Entella e dalle altre fortezze.
Piuttosto che sterminarli, nel 1223, Federico II ed i cristiani cominciarono le prima deportazioni di musulmani a [[Insediamento musulmano di Lucera|Lucera]].<ref>{{cita libro
|cognome= Lowe
|nome= Alfonso
|altri= illustrato da Alfonso Lowe
|titolo= The barrier and the bridge: historic Sicily
|url=http://books.google.it/books?id=LT-BAAAAIAAJ&dq=The+Barrier+and+the+bridge&source=gbs_book_other_versions_r&cad=0_2&pgis=1
|data= |anno= 1972
|editore= Norton
|città= |lingua= en
|p= 92}}</ref>
Un anno più tardi, furono inviate spedizioni per porre sotto il controllo reale [[Malta]] e [[Gerba]] ed evitare che le loro popolazioni musulmane aiutassero i ribelli.<ref name=Dalli161/>
Paradossalmente, in quest'epoca gli arcieri saraceni erano una componente comune di questi eserciti "cristiani" e la presenza di contingenti musulmani nell'esercito imperiale rimase una realtà anche sotto [[Manfredi di Sicilia|Manfredi]] e [[Corradino di Svevia|Corradino]].<ref>[http://www.royalist.info/execute/biog?person=3527 Frederick II: A Medieval Emperor]</ref><ref>{{cita web
 |cognome=Amatuccio
 |nome=Giovanni
 |url=http://www.deremilitari.org/resources/articles/saracen_archers.htm
 |titolo=Saracen Archers in Southern Italy
 |anno=2001
 |mese=giugno
 |lingua=en
 |sito=De Re Militari
 |accesso=23 maggio 2009}}</ref>

Gli [[Hohenstaufen]] ed i loro successori [[Angioini]] ed [[Aragonesi]], nel corso di due secoli, "latinizzarono" gradualmente la Sicilia, e questo processo sociale gettò le basi per l'introduzione del Cristianesimo di obbedienza romana, in contrasto con l'ortodossia greco-bizantina.<br />
Il processo di latinizzazione fu grandemente favorito dalla [[Chiesa di Roma]] e dalla sua liturgia.<br />
L'annientamento dell'Islam in Sicilia fu completato entro la fine degli [[Anni 1240|anni 40 del XIII secolo]], quando ebbero luogo le ultime deportazioni a [[Lucera]].<ref>{{cita libro
 |cognome= David
 |nome= Abulafia
 |wkautore= David Abulafia
 |titolo=Frederick II: a medieval emperor
 |url= http://books.google.it/books?id=8BpoAAAAMAAJ&source=gbs_book_other_versions_r&cad=3_0&pgis=1
 |data= 
 |anno= 1988
 |editore= Allen Lane The Penguin Press
 |città= 
 |lingua= en
 |ISBN=978-0-7139-9004-1
 }}; traduzione italiana di Gianluigi Mainardi: ''Federico II: un imperatore medievale'', [[Einaudi]], [[1993]]. ISBN 978-88-06-13197-5</ref>

Durante il primo secolo dopo la conquista [[Normanni|normanna]] la [[Storia dell'Islam nell'Italia medievale|popolazione musulmana]] visse bene in [[Sicilia]].
Gl Arabi rimasero privilegiati nelle questioni di governo. 
In effetti, 4.000 arcieri saraceni presero parte a varie battaglie tra le forze cristiane. 
Quando i [[Normanni]] ed in seguito gli [[Angioini]] persero il controllo dell'isola in favore di [[Pietro di Aragona]] cominciò il declino dell'Islam.
I governanti normanni seguirono una politica di continua latinizzazione, riportando l'isola all'interno della [[Cattolicità]]).  
Some Muslims chose the option of feigning conversion, but such a remedy could only provide individual protection and could not sustain a community.<ref>{{en}}Charles Dalli, [http://www.cliohres.net/books/3/Dalli.pdf  ''From Islam to Christianity: the Case of Sicily''], p. 160</ref>

Lombard pogroms against Muslims started in the 1160s.  
Muslim and Christian communities in Sicily became increasingly geographically separated.   
The island’s Muslim communities were mainly isolated beyond an internal frontier which divided the south-western half of the island from the Christian north-east.  
Sicilian Muslims, a subject population, were dependent on the mercy of their Christian masters and, ultimately, on royal protection. 
When [[Guglielmo II di Sicilia|re Guglielmo il Buono]] died in 1189, this royal protection was lifted, and the door was opened for widespread attacks against the island’s Muslims. 
Islam was no longer a major presence in the Island by the 14th century. 
Toleration of Muslims ended with Increasing Hohenstaufen control. 
Many repressive measures, passed by [[Federico II di Svevia|Federico II]], were introduced in order to please the Popes who could not tolerate [[Islam]] being practiced in the heart of [[Cristianità]],
<ref>Daniel, Norman. ''The Arabs and Mediaeval Europe''. Londra: Longman, 1979. (N.Daniel: The Arabs; op cit; p.154).</ref> 
which resulted in a rebellion of Sicily's Muslims.
<ref name=autogenerated2>A.Lowe: ''The Barrier and the bridge'', op cit; p.92.</ref>  
This in turn triggered organized resistance and systematic reprisals<ref>{{cita libro
|nome=Pierre
|cognome=Aubé
|titolo=Roger Ii De Sicile - Un Normand En Méditerranée
|editore=Payot
|anno=2001}}</ref> 
and marked the final chapter of Islam in Sicily.  
The rebellion abated, but direct papal pressure induced Frederick to mass transfer all his Muslim subjects deep into the Italian hinterland, to Lucera.<ref name=autogenerated2 />
====*====
<references/>

===Nella penisola iberica===

[[File:ReligionConflict.jpg|thumb|right|175px|A victim of the [[Spanish Inquisition|inquisition]] being burned and tortured to death]]

{{Main|Espulsione dei Moriscos}}

During the centuries of [[Reconquista]] (711-1492), the Christian North of the [[Iberian Peninsula]] and the Southern Muslim-ruled [[Al Andalus]] battled internally and against each other. It ended with the Christian domination of the Peninsula.

Depending on the local capitulations, local Muslims were allowed to remain ([[Mudéjar]]s) with some restrictions and some assimilated into the Christian population.  After the [[conquest of Granada]], all the Spanish Muslims were under Christian rule. The new acquired population spoke Arabic and the campaigns to convert them were unsuccessful. Legislation was gradually introduced to remove Islam, culminating with the Muslims being forced to convert to Catholicism by the [[Spanish Inquisition]]. They were known as [[Morisco]]s and considered [[New Christian]]s.  
Further laws were introduced, as on 25 May 1566, stipulating that they 'had to abandon the use of Arabic, change their costumes, that their doors must remain open every Friday, and other feast days, and that their baths, public and private, to be torn down.'<ref>Rodrigo de Zayas:  Les Morisques' op cit;p.230</ref>.  The reason doors were to be left open so as to determine whether they secretly observed any Islamic festivals.<ref>T.B. Irving: Dates, Names and Places; op cit; p.85</ref> King [[Philip II of Spain]] ordered the destruction of all public baths on the grounds of them being relics of infidelity, notorious for their use by Muslims performing their purification rites.<ref>S. Lane Poole: The Moors; op cit; p.135-6</ref><ref>Marmol Carvajal: Rebellion; op cit;pp.161-2</ref>  The possession of books or papers in [[Arabic]] was near concrete proof of disobedience with severe repercussions.<ref>H.C Lea: The Moriscos of Spain; op cit; p.131</ref>  On 1 January 1568, Christian priests were ordered to take all Muslim children, between the ages of three and fifteen, and place them in schools, where they should learn Castillian and Christian doctrine.<ref>H.C. Lea: A History of the Inquisition; op cit; vol 3; p.336</ref>  All these laws and measures required forced to be implemented, and from much earlier.  In Aragon alone, during the close of the 15th century, fifty thousand Muslims were put to death and double the number compelled to renounce their religion.<ref>S.P. Scott: History; Vol II, op cit; p167</ref>

Between 1609 and 1614 the Moriscos were expelled from Spain.<ref>L. P. Harvey. ''Muslims in Spain, 1500 to 1614''. University Of Chicago Press, 2005. ISBN 978-0226319636.</ref>  They were to depart 'under the pain of death and confiscation, without trial or sentence... to take with them no money, bullion, jewels or bills of exchange... just what they could carry.'<ref>H.C Lea: The Moriscos of Spain; op cit; p.345</ref>

===I [[Balcani]]===
{{See also|Massacres during the Greek Revolution|Massacres of Albanians in the Balkan Wars}}
[[File:Srebrenica Massacre - Exhumed Grave of Victims - Potocari 2007.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Mass grave where events of the [[Srebrenica massacre]] of [[Bosniaks|Bosnian]] Muslims unfolded]]
As the Ottoman Empire entered a permanent phase of decline in the late 17th century it was engaged in a protracted state of conflict, losing territories both in Europe and the Caucasus. The victors were the Christian States, the old [[Habsburg]] and [[Romanov]] Empires and the new nation-states of Greece, Serbia, Romania and Bulgaria.<ref>Mann, Michael ''“The dark side of democracy: explaining ethnic cleansing”'' Cambridge University Press 2005, pp.112-113</ref> Rival European powers encouraged the development of nationalist ideologies among the Ottoman subjects in which the Muslims were portrayed as an ethnic “fifth column” leftover from a previous era that could not be integrated into the planned future states. The struggle to rid them selves of Ottomans became an important element of the self-identification of the Balkan Christians.<ref>Carmichael, Cathie (2002), ''Ethnic cleansing in the Balkans'', Routledge, pp. 21-22</ref>

According to Mark Levene, the Victorian public in the 1870s paid much more attention to the massacres and expulsions of Christians than to massacres and expulsions of Muslims, even if on a greater scale. He further suggests that such massacres were even favored by some circles.
Mark Levene also argues that the dominant powers, by supporting "nation-statism" at the [[Congress of Berlin]], legitimized "the primary instrument of Balkan nation-building": [[ethnic cleansing]].<ref>Levene, Mark (2005), "Genocide in the Age of the Nation State" pp. 225-226</ref> Hall points out that atrocities were committed by all sides during the Balkan conflicts. Deliberate terror was designed to instigate population movements out of particular territories. The aim of targeting the civilian population was to carve ethnically homogeneous countries.<ref>Hall, Richard C. (2002), ''The Balkan Wars, 1912-1913: prelude to the First World War'', Routledge, pp. 136-137</ref>

Justin McCarty estimates that between 1821 and 1922 around five and a half million Muslims were driven out of Europe and five million more were killed or died of disease and starvation while fleeing.<ref>McCarthy, Justin (1995), ''Death and Exile: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ottoman Muslims, 1821-1922'', Princeton: Darwin Press, pp. 335-340</ref>  Cleansing occurred as a result of the Serbian and Greek independence in the 1820s and 1830s, the [[Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)|Russo-Turkish War]] 1877-1878, and culminating in the [[Balkan Wars]] 1912-1913. Mann describes these acts as ''“murderous ethnic cleansing on stupendous scale not previously seen in Europe”'' referring to the 1914 [[Carnegie Endowment]] report.<ref>Mann, Michael (2005), ''The dark side of democracy: explaining ethnic cleansing'', Cambridge University Press, p. 113</ref><ref>Report of the International Commission to Inquire into the Causes and Conduct of the Balkan Wars (Washington, DC: The Endowment, 1914)</ref> It is estimated that at the turn of the 20th century there were 4,4 million Muslims living in the Balkan zone of Ottoman control.<ref name="Cornis-Pope, Marcel Neubauer pp.21">Cornis-Pope, Marcel & Neubauer, John (2004), ''History of the literary cultures of East-Central Europe'' p. 21</ref> More than one million Muslims left the Balkans in the last three decades of the 19th century.<ref>Todorova, Maria (2009), ''Imagining the Balkans'', Oxford University Press, p. 175</ref> Between 1912 and 1926 nearly 2.9  million Muslims were either killed or forced to emigrate to Turkey.<ref name="Cornis-Pope, Marcel Neubauer pp.21" />

Between 10,000<ref>St Clair, William (2008), [http://books.google.com/books?id=NphFnF2RRKUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=That+Greece+Might+Still+Be+Free+-+The+Philhellenes+in+the+War+of+Independence&cd=1#v=onepage&q=tripolitsa&f=false ''That Greece Might Still Be Free: The Philhellenes in the War of Independence''] p. 45</ref> and 30,000<ref>McCarthy, Justin (1995), ''Death and Exile: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ottoman Muslims, 1821–1922'', Princeton:Darwin Press</ref><ref>Millas, Hercules (1991), ''History Textbooks in Greece and Turkey'', History Workshop, No. 31</ref><ref>Phillips, W. Alison , ''The War of Greek Independence 1821 to 1833'', p. 61.</ref> Turks were killed in [[Tripolitsa]] by Greek rebels in the summer of 1821, including the entire Jewish population of the city. Similar events as these occurred also elsewhere during the Greek Revolution resulting in the eradication and expulsion of virtually the entire Turkish population of the [[Morea]]. These acts ensured the ethnic homogenization of the area under the rule of the future modern Greek state.<ref>Zarinebaf, Fariba., Bennet, John., Davis, Jack L. (2005), ''A historical and economic geography of Ottoman Greece'', The America School of Classical Studies, Athens, pp. 162-171</ref> In 1830 the Muslims population in Morea is put at 300,000. In 1878 the Muslim inhabitants in [[Thessaly]] are estimated to be 150,000 and in 1897 the Muslims numbered 50,000 in Crete. By 1919 there were virtually no Muslims left in Morea and Thessaly and only 20,000 in Crete.<ref>''Greek Atrocities in the [[Vilayet of Smyrna]] (May to July 1919)'', The Permanent Bureau of the Turkish Congress at Lausanne, 1919, p. 5</ref>

In the Bulgarian insurgency of the [[April Uprising]] in 1876 an estimate of 1,000 Muslims were killed.<ref>Quataert, Donald. "The Ottoman Empire, 1700-1922 ", Cambridge University Press 2005, pp.69</ref><ref>Millman, Richard. “The Bulgarian Massacres Reconsidered.” pp.218-231</ref> 
During the [[Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)|Russo-Turkish War]] a significant number of Turks were either killed, perished or became refugees. There are different estimates about the casualties of the war. Crampton describes an exodus of 130,000-150,000 expelled  of which approximately half returned for an intermediary period encouraged by the [[Congress of Berlin]]. Hupchick and McCarthy point out that 260,000 perished and 500,000 became refugees.<ref>Hupchick, Dennis P. (2002), ''The Balkans: From Constantinople to Communism'', p. 265</ref><ref>McCarthy, J. (1995), ''Death and Exile: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ottoman Muslims, 1821-1922''. Princeton: Darwin Press, pp. 64, 85</ref> The Turkish scholars Karpat and Ipek argue that up to 300,000 were killed and 1 - 1.5 million were forced to emigrate.<ref>Karpat, Kemal H. (2004), ''Studies on Ottoman social and political history: selected articles and essays'', p. 764</ref><ref>Ipek, Nedim (1994), ''Turkish Migration from the Balkans to Anatolia'', pp. 40-41</ref>

Massacres against Turks and Muslims during the Balkan Wars in the hands of [[Bulgarians]], [[Greeks]] and [[Armenians]] are described in detail in the 1912 Carnegie Endowment report.<ref>Carnegie Report, ''Macedonian Muslims during the Balkan Wars'',1912</ref> Hupchick estimates that nearly 1,5 million Muslims died and 400,000 became refugees as a result of the Balkan Wars.<ref>Hupchick, 2002, pp.321</ref> The Bulgarian violence during the [[Balkan War]] included burning of villages, transforming mosques into churches, rape of women and mutilation of bodies. It is estimated that 220,000 Pomaks were forcefully [[Christianized]] and forbidden to bear Islamic religious clothing.<ref>Volgyi, Bistra-Beatrix., "Ethno-Nationalism during Democratic Transition in Bulgaria",  York University, 2007, pp.19</ref>

====Kosovo====

====Bulgaria====
{{Main|Turks in Bulgaria}}

1.5 million Muslims used to live in Bulgaria before [[Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)]]. After the Turkish defeat, the Russian army along with
irregular troops that included Cossacks entered Bulgaria and carried out massacres and deportations against Muslim people with the aid of the Bulgarians. Half a million Muslims succeeded in going to Ottoman controlled lands and 672.215 Muslim were reported to have remained after the war in Bulgaria. Approximately a quarter of a million Muslims perished from massacres, cold, disease and other harsh conditions.<ref>Death and Exile, the ethnic cleansing of Ottoman Muslims by Justin McCarthy ISBN 0-87850-094-4 pg.91 the numbers which consists of Turks, Tatars, Circassians, Pomak(Bulgarian) Muslims and Jews are from 1887 Bulgarian Census, Les réfugies de la Roumelie p.8, Ottoman Special Inspectors of the Emigration Service and Türkiye'de Göç ve Göçmen Meseleleri -Issue of Emigration and emigrants in Turkey (name of book in English)- by Ahmet Cevan Eren,Istanbul,1966,pg.79-89</ref>
''"I can come to no other conclusion but that the Russians are carrying out a fixed policy exterminating the Moslem race"''.<ref>Layard to Derby, 19 August 1877 F.O. 424-59, p.198, no.274, quoted in Şimşir British documents on Ottoman Armenians
Volume I (1880-1890)</ref> According to Aubaret, the French Consul in [[Ruse]] in 1876 in the [[Danube Vilayet]] alone there were 1,120,000 Muslims and 1,233,500 non-Muslims of whom 1,150,000 were Bulgarian. Between 1876 and 1878, through massacres, epidemics, hunger and war a large portion of the Turkish population vanished. Turkish flow to Anatolia continued in a steady pattern depending on the policies of the ruling regimes until 1925 after which immigration was regulated. During the 20th century Bulgaria also practiced forced deportations and expulsions, which also targeted the Muslim [[Pomak]] population.<ref>Suleiman, Yasir,. "Language and identity in the Middle East and North Africa ", Cornwall, Great Britain 1996, pp.102-103</ref>

In 1989, 310,000 Turks left Bulgaria, many under pressure as a result of the [[communist]] [[Todor Zhivkov|Zhivkov]] regime's assimilation campaign (though up to a third returned before the end of the year). That program, which began in 1984, forced all Turks and other Muslims in Bulgaria to adopt [[Bulgarian name]]s and renounce all Muslim customs. The motivation of the 1984 assimilation campaign is unclear; however, some experts believe that the disproportion between the birth rates of the Turks and the Bulgarians was a major factor.<ref name=autogenerated1>Glenn E. Curtis, ed. Bulgaria: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1992</ref> During the name-changing phase of the campaign, Turkish towns and villages were surrounded by army units. Citizens were issued new identity cards with Bulgarian names. Failure to present a new card meant forfeiture of salary, pension payments, and bank withdrawals. Birth or marriage certificates would be issued only in Bulgarian names. Traditional Turkish costumes were banned; homes were searched and all signs of Turkish identity removed. [[Mosques]] were closed. According to estimates, 500 to 1,500 people were killed when they resisted assimilation measures, and thousands of others were imprisoned or sent to labor camps or were forcibly resettled.<ref>Library of Congress, [http://memory.loc.gov/frd/cs/bgtoc.html A Country Study: Bulgaria], Call Number DR55.B724 1993</ref>

====Genocidio in Bosnia====

[[File:Manjača Camp.jpg|thumb|The [[Manjača camp|Manjača concentration camp]] where Bosnian Muslim men were detained in 1992.]]

{{Main|Genocidio in Bosnia}}
{{Vedi anche|Massacri di Foča|Massacro di Srebrenica|Campo di Omarska}}

Although religious and ethnic strife has flared in the Balkans for centuries, modern persecution of Muslims occurred during the [[Yugoslav Wars]]. Wars in which numerous [[Bosniaks]] were [[beaten]], [[tortured]], [[sexually assaulted]] and [[ethnically cleansed]]. Both [[Serb]] and [[Croat]] Christians destroyed Bosniak communities, while fighting each other. Although some Serbs and Croats claimed that the persecutions were not religious in nature, their brutal focus on religious buildings and symbols belie those claims. In addition to denying persecution of Muslims, Serbs said it was "part of a war" as their excuse. In any case, it was both ethnic and religious cleansing.  Virtually all traces of Bosniak presence and [[culture]] in the area were wiped out during the [[Foča massacres]]. Almost no Bosniaks remained in Foča. All [[mosque]]s in the city were destroyed. On 22 April 1992, Serbs blew up the Aladža Mosque - one of the most famous mosques in the Balkans. Eight more mosques, from the 16th and 17th centuries, were also damaged or fully destroyed. On January 1994, the Serb authorities renamed Foča “Srbinje” ({{serbo|Србиње}}), literally meaning "place of the Serbs" (from ''Srbi'' Serbs and ''-nje'' which is a Slavic locative suffix).<ref name="ICTY: Kunarac, Kovač and Vuković judgement - Foča"/> Bosniak (Bosnian Muslim) women were raped by the Serbs as spoils of war and to show superiority and victory over the Bosniaks. For instance, the girls and women selected by the later convicted [[war criminal]] [[Dragoljub Kunarac]] or by his men, were systematically taken to the soldiers’ base, a house located in Osmana Đikić street no 16. There, the women and girls (some as young as 14) were repeatedly raped. Serb soldiers regularly took Muslim girls from various detention centres and kept them as sex slaves.<ref name="ICTY: Kunarac, Kovač and Vuković judgement - Foča">{{Cita web|url=http://www.un.org/icty/kunarac/trialc2/judgement/kun-tj010222e-5.htm#VC|titolo=ICTY: The attack against the civilian population and related requirements}}<!-- {{Dead link|date=December 2009}} --></ref>

===Russian Empire===

[[File:Molla Nasraddin (magazine), 1908.jpg|thumb|right|175px|Russian soldier menacing a [[Muslim]] family.]]

{{Vedi anche|Circassian ethnic cleansing|Guerra caucasica}}

The period from the [[Russo-Kazan Wars|conquest of Kazan]] in 1552 to the ascension of [[Catherine the Great]] in 1762, was marked by systematic repression of Muslims through policies of exclusion and discrimination as well as the destruction of Muslim culture by elimination of outward manifestations of Islam such as [[mosque]]s.  The Russians initially demonstrated a willingness in allowing [[Islam]] to flourish as Muslim clerics were invited into the various region to preach to the Muslims, particularly the [[Kazakhs]] whom the Russians viewed as "savages" and "ignorant" of morals and ethics.<ref>Khodarkovsky, Michael. ''Russia's Steppe Frontier: The Making of a Colonial Empire, 1500-1800'', pg. 39.</ref><ref name=EncycSex572>Ember, Carol R. and Melvin Ember. ''Encyclopedia of Sex and Gender: Men and Women in the World's Cultures'', pg. 572</ref>  However, Russian policy shifted toward weakening Islam by introducing pre-Islamic elements of collective consciousness.<ref name=Hunter14>Hunter, Shireen. "Islam in Russia: The Politics of Identity and Security", pg. 14</ref> Such attempts included methods of eulogizing pre-Islamic historical figures and imposing a sense of inferiority by sending Kazakhs to highly elite Russian military institutions.<ref name=Hunter14 /> In response, Kazakh religious leaders attempted to bring religious fervor by espousing [[pan-Turkism]], though many were persecuted as a result.<ref>Farah, Caesar E. ''Islam: Beliefs and Observances'', pg. 304</ref>

While total expulsion as in other Christian nations such as Spain, Portugal and [[Sicily]] was not feasible to achieve a homogenous [[Russian Orthodox]] population, other policies such as land grants and the promotion of migration by other Russian and non-Muslim populations into Muslim lands displaced many Muslims making them minorities in places such as some parts of the South Ural region to other parts such as the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turkey]], and almost annihilating the [[Circassians]], [[Crimean Tatars]], and various [[Peoples of the Caucasus in Turkey|Muslims of the Caucasus]].  The Russian army rounded up people, driving Muslims from their villages to ports on the Black Sea, where they awaited ships provided by the neighboring [[Ottoman Empire]]. The explicit Russian goal was to expel the groups in question from their lands.<ref>Kazemzadeh 1974</ref> They were given a choice as to where to be resettled: in the Ottoman Empire or in Russia far from their old lands. Only a small percentage (the numbers are unknown) accepted resettlement within the [[Russian Empire]]. The trend of [[Russification]] has continued at different paces in the rest of Tsarist and [[Soviet]] periods, so that today there are more Tatars living outside the [[Republic of Tatarstan]] than inside it.<ref>Shireen Tahmasseb Hunter, Jeffrey L. Thomas, Alexander Melikishvili, ''"Islam in Russia"'', M.E. Sharpe, 1 Apr 2004,  ISBN 0-7656-1282-8</ref>

===Azerbaijan===

<!-- {{ Main|Khojaly Massacre}} -->

Azerbaijanis were exposed to genocide many times in twentieth century.During [[March Days]] in 1918 12.000 Azerbaijanis were massacred by Armenians.According to the [[Memorial (society)|Memorial Human Rights Center]], [[Human Rights Watch]] and other international observers,<ref>[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10611FF3C5D0C708CDDAA0894DA494D81 New York Times - Massacre by Armenians Being Reported]</ref><ref>[http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview/0,10987,975096,00.html TIME Magazine - Tragedy Massacre in Khojaly]</ref> [[Azerbaijan]]i citizens, including women and children, were massacred by ethnic [[Armenia]]n armed forces, reportedly with help of the Russian 366th Motor Rifle Regiment during the [[Khojaly Massacre]].<ref>Small Nations and Great Powers: A Study of Ethnopolitical Conflict in the Caucasus By Svante E. Cornell</ref> The Khojaly Massacre was described by [[Human Rights Watch]] as "the largest massacre to date in the conflict" over [[Nagorno-Karabakh]].<ref>Human Rights Watch / Helsinki. Azerbaijan: Seven Years of Conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh. New York. 1994.</ref> [[Memorial (society)|Memorial]], the Moscow-based human rights group, stated in their report that the mass killing of civilians in Khojaly could not be justified under any circumstances and that actions of Armenian militants were in gross violation of a number of basic international human rights conventions.<ref>[http://www.memo.ru/hr/hotpoints/karabah/Hojaly/ Report of Memorial Human rights center (In Russian)]</ref>

==Situazione attuale==

===IIslamofobia in Europa===

====Rapporto EUMC====

Il più grande progetto di monitoraggio commissionato sull'islamofobia fu intrapreso, a seguito degli [[attentati dell'11 settembre 2001]], dall'''[[Agenzia europea dei diritti fondamentali|European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia]]'' (EUMC). 
Il rapporto del maggio 2002: ''Summary report on Islamophobia in the EU after [[Attentati dell'11 settembre 2001|11 September 2001]]'', scritto da [[Chris Allen (autore)|Chris Allen]] e Jorgen S. Nielsen dell'[[Università di Birmingham]] è basato su 75 relazioni: 15 da ciascuna nazione dell'[[Unione europea]].
<ref name="EUMC">{{en}}<!-- {{Dead link|date=July 2010}} -->Allen, Chris e Nielsen, Jorgen S. [http://www.raxen.eumc.eu.int/1/webmill.php?id=32813&ditem=3101&lin=detail "Summary report on Islamophobia in the EU after 11 September 2001"], EUMC, May, 2002.</ref>

Il rapporto ha evidenziato la frequenza con la quale i normali musulmani sono divenuti bersaglio di atti di ritorsione offensivi e talvolta violenti dopo il 9/11.
Nonostante le differenze localizzate all'interno di ogni paese membro, il ripetersi di attacchi verso tratti riconoscibili e visibili dell'islam e dei musulmani è stata la scoperta più significativa della relazione.
Gli attacchi hanno assunto varie forme: offesa verbale, incolpare tutti i musulmani per gli attacchi terroristici, donne cui viene strappato lo [[hijab]] dalla testa, sputare a musulmani sia di sesso maschile che femminile, bambini che vengono chiamati "[[Osama Bin Laden|Usama]]" e violente aggressioni casuali che mandano le vittime in ospedale e, in una occasione, l'ha lasciata paralizzata.<ref name="EUMC"/>

La relazione ha inoltre analizzato come i mussulmani vengono rappresentati dai media.
Negatività intrinseche, immagini stereotipate, rappresentazioni fantastiche e caricature esagerate sono state tutte identificate. 
La relazione conclude che "una sempre maggiore ricettività verso idee e sentimenti anti-musulmani e xenofobi sta, e potrebbe continuare, a diventare più tollerato."<ref name="EUMC"/>

The report concluded that "a greater receptivity towards anti-Muslim and other xenophobic ideas and sentiments has, and may well continue, to become more tolerated.=

===Since the Collapse of the Soviet Union===

Due to large activity of [[Islamic terrorism|Islamic]] [[Terrorism in Russia#Contemporary Russia|terrorism in Russia]]: [[Budyonnovsk hospital hostage crisis]] with 129 victims, [[Kizlyar-Pervomayskoye hostage crisis#Kizlyar hospital hostage crisis|Kizlyar hospital hostage crisis]] with 100 victims, [[Black Sea hostage crisis|Ferry hijacking]], [[Moscow theater hostage crisis]] with 129 victims, [[Riyadus-Salikhin Reconnaissance and Sabotage Battalion of Chechen Martyrs|Riyadus-Salikhin]]'s bombing in Moscow and [[Yessentuki]]<ref>[http://ny.russianamerica.com/common/arc/story.php/86591?id_cr=118]</ref>  with 47 victims, [[Beslan school hostage crisis]] with 385 children victims, [[Russian apartment bombings]] with 300 victims carried by [[Muslim society №3|Muslim society]] and the growth of Tajik [[Organized crime]]<ref>http://tajmigrant.com/gastarbajtery-v-zakone-tak-li-ploxo-zhivetsya-tadzhikskim-trudovym-migrantam-v-rossii.html Tajik organized crime</ref>, many Russians (including authorities) have associated [[Islam]] and [[Muslims]] with [[terrorism]] and domestic crimes.<ref>[http://english.pravda.ru/hotspots/terror/16-10-2003/3864-islam-0 Islamophobia in Russia - Pravda.Ru]</ref><ref>[http://tchetchenieparis.free.fr/text/ru-racism-13-6-02.htm More Racism in Russia]</ref><ref>[http://www.iwpr.net/index.pl?archive/rca/rca_200205_118_5_eng.txt]</ref><ref>[http://www.mosnews.com/news/2004/10/15/uzbek.shtml Mosnews.com]</ref>
In August 2007 a video of 2 ethnic [[Russian people|Russian]] neo-Nazis beheading two [[Muslim]] men, one from [[Dagestan]] in the Caucasus and one from [[Tajikistan]] appeared on the internet.<ref>{{Cita news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6946810.stm|titolo=Russian held over 'deaths' video|data=15 agosto 2007|editore=[[BBC News]] |accesso=3 gennaio 2010}}</ref> In February 2004, a nine-year old [[Tajikistan|Tajik]] girl was stabbed to death in [[Saint Petersburg]] by suspected [[White power skinhead|far-right skinheads]].<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3476083.stm BBC NEWS | Europe | Girl killed by Russia 'racists']</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4965850.stm BBC NEWS | Europe | Racist attacks that stain Russia]</ref>. In December 2008  an email, containing a picture of the severed head of a man identified as Salekh Azizov , was sent to the Moscow Human Rights Bureau. It was sent by a group called Russian Nationalists' Combat Group and has led to protests from the Tajik Government.<ref name="BBC2008tajik">{{Cita news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/7780468.stm|titolo=Tajik alarm after Moscow murder|accesso=13 dicembre 2008 |pubblicazione=BBC News |data=12 dicembre 2008}}</ref> Despite these facts with large resonance the quantity of victims between Tajik immigrants<ref name="BBC2008tajik"/> is 2 time less than average quantity of victims per million inhabitants in Russia in 2008.<ref>[http://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/2009/0361/barom02.php Demoscop Weekly, 1 February 2009]</ref>

== Stalinist persecution of Muslims ==

{{Vedi anche|Islam nell'Unione Sovietica|Popolazioni trasferite nell'Unione Sovietica|Sürgün}}

The '''[[USSR]]''' was hostile to all forms of religion, which was "the opium of the masses" according to [[Karl Marx]]. Many Muslim regions of the Soviet Union, like other non-ethnic Russian regions, were subjected to intense russification.{{Citazione necessaria}} 
Many mosques were closed.<ref>[http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/ussrmuslims.htm Muslims in the Former U.S.S.R]</ref>  
During Stalin's reign, [[Crimean Tatar]] Muslims were victims of  mass deportation. However, the deportation was not religious persecution, it was officially based on the facts of [[Collaborationism]]<ref name="Романько">Романько О. В. Крым 1941-44 гг. Оккупация и коллаборационизм. Симферополь, 2005</ref> during the [[World War II#Occupation|Nazi occupation]] of Crimea<ref>[http://cidct.org.ua/uk/publications/deport/3.html Постановление ГКО СССР № ГОКО-5859 от 11 мая 1944 г. за подписью И. В. Сталина]</ref>. The deportation had begun on 17 May 1944 in all [[Crimea]]n inhabited localities. More than 32,000 [[NKVD]] troops participated in this action. 193,865 Crimean Tatars were deported, 151,136 of them to [[Uzbek SSR]], 8,597 to [[Mari ASSR]], 4,286 to [[Kazakh SSR]], the rest 29,846 to the various [[oblast]]s of [[RSFSR]].

From May to November 10,105 Crimean Tatars died of starvation in Uzbekistan (7% of deported to Uzbek SSR). Nearly 30,000 (20%) died in exile during the year and a half by the NKVD data and nearly 46% by the data of the Crimean Tatar activists. According to Soviet dissident information, many Crimean Tatars were made to work in the large-scale projects conducted by the Soviet [[GULAG]] system.<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,823132,00.html The Muzhik & the Commissar], ''[[TIME Magazine]]'', 30 November 1953</ref>

== Persecuzioni di musulmani in Cina==

===Genocidio dei Dungani===

{{Main|Rivolta dei Dungani|Ribellione dei Panthay}}

La [[Rivolta dei Dungani (1862-1877)|rivolta dei Dungani]] scoppiò a causa di lotte intestine tra diverse sette musulmane [[sufi]], il [[Khafiya]] e la Jahariyya, e la [[Gedimu]] (una scuola [[Hanafismo|hanafita]], non sufi, della tradizione [[sunnita]]).

Quando la ribellione fallì, seguì una migrazione di massa del popolo [[Dungani]] nell'[[Impero russo]], [[Kazakhstan]] e [[Kirghizistan]].
Prima della guerra, la popolazione della provincia dello [[Shaanxi]] raggiungeva approssimativamente i 13 milioni di abitanti, almeno 1.750.000 dei quali erano Dungani (Hui).
Dopo la guerra, la popolazione era scesa a 7 milioni; almeno 150.000 fuggirono.
[[Xi'an]], la capitale della provincia dello [[Shaanxi]], era la Città Santa dei Dungani (Hui) in Cina prima della rivolta. 
Ma la un tempo fiorente comunità dei [[Hui (popolo)|musulmani cinesi]] si ridusse del 93% a seguito dell rivolta nella provincia dello Shaanxi.
Tra il [[1648]] ed il [[1878]], circa dodici milioni di cinesi [[Hui (popolo)|Hui]] ed [[Han]] furono uccisi in dieci, non riuscite, sollevazioni.
<ref>[http://yugong.fudan.edu.cn/Article/Info_View.asp?ArticleID=72 禹贡网—复旦史地中心→禹贡文章→历史地理→历史人文地理 >> 正文<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
<ref>[http://yugong.fudan.edu.cn/Article/Info_View.asp?ArticleID=73 禹贡网—复旦史地中心→禹贡文章→历史地理→历史人文地理 >> 正文<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
<ref>{{en}} Alexander Berzin,   [http://www.berzinarchives.com/web/en/archives/study/islam/historical_interaction/overviews/history_hui_muslims_china.html?query=Historical+Sketch+of+the+Hui+Muslims+of+China Historical Sketch of the Hui Muslims of China<!-- Bot generated title -->], The Berzin Archives</ref>
Le rivolte furono duramente represse dal governo Manchu in un modo che equivale a un genocidio.
<ref>Levene, Mark. ''Genocide in the Age of the Nation-State''. I.B.Tauris, 2005. ISBN 1-84511-057-9, page 288</ref>
<ref>Giersch, Charles Patterson. ''Asian Borderlands: The Transformation of Qing China's Yunnan Frontier''. Harvard University Press, 2006. ISBN 1-84511-057-9, page 219</ref>
<ref>[http://kcm.co.kr/bethany_eng/a_code/china4.html Muslim History in China]</ref>
<ref>Dillon, Michael. ''[http://www.hsais.org/2essay0405_4.htm China’s Muslim Hui Community]''. Curzon, 1999. ISBN 0-7007-1026-4, page xix</ref>

Nella [[ribellione dei Panthay]] furono circa un milione le persone uccise
<ref>Damsan Harper, Steve Fallon, Katja Gaskell, Julie Grundvig, Carolyn Heller, Thomas Huhti, Bradley Maynew, Christopher Pitts. ''Lonely Planet China''. 9. 2005. ISBN 1-74059-687-0</ref>
<ref name=chineseciv>Gernet, Jacques. ''A History of Chinese Civilization''. 2. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996.ISBN 0-521-49712-4</ref>
e diversi milioni nella  [[Rivolta dei Dungani (1862-1877)|rivolta dei Dungani]]<ref name=chineseciv/> seguendo la politica di "[[Pulizia etnica|lavare via]] i musulmani" (洗回 (xi Hui)) che fu per lungo tempo perseguita dai funzionari governativi [[Dinastia Qing|Manciù]].
<ref>Jonathan N. Lipman, ''Familiar Strangers: A History of Muslims in Northwest China (Studies on Ethnic Groups in China)'', University of Washington Press (February 1998), ISBN 0-295-97644-6.</ref> 
Molti generali cinesi musulmani, come [[Ma Zhanao]], [[Ma Anliang]], [[Ma Qianling]], [[Dong Fuxiang]], [[Ma Haiyan]] e [[Ma Julung]] aiutarono la dinastia Qing a sconfiggere i ribelli musulmani e furono per questo ricompensati, ed i loro seguaci risparmiati dal genocidio.
Iln generale dei Qing [[Zuo Zongtang]], di etnia [[Han]], arrivò a trasferire gli Han dalla periferia di [[Hezhou]] per ricompensare i musulmani che si erano arresi, ed ai quali fu concessa un'amnistia ed il permesso di restare finché fossero rimasti fuori dalla città.
<ref>{{cita libro
 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=hUEswLE4SWUC&pg=PA68&dq=zuo+zongtang+han+hezhou&hl=en&ei=iow2TNbJC4L48AbB1o2DDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=zuo%20zongtang%20han%20hezhou&f=false
 |titolo=China's Muslim Hui community: migration, settlement and sects
 |autore=Michael Dillon
 |anno=1999
 |editore=Curzon Press
 |città=Richmond
 |p=68
 |ISBN=0-7007-1026-4
 |accesso=28 giugno 2010}}</ref> 
Alcuni dei musulmani, come il generale Dong, non combatterono perché erano musulmani ma piuttosto, come molti altri generali, essi radunarono bande di seguaci e presero parte ai combattimenti perseguendo interessi personali.
<ref>{{cita libro
|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=VaOaAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA114&dq=ma+fu-hsiang&hl=en&ei=AXkzTKenI8GqlAfS1bS-Cw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=8&ved=0CEsQ6AEwBw#v=snippet&q=%20ma%20fu-hsiang%20ma%20chan-ao%20ch'ing%20reconquest&f=false
|titolo=Last Stand of Chinese Conservatism the T'Ung-Chih
|autore=Mary Clabaugh Wright
|anno=1957
|editore=Stanford University Press
|città=|paginee=pag. 121
|ISBN=0-8047-0475-9
|pages=429
|accesso=28 giugno 2010}}</ref>
<ref>{{cita libro
|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=rezD7rvuf9YC&pg=PA850&lpg=PA850&dq=ma+fu-hsiang&source=bl&ots=DXkl1IbFV2&sig=0WAFe8G6PxzD5t2PBulETB8HgRo&hl=en&ei=m3gzTOrKKMKblgeO9MTECw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=9&ved=0CDAQ6AEwCA#v=onepage&q=ma%20fu-hsiang&f=false
|titolo=E.J. Brill's first encyclopaedia of Islam 1913-1936
|autore=M. Th. Houtsma
|coautori= A. J. Wensinck
|anno=1993
|editore=Stanford BRILL
|città=
|p=850
|ISBN=90-04-09796-1
|accesso=28 giugno 2010}}</ref>

I musulmani di altre parti della Cina, in particolare delle province orientali e meridionali che non si rivoltarono, non furono influenzati in alcun modo dalla ribellione, non subirono genocidi né cercarono di ribellarsi. 
Risulta che i villaggi musulmani nella provincia dello [[Henan]], che si trova accanto allo Shaanxi, rimasero totalmente estranei alla rivolta dei Dungani e le relazioni tra Han e Hui proseguirono normalmente. 
Musulmani provenienti dalla Cina orientale come [[Ma Xinyi]] continuarono a servire al governo cinese durante la rivolta, ignorando i musulmani del nord-ovest della Cina.

I musulmani cinesi (Dungani) parteciparono anche agli attacchi contro gli [[Uiguri]]. 
Diversi generali cinesi musulmani disertarono dalla dinastia Qing e aiutarono le forze cinesi che attaccarono gli Uiguri nello Xinjiang.
Cui Wei e Hua Decai guidarono ognuno una delle "Diciotto Divisioni Shaanxi" di truppe musulmane ribelli che, dopo essersi ritirate dallo Shaanxi, continuarono a combattere i Qing nel [[Gansu]]. 
Dei diciotto leader di queste divisioni, sei furono uccisi, undici compresi Cui Wei e Hua Decai si arresero ai Qing e uno, Bai Yanhu, trovò riparo nell'Impero russo. 
Dopo la resa, Cui Wei e Hua Decai condussero l'attacco dei Qing a molte delle città fortificate dello [[Xinjiang]] orientale e meridionale.
<ref name="Garnaut">{{Cita web|url=http://www.ouigour.fr/recherches_et_analyses/Garnautpage_93.pdf
|titolo=From Yunnan to Xinjiang:Governor Yang Zengxin and his Dungan Generals
|cognome=Garnaut
|nome=Anthony
|editore=Pacific and Asian History, Australian National University)
|accesso=14 luglio 2010}}</ref>

===East Turkistan and the Uyghurs===

<!-- {{Vedi anche|Ghulja Incident|July 2009 Ürümqi riots|2008 Uyghur unrest}} -->

Many [[Uiguri]] are forced to assimilate to a Han Chinese way of life and feel threatened by the spread of [[Han Chinese]] culture. In Xinjiang, school instruction is in [[Mandarin]] and very few pieces of literature are published in [[Uyghur language|Uyghur]] or other Turkic languages <ref>{{Cita web|url=http://www.wmd.org/wbdo/wbdominority/uyghur.html|titolo=What's Being Done On . . . Enhancing the Political Participation of Minority Peoples? ProFile: The Uyghur Community in China|editore=World Movement for Democracy|data=8 dicembre 2008|accesso=27 aprile 2009}}</ref>. The Chinese government gives economic incentives for [[Han Chinese]] to settle in [[Xinjiang]] <ref>{{Cita web|url=http://english.aljazeera.net/news/asia-pacific/2008/03/2008525184819409441.html|titolo=Xinjiang: China's 'other Tibet'|autore=Lydia Wilson and Poppy Toland|editore=[[Al Jazeera]]|data=25 marzo 2008|accesso=27 aprile 2009}}</ref>.

Many Uyghurs face religious persecution and discrimination at the hands of the [[Government of the People's Republic of China|government]] authorities. Uyghurs who choose to practice their faith can only use a state-approved version of the Koran <ref>{{Cita web|url=http://www.rfa.org/english/news/uyghur/directive-08142008114700.html|titolo=Crackdown on Xinjiang Mosques, Religion|editore=[[Radio Free Asia]]|data=14 agosto 2008|accesso=27 aprile 2009}}</ref>; men who work in the state sector cannot wear beards and women cannot wear headscarves <ref>{{Cita web|url=http://www.rfa.org/english/news/uyghur/hair-02202009174717.html|titolo=Kashgar Uyghurs Pressured To Shave|editore=[[Radio Free Asia]]|data=20 febbraio 2009|accesso=27 aprile 2009}}</ref>. The Chinese state controls the management of all mosques, which many Uyghurs claim stifles religious traditions that have formed a crucial part of the Uyghur identity for centuries.<ref>Uyghur Human Rights Project</ref>  Children under the age of 18 are not allowed to attend religious services at mosques.<ref>{{Cita web|url=http://www.uhrp.org/articles/50/1/China-Bans-Officials-State-Employees-Children-From-Mosques/China-Bans-Officials-State-Employees-Children-From-Mosques.html|titolo=China Bans Officials, State Employees, Children From Mosques|editore=Uyghur Human Rights Project|data=6 febbraio 2006|accesso=27 aprile 2009}}</ref>

==Buddhist persecution of Muslims==
===Mongol persecution of Muslims===

{{Vedi anche|Assedio di Baghdad (1258)|Invasioni mongole della Siria}}

[[File:Baghdad old Abbasid Minaret.jpg|175px|right|thumb|Site where the [[Mongol]] ruler [[Hulegu Khan]] destroyed a [[Baghdad]] mosque during the [[Battle of Baghdad (1258)|sack of Baghdad]].]]

Following the brutal [[Mongol invasion of Central Asia]] under [[Genghis Khan]] and after the [[Battle of Baghdad (1258)|sack of Baghdad]], the [[Mongol Empire]]'s rule extended across most Muslim lands in Asia. The [[Abbasid]] [[caliphate]] was destroyed and [[Islamic Golden Age|Islamic civilization]], especially [[Mesopotamia]], suffered much devastation and was replaced by [[Buddhism]] as the official religion of the land, since this was the Mongols' faith.<ref name="Brown">Daniel W. Brown, "'' New Introduction to Islam''", Blackwell Publishing, 1 Aug 2003, ISBN 0-631-21604-9 pg. 185-187</ref> However it is important to note that the Mongols attacked people for goods and riches, not because the religion was Islam. Many later Mongol khans and rulers became Muslims themselves like [[Oljeitu]] and other [[Ilkhanid]] and [[Golden Horde]] rulers and inhabitants. There was no real effort to replace Islam with any other religion, but to plunder goods from anyone that didn't submit, which is a characteristic of Mongol warfare. Also the religion of the Mongols at the time were mostly [[Shamanism]]. Also during the [[Yuan Dynasty]] that the Mongols founded, Muslim scientists were highly regarded and Muslim beliefs were [[Islam during the Yuan dynasty|respected in Yuan Dynasty]]. On the Mongol attacks, the Muslim historian, [[Ali ibn al-Athir|ibn al-Athir]] lamented:{{quote|I shrank from giving a recital of these events on the account of their magnitude and abhorrence.  Even now I come reluctant to the task, for who would deem it a light thing to sing the death song of [[Islam]] and the [[Muslims]] or find it easy to tell this tale? O that my mother had not given me birth!<ref>The preaching of Islam: a history of the propagation of the Muslim faith, By Thomas Walker Arnold, pg. 186</ref>}}

Among the detailed atrocities include:
* The [[House of Wisdom|Grand Library of Baghdad]], containing countless precious historical documents and books on subjects ranging from medicine to astronomy, was destroyed. Survivors said that the waters of the Tigris ran black with ink from the enormous quantities of books flung into the river.
* Citizens attempted to flee, but were intercepted by Mongol soldiers who killed with abandon. Martin Sicker writes that close to 90,000 people may have died (Sicker 2000, p.&nbsp;111). Other estimates go much higher. [[Wassaf]] claims the loss of life was several hundred thousand.  Ian Frazier of ''[[The New Yorker]]'' says estimates of the death toll have ranged from 200,000 to a million.<ref>Ian Frazier, [http://www.newyorker.com/fact/content/articles/050425fa_fact4 Annals of history: Invaders: Destroying Baghdad], [[The New Yorker]] 25 April 2005. p.4</ref>
* The Mongols looted and then destroyed mosques, palaces, libraries, and hospitals. Grand buildings that had been the work of generations were burned to the ground.
* The caliph was captured and forced to watch as his citizens were murdered and his treasury plundered. According to most accounts, the caliph was killed by trampling. The Mongols rolled the caliph up in a rug, and rode their horses over him, as they believed that the earth was offended if touched by royal blood. All but one of his sons were killed, and the sole surviving son was sent to Mongolia.
* Hulagu had to move his camp upwind of the city, due to the stench of decay from the ruined city.

At the intervention of the Mongol Hulagu's [[Nestorian Christian]] wife, [[Dokuz Khatun]], the Christian inhabitants were spared.<ref>Maalouf,  243</ref><ref>Runciman, 306</ref> Hulagu offered the royal palace to the Nestorian [[Catholicos]] [[Mar Makikha]], and ordered a cathedral to be built for him.<ref>Foltz, 123</ref> Ultimately, the seventh ruler of the Ilkhanate dynasty [[Mahmud Ghazan]] converted to Islam from Buddhism, and thus began the gradual trend of the decline of Buddhism in the region and renaissance of Islam.  Later, three of the four principal Mongol khanates later embraced [[Islam]].<ref>The Encyclopedia Americana, By Grolier Incorporated, pg. 680</ref>

===Persecution of Muslims in Myanmar===

<!-- {{Main|Persecution of Muslims in Myanmar|Rohingya people}} -->

[[Myanmar]] has a Buddhist majority. The Muslim minority in Myanmar mostly consists of the [[Rohingya people]] and the descendants of Muslim immigrants from India (including what is now [[Bangladesh]]) and China (the ancestors of [[Islam in China|Chinese Muslims]] in Myanmar came from the [[Yunnan]] province), as well as descendants of earlier [[Arab]] and [[Persian people|Persian]] settlers. [[Islam in India|Indian Muslims]] were brought to Burma by the British to aid them in clerical work and business. After independence, many Muslims retained their previous positions and achieved prominence in business and politics.

Buddhist persecution of Muslims arose from religious reasons, and occurred during the reign of King [[Bayinnaung]], 1550-1589 AD.  After conquering [[Bago]] in 1559, the Buddhist King prohibited the practice of [[halal]], specifically, killing food animals in the name of God. He was religiously intolerant, forcing some of his subjects to listen to Buddhist sermons possibly converting by force. He also disallowed the [[Eid]] Adha, religious sacrifice of cattle. Halal food was also forbidden by King Alaungpaya in the 18th century.

When General [[Ne Win]] swept to power on a wave of nationalism in 1962, the status of Muslims changed for the worse. Muslims were expelled from the army and were rapidly marginalized.<ref name=autogenerated1>[http://www.irrawaddy.org/aviewer.asp?a=5380&z=102]{{Dead link|date=May 2009}}</ref> Muslims are stereotyped in the society as "cattle killers" (referring to the cattle sacrifice festival of [[Eid Al Adha]] in Islam). The generic [[racist]] slur of "Kala" (black) used against perceived "foreigners" has especially negative connotations when referring to Burmese Muslims. The more pious Muslim communities which segregate themselves from the Buddhist majority face greater difficulties than those Muslims who integrate more at the cost of not observing Islamic personal laws.<ref name=autogenerated1 />

Muslims in Myanmar are affected by the actions of [[Islamic Fundamentalists]] in other countries. Violence in [[Indonesia]] perpetrated by [[Islamists]] is used as a pretext to commit violence against Muslim minorities in Burma. The anti-Buddhist actions of the [[Taliban]] in Afghanistan (the destruction of the [[Buddhas of Bamiyan]]) was also used as a pretext to commit violence against Muslims in Myanmar by Buddhist mobs. [[Human Rights Watch]] reports that there was mounting tension between the Buddhist and Muslim communities in Taungoo for weeks before it erupted into violence in the middle of May 2001. Buddhist monks demanded that the Hantha Mosque in Taungoo be destroyed in "retaliation" for the destruction of the [[Buddhas of Bamiyan]].<ref>[http://hrw.org/backgrounder/asia/burma-bck4.htm#P103_22688 http://hrw.org/backgrounder/asia/burma-bck4.htm#P103_22688] ''Hrw.org'' Retrieved on 24 May 2007</ref> Mobs of Buddhists, led by monks, vandalized Muslim owned businesses and property and attacked and killed Muslims in Muslim communities. This was followed by retaliation by Muslims against Buddhists. Human Rights Watch also alleges that Burmese military intelligence agents disguised as monks, led the mobs.<ref>[http://hrw.org/backgrounder/asia/burma-bck4.htm#P103_22688 Taungoo Violence (May 2001): Crackdown on Burmese Muslims (Human Rights Watch Briefing Paper, July 2002)<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>

The dictatorial government, which operates a pervasive internal security apparatus, generally infiltrates or monitors the meetings and activities of virtually all organizations, including religious organizations. Religious freedom for Muslims is reduced. Monitoring and control of Islam undermines the free exchange of thoughts and ideas associated with religious activities.<ref>http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2001/5581.htm]. Accusations of "terrorism" are made against Muslim organizations such as the All Burma Muslim Union.[http://www.irrawaddy.org/aviewer.asp?a=5380&z=102</ref>

It is widely feared that persecution of Muslims in Myanmar could foment [[Islamic fundamentalism]] in the country.<ref>[http://www.irrawaddy.org/aviewer.asp?a=5380&z=102 http://www.irrawaddy.org/aviewer.asp?a=5380&z=102]<!-- {{Dead link|date=May 2009}} --> ''Irrawaddy.org'' Retrieved on 24 May 2007</ref> Many Muslims have joined armed resistance groups that are fighting for greater freedom in Myanmar,<ref>[http://www.khrg.org/khrg2002/khrg0202.html Easy Targets<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> but are not [[Islamic fundamentalists]] as such.

==Persecution of Muslims in Cambodia==
The [[Khmer Rouge]] regime in [[Cambodia]] disproportionately targeted ethnic minority groups. The [[Cham people|Cham]], a Muslim minority who are the descendants of migrants from the old state of [[Champa]], were forced to adopt the [[Khmer people|Khmer]] language and customs. Ysa Osman, a researcher at the Documentation Center of Cambodia concludes, "Perhaps as many as 500,000 died. They were considered, along with the [[Vietnam]]ese, the Khmer Rouge's No. 1 enemy. The plan was to exterminate them all" because "they stood out. They worshiped their own god. Their diet was different. Their names and language were different. They lived by different rules. The Khmer Rouge wanted everyone to be equal, and when the Chams practiced Islam they did not appear to be equal. So they were punished." <ref>http://www.time.com/time/asia/covers/501030310/persecution2.html weakness in numbers</ref> A Khmer Rouge order stated that henceforth “The Cham nation no longer exists on Kampuchean soil belonging to the Khmers” (U.N. Doc. A.34/569 at 9). Only about half of the Cham survived.<ref>[http://www.ppu.org.uk/genocide/g_cambodia1.html Genocide - Cambodia]</ref><ref>[http://www.genocidewatch.org/aboutgenocide/stantoncambodianlaw.htm The Cambodian Genocide and International Law]</ref>

==Hindu persecution of Muslims==
===In India===

{{Vedi anche|Fondamentalismo Hindū}}

There were widespread riots during the [[Partition of India|Partition of British India]] in 1947, with attacks on Muslim minorities by [[Hindu]] and [[Sikh]] mobs. In order to facilitate the creation of new states along [[religion|religious]] lines [[Partition of India#Independence and population exchanges|population exchanges between India and Pakistan]] were implemented, at the expense of significant human suffering in the process. A large number of people (more than a million by some estimates) died in the accompanying violence. After the annexation of the [[Muslim culture of Hyderabad|Muslim-ruled]] state of [[Hyderabad State|Hyderabad]] by India in 1948, about 7,000 Muslim Arabs were either due to emigrate to Pakistan at their own will or interned and deported from India.<ref>[http://www.al-bab.com/bys/articles/freitag99.htm British-Yemeni Society: Hadhrami migration in the 19th and 20th centuries]</ref> There was widespread violence against the Muslims as an aftermath of the 'Police Action' (officially [[Operation Polo]]) and [[Nehru]] had a committee investigate the pogrom against Muslims, but the resulting Sundarlal Report was never made public (an estimated 50-200,000 Muslims are believed to have been killed).<ref>Noorani, AG. [http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl1805/18051130.htm Of a Massacre Untold]. "[[Frontline magazine|Frontline]]." 3 March 2001.</ref>

In 1992, members of the [[Vishva Hindu Parishad]] and the [[Bajrang Dal]] destroyed the 430 year old [[Babri Mosque]] in [[Ayodhya]],<ref name=HRWCACV>[http://www.hrw.org/reports/1999/indiachr/christians8-03.htm The Context of Anti-Christian Violence]</ref> on the basis of their assertion that the mosque was built over the birthplace of the Hindu deity [[Rama]] and that a Hindu temple existed at the site before the erection of the Mosque by demolishing the temple. The demolition was followed by [[Bombay Riots|riots in Bombay]].

The [[Sangh Parivar]] family of organisations, has allegedly been involved in encouraging negative, [[stereotyping]] of Muslims, and in the [[2002 Gujarat violence]] they were allegedly responsible for encouraging attacks against Muslims in response to the [[Godhra train burning]] allegedly by Muslims in which 60 Hindus were killed.<ref>[http://hrw.org/reports/2002/india/India0402-02.htm#P335_60148 Human Rights Watch]</ref>.  Subsequent riots led to the death of several hundred Muslims. Another major incident was at [[Naroda-Patia|Naroda Patia]], where a Hindu mob massacred more than 100 Muslims after an incident sparked by Muslim on Hindu violence had got out of hand. In another incident at Best Bakery, in the city of [[Baroda]], 12 men were massacred and burnt.<ref>[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2003/24470.htm International Religious Freedom Report 2003]</ref> The Gujarat riots officially led to the death of 1044 people. [[Human Rights Watch]] puts the death toll at higher figures, with 2000 deaths, mostly with attacks against Muslims by Hindu mobs.<ref>[http://hrw.org/reports/2002/india/ http://hrw.org/reports/2002/india/] ''Hrw.org'' Retrieved on 24 May 2007</ref> Another 100,000 Muslims became homeless, according to the U.S. State Department's 2002 human rights report on India. About 20,000 Muslim businesses were destroyed.<ref>[http://www.dailyherald.com/special/passagefromindia/hindu.asp Daily Herald : Passage from India]</ref>

Recently Hindu mobs again attacked Muslim villages after cows were claimed to have been sacrificed for the festivities of [[Eid ul-Fitr|Eid]]. In 2005, this caused the destruction of 40 homes and 3 deaths. A police investigation revealed that no cow had been slaughtered in the village.<ref>[http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2005-11-06-india-mobattack_x.htm USA Today] - Retrieved 06/11/2005.</ref>

Despite these occasional communal tensions between the Hindus and the Muslims, they enjoy a cordial relationship between each other. A matter of note is that out of the 12 [[Presidents of India]] since Independence, three have been Muslims, even though Muslims form only 13.4% of Indian population.<!-- Dr. Zakir Hussain, Dr Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed and Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam -->

==Persecution of Muslims in Sri Lanka==

<!-- {{Main|Expulsion of Muslims from the Northern province by LTTE}} -->

ùThe 1990 explusion of [[Islam in Sri Lanka|Muslims]] from Sri Lanka was an act of [[ethnic cleansing]]<ref>http://www.refugeesinternational.org/content/article/detail/765/</ref><ref>[http://www.hindu.com/2007/07/31/stories/2007073154771000.htm The Hindu : Opinion / Leader Page Articles : Sri Lanka’s Muslims: out in the cold<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> carried out by [[Tamils]] of the [[Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam]] (LTTE) organization in October 1990. In order to achieve their goal of creating a mono ethnic [[Tamil people|Tamil]] state<ref>http://www.theacademic.org/feature/162395480028024/index.shtml</ref><ref>[http://www.hindu.com/2007/04/13/stories/2007041304441600.htm The Hindu : International : Ethnic cleansing: Colombo<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> in the North [[Sri Lanka]], the LTTE forcibly expelled the 75,000 strong [[Islam in Sri Lanka|Muslim]] population from the Northern Province.<ref>[http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2416/stories/20070824505104200.htm]</ref> The first expulsion was in [[Chavakacheri]], of 1,500 people.  After this, Muslims in [[Kilinochchi]] and [[Mannar]] were forced many to leave their homeland.  The turn of [[Jaffna]] came on 30 October 1990; when LTTE trucks drove through the streets ordering Muslim families to assemble at Osmania College.  There, they were told to exit the city within two hours.

On 4 August 1990, Tamil militants massacred over 147 [[Islam in Sri Lanka|Muslims]] in a [[mosque]] in [[Kattankudi]].<ref>[http://www.amnestyusa.org/document.php?lang=e&id=5E7F89A231872062802569A600601598 Sri Lanka: The Northeast: Human rights violations in a context of armed conflict<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref name='nyt-8/5/90-tkm'>''[[The New York Times]]'', Tamils Kill 110 Muslims at 2 Sri Lankan Mosques, ''5 August 1990''</ref><ref name='times-8/13/90-tkm'>''[[The Times]]'', Tamils kill 116 Muslims, ''13 August 1990''</ref><ref name='ap-7/17/95'>''[[Associated Press]]'', Tamil Rebels Order Muslims to Leave City, ''17 June 1995''</ref> The act took place when around 30 Tamil rebels raided four mosques in the town of Kattankudi, where over 300 people were prostrating during prayers.

== Vedi anche ==
* [[Criptomusulmani]]
* [[Islamofobia]]
* [[Massacro di Srebrenica]]
* [[Tortura e abusi su prigionieri a Bagram]]

== Note ==
<references/>

==Collegamenti esterni==
* [http://www.islamweb.net/ver2/archive/article.php?lang=E&id=51361 Persecution of Muslims in Mecca Before Hijra]
* [http://www.mwlusa.org/presentations/speech_persec.html Persecution of Muslims in Europe]<!-- {{Dead link|date=May 2009}}
 -->
<!-- {{DEFAULTSORT:Persecution Of Muslims}}
[[Category:Religious persecution]]
[[Category:Islamic history]]
[[Category:Islam-related controversies]]
[[Category:Ethnic cleansing]]
[[Category:Anti-Islam sentiment]] -->

=[[Effetti delle fughe radioattive degli incidenti nucleari di Fukushima Daiichi]]=

[[File:Fukushima7.png|thumb|250px
|Grafico delle radiazioni rilasciate dall'11 al 30 marzo 2011 dalla Centrale nucleare di Fukushima Daiichi dopo il [[Terremoto di Sendai del 2011|terremoto e lo tsunami di Tōhoku]], in confronto con gli standard ed eventi storici.
Mostra anche la serie temporale degli effetti geografici, la mappa locale del sito e la sequenza delle notizie.]]

Gli '''effetti elle fughe radioattive causate dagli [[Disastro di Fukushima Daiichi|incidenti nucleari di Fukushima I]]''' sono le conseguenze del rilascio di isotopi radioattivi dalla  [[Centrale nucleare di Fukushima Daiichi]] dopo il [[Terremoto di Sendai del 2011|Terremoto e maremoto di Tōhoku del 2011]].
Dopo che lo tsunami si è abbattuto sull'impianto il materiale radioattivo è stato rilasciato in diverse occasioni, sia intenzionalmente allo scopo di ridurre la pressione, sia in maniera accidentale e non controllata.
Ciò ha provocato una leggera contaminazione radioattiva dell'aria, dell'acqua potabile, del latte e di alcune colture nelle prefetture più vicino all'impianto, oltre al pesce catturato 50 miglia al largo della costa.
L'acqua potabile ha superato il limite fissato per i bambini per diversi giorni nella seconda settimana dopo l'incidente.
Diversi lavoratori hanno ricevuto molte dosi di oltre 100 [[Sievert|millisievert (mSv)]] mentre lavoravano sul sito dell'impianto, due di loro sono stati ricoverati in ospedale con elevate esposizioni attorno alle caviglie per essere rimasti in piedi nell'acqua di raffreddamento radioattiva.
É stato segnalato che il 27 marzo l'acqua all'interno delle unità 2 e 3 (ma al di fuori del contenimento) era ad un livello molto elevato, a "over 1000" e 750 mSv/h.<ref name=WNN27>{{cita news
 |url=http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/RS_Contaminated_pools_to_the_drained_2703111.html
 |titolo=Contaminated pools to be drained 
 |data=27 marzo 2011
 |editore=[[World Nuclear Association]]
 |lingua = en
 |pubblicazione=WNN}}</ref><ref name=TEPCO28>{{cita web
 |url=http://www.tepco.co.jp/en/press/corp-com/release/betu11_e/images/110327e15.pdf
 |titolo=Results of contamination check of water in the Basement at the turbine buildingof each Unit 2 of Fukushima Daiichi Power Station
 |data=29 marzo 2011
 |lingua = en
 |sito=Press Release|editore=[[TEPCO]]}}</ref>

==Sintesi giornaliera degli eventi==

{{see also|Timeline of the Fukushima I nuclear accidents}}

[[File:Fukushima Dosis qtl1.svg|thumb|Radiazioni rilasciate durante le esplosioni di idrogeno a Fukushima.]]

;11 marzo, venerdì: Le autorità giapponesi hanno comunicato che non vi era stata nessuna "fuga di radiazioni" dalle centrali elettriche.<ref name=IAEAiodine>{{cita web
|url=http://www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/2011/fukushimafull.html
|titolo=Fukushima Nuclear Accident Update Log
|lingua=en
|accesso=19 marzo 2011
|editore=[[IAEA]]}}</ref>

;12 marzo: Il giorno dopo il terremoto, un aumento dei livelli di iodio-131 e cesio-137 è stato segnalato sul sito dell'impianto, nei pressi dell'unità uno 1.<ref name=IAEAiodine/>

;13 marzo: Iniziato le sfogo per scaricare la pressione a diversi reattori con conseguente rilascio di materiale radioattivo.<ref name=IAEAiodine/>

;15 marzo: Il [[Segretario generale del Gabinetto|Segretario generale]] del [[Gabinetto del Giappone]], [[Yukio Edano]], ha comunicato che i livelli di radiazione misurati sul sito della centrale arrivavano a 30 mSv/h tra le unità due e tre, a 400 [[sievert|mSv]]/h<ref name="400_mSv">{{cita news 
 |url=http://www.jiji.com/jc/c?g=soc_30&k=2011031500479 
 |titolo=放射線、福島原発で４００ミリシーベルト＝「人体に影響及ぼす可能性」－官房長官 
 |editore=[[jiji press]]
 |pubblicazione =jiji.com
 |data=15 marzo 2011 
 |lingua=ja
 |accesso=15 marzo 2011}}</ref> vicino all'unità tre e tra questa e l'unità quattro e a 100 mSv/h vicino all'unità quattro. Ha detto, "non vi è dubbio che a differenza del passato, le cifre sono ad un livello al quale la salute umana può essere danneggiata."<ref name=ABC1>{{cita news
 |url = http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2011/03/15/3164595.htm
 |titolo=Nuke plant blasts raise radiation threat
 |editore=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]
 |pubblicazione= ABC News
 |lingua=en
 |data=15 marzo 2011}}</ref> Il primo ministro [[Naoto Kan]] ha esortato le persone che vivono tra i 20 ei 30&nbsp;km dall'impianto a rimanere in casa, "Il pericolo di ulteriori fughe di radiazioni [dall'impianto] è in aumento," Kan ha messo in guardia il pubblico ad una conferenza stampa, chiedendo alle persone di "agire con calma".<ref name=KN1>{{cita web
 |url = http://english.kyodonews.jp/news/2011/03/78123.html 
 | titolo= Radiation leak feared at nuke plant, people urged to stay indoors
 |editore=[[Kyodo News Agency]]
 |lingua=en
 |data=15 marzo 2011}}</ref> Un portavoce dell'agenzia di sicurezza nucleare del Giappone ha riferito che la TEPCO ha affermato che i livelli di radiazione a Ibaraki, tra Fukushima e Tokyo, era salito ma che non rappresenta un rischio per la salute. Edano ha riferito che il dosaggio  medio di radiazioni durante tutta la giornata è stato 0.109 μSv/h.<ref name="eiken, radiation" /> Sono state decontaminate 23 delle 150 persone che vivono in prossimità dell'impianto sottoposte a test<ref name=IAEAiodine/>

;16 marzo, mercoledì: Il personale della centrale elettrica è stato evacuato per breve tempo dopo che del fumo è salito sopra l'impianto ed i livelli delle radiazioni misurate al cancello sono aumentato a 10 mSv/h.<ref>{{cita web
 |url=http://www.tepco.co.jp/cc/press/betu11_j/images/110315g.pdf
 |titolo=Press release
 |lingua=ja
 |editore=TEPCO}}</ref> I media hanno segnalato 1.000 mSv/h vicino all'impianto danneggiato, con i livelli di radiazione in seguito ridiscesi a 800-600 mSv.<ref name=cbs1>{{cita news
 |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2011/03/15/501364/main20043621.shtml 
 |titolo=Radiation spike hinders work at Japan nuke plant 
 |lingua=en
 |pubblicazione=CBS News.com
 |editore=[[CBS]]
 |data=15 marzo 2011
 |accesso=18 marzo 2011}}</ref> Il Ministero della difesa giapponese ha criticato l'agenzia per la sicurezza nucleare e la TEPCO dopo che alcune sue truppe sono probabilmente state esposte a radiazioni mentre lavoravano sul sito.<ref name=ABC16>{{cita news
 |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2011/03/16/3166012.htm
 |titolo=Japan grateful to 'hero' nuke workers
 |editore=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]
 |pubblicazione= ABC News
 |lingua=en
 |data=16 marzo 2011}}</ref> 20&nbsp;km. a nord-ovest della centrale il [[Ministero dell'Educazione Cultura, Sport, Scienza e Tecnologia|ministero della scienza giapponese]] (MEXT) ha rilevato livelli di radiazione fino a 0,33 mSv/h.<ref name=NHK16>{{cita news
 |url= http://www3.nhk.or.jp/daily/english/16_36.html 
 |titolo=High radiation levels detected 20 km. from plant
 |editore=[[Japan Broadcasting Corporation]]
 |pubblicazione =NHK WORLD
 |lingua=en 
 |data=16 marzo 2011 
 |accesso=16 marzo 2011}}</ref> la Commissione per la sicurezza nucleare del Giappone ha raccomandato alle autorità locali di indicare agli sfollati dall'area di 20 chilometri di ingerire iodio stabile (non radioattivo).<ref name=IAEAiodine/>

;17 marzo: Il monitoraggio delle radiazioni, effettuato su 47 città dalla [[IAEA]], ha mostrato che il livello di radiazione a Tokyo non è aumentato. Anche se in alcune località a circa 30&nbsp;km. dallo stabilimento di Fukushima la dose assorbita è aumentata in modo significativo nelle precedenti 24 ore (in una località da 80 a 170 μSv/h e in un altro punto da 26 a 95 μSv/h), i livelli variano secondo la posizione rispetto all'impianto.<ref name=IAEAiodine/> Spinaci coltivati a cielo aperto circa 75 chilometri a sud della centrale nucleare hanno elevati livelli di iodio e cesio radioattivi.<ref name=spinach>{{cita news
|url=http://english.kyodonews.jp/news/2011/03/79856.html
|lingua=en 
|titolo=Spinach with radiation 27 times higher than limit found in Japan
|editore=[[Kyodo News]]
|data=21 marzo 2011}}</ref>

;18 marzo: La IAEA ha chiarito che, contrariamente a vari notizie circolate, la IAEA non ha ricevuto alcuna notifica da parte delle autorità giapponesi su persone ammalate a causa della contaminazione radioattiva.<ref name=IAEAiodine/>

;19 marzo: Secondo il MEXT sono state rilevate tracce di sostanze radioattive nell'[[acqua dei rubinetti]] a Tokyo e nelle  prefetture di [[Tochigi]], [[Gunma]], [[Chiba]] e [[Saitama]]s.<ref name=JapanTimes/> Il ministero giapponese della sanità, del lavoro e del welfare ha annunciato che livelli di radiazione superiori ai limiti di legge sono state rilevate nel latte prodotto nella zona di Fukushima e in alcuni ortaggi a [[Ibaraki]]. Le misurazioni effettuate dal Giappone in varie località hanno evidenziato la presenza di [[radionuclidi]] come [[iodio-131]] (I-131) e [[cesio-137]] (Cs-137) sul terreno.<ref name=IAEAiodine/>

;23 marzo: Il MEXT rilasciato nuovi dati ambientali.<ref>{{cita web
 |url=http://www.mext.go.jp/english/incident/1303962.htm
 |titolo= (vari articoli) 
 |sito=Reading of environmental radioactivity level
 |data=
 |lingua=en
 |editore=[[MEXT]]}}</ref> Letture di radioattività su campioni di suolo ed acqua stagnante sono stati più elevate in un sito 40&nbsp;km. a nord-ovest dell'impianto. Il 19 marzo, il terreno ad alta quota conteneva 28,1 kBq/kg di Cs-137 e 300 kBq/kg di I-131. Un giorno più tardi, queste stessi dati erano 163 kBq/kg di Cs-137 e 1.170 kBq/kg di I-131. 163 kBq/kg di Cs-137 è pari a 3.260 kBq/m<sup>2</sup>.

;24 marzo: Tre operai sono stati esposti a elevati livelli di radiazione e due di loro hanno fatto ricorso a cure ospedaliere, dopo che acqua radioattiva è filtrata attraverso i loro indumenti protettivi mentre lavoravano all'unità tre.<ref name=CBS>{{cita news
 |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2011/03/24/501364/main20046609.shtml
 |titolo=3 Japan nuclear workers exposed to radiation
 |pubblicazione=CBS News
 |editore = [[CBS]]
 |lingua=en
 |giorno =24 
 |mese = marzo
 |anno = 2011
 |data=}}</ref>

;25 marzo, venerdì: Il [[Ministero Federale dell’Ambiente, della Tutela della Natura e della Sicurezza Nuclear|Ministero dell’Ambiente]] tedesco ha annunciato che piccole quantità di iodio radioattivo sono state rilevato in tre luoghi nell'atmosfera.<ref>{{cita news
 |url=http://sankei.jp.msn.com/world/news/110325/erp11032522450011-n1.htm 
 |titolo=独でも放射性物質を観測 
 |pubblicazione=MSN Sankei News 
 |città=Japan 
 |accesso=25 marzo 2011
 |lingua=Ja}}</ref><ref>{{cita news
  |url=http://www.tg1.rai.it/dl/tg1/2010/articoli/ContentItem-413ed1bd-bcf8-4d31-8902-2347a03abf0e.html
  |titolo=Germania: "Rilevate tracce iodio radioattivo nell'aria"
  |pubblicazione=tg1online 
  |editore=[[RAI]] 
  |accesso=24 aprile 2011
  |giorno =25 
  |mese = marzo
  |anno = 2011
  }}</ref>

;26 marzo: L'agenzia per la sicurezza nucleare del Giappone ha comunicato che le radiazioni di iodio-131 nell'acqua di mare presso lo scarico era aumentato fino a 1.850 volte il limite.<ref name=Reuters26>{{cita news
 |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/03/27/japan-idUSL3E7EQ08120110327
 |giorno =27 
 |mese = marzo
 |anno = 2011
 |lingua= en
 |titolo=Radioactivity soars inside Japanese reactor
 |editore=[[Reuters]]}}</ref>

;27 marzo: Livelli "over 1000" (il limite superiore del dispositivo di misurazione)<ref>{{cita news
 |cognome=Morse 
 |nome=Andrew 
 |coautori = Mitsuru Obe
 |url=http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748704471904576229854179642220.html 
 |titolo=At Japanese Nuclear Plant, a Choice Between Bad, Worse - WSJ.com 
 |pubblicazione=Online.wsj.com 
 |editore=[[The Wall Street Journal]] 
 |giorno =30 
 |mese = marzo
 |anno = 2011
 |lingua= en 
 |accesso=6 aprile 2011}}</ref> e 750 mSv/h sono stati rilevati nell'acqua all'interno dell'unità due (ma al di fuori della struttura di contenimento) e tre, rispettivamente. Una dichiarazione che questo livello è "dieci milioni di volte il livello normale" nell'unità due è stata in seguito ritrattata ed attribuita ad una errata valutazione della radioattività dello [[iodio-134]], piuttosto che a un elemento con vita più a lunga.<ref name="WNN27"/><ref name=TEPCO28/><ref>{{cita news
 |cognome = Makinen
 |nome = Julie 
 |coautori = Kenji Hall
 |url = http://www.latimes.com/news/la-fgw-japan-radiation-20110327,0,7935538.story
 |titolo=Officials retract reports of extremely high radiation at Fukushima plant
 |giorno = 27
 |mese = marzo
 |anno = 2011
 |lingua = en 
 |pubblicazione = [[Los Angeles Times]]}}</ref><ref>{{cita news
  |cognome = Kageyama
  |nome = Yuri 
  |coautori = Mari Yamaguchi
  |titolo=Officials: Big spike at Japan nuke plant an error
  |url=http://www.dailyherald.com/article/20110327/news/110329716/
  |accesso=24 aprile 2011
  |pubblicazione = [[Daily Herald]]
  |giorno = 27
  |mese = marzo
  |anno = 2011
  |lingua = en }}</ref> L'Agenzia per la sicurezza Nucleare ed Industriale del Giappone ha precisato che "il livello delle radiazioni è maggiore di 1.000 millisievert. É certo che è originato da fissione atomica [...] Ma non siamo sicuri di come provenga dal reattore."<ref>{{cita news
 |cognome=Nagata
 |nome=Kazuaki
 |titolo=Radioactive pools block reactor repairs: 
 |url=http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20110327x1.html
 |pubblicazione= [[The Japan Times]]
 |giorno = 27
 |mese = marzo
 |anno = 2011
 |lingua = en
 |accesso=27 marzo 2011}}</ref>

;29 marzo, martedì:Il livello dello iodio-131 nell'acqua di mare, 330 m. a sud dello sbocco di uno scarico principale, ha raggiunto 138 Bq/ml (3,355 volte il limite legale).<ref name="asahi.com">{{cita news
 |url=http://www.asahi.com/english/TKY201103300156.html
 |pubblicazione=Asahi.com
 |titolo=Seawater iodine soars to 3,355 times the limit
 |giorno = 31
 |mese = marzo
 |anno = 2011
 |lingua = en}}</ref><ref name="www3.nhk.or.jp">{{cita news
  |url=http://www3.nhk.or.jp/daily/english/31_17.html
  |titolo=Radiation in seawater at new high
  |editore=[[Japan Broadcasting Corporation]]
  |pubblicazione =NHK WORLD
  |lingua=en 
  |giorno = 31
  |mese = marzo
  |anno = 2011}}</ref>

;30 marzo: Lo iodio-131 in mare, a sud di uno scarico dell'impianto, ha raggiunto una concentrazione di 180 Bq/ml 330 m., 4.385 volte il limite legale.<ref name="www3.nhk.or.jp"/> Rilevazioni di 3,7 MBq/m<sup>2</sup>. di Cs-137 hanno indotto l'IAEA a dichiarare che i suoi criteri per l'evacuazione sono stati superati nel villaggio di [[Iitate, Fukushima|Iitate]], al di fuori degli attuali 30&nbsp;km. della zona di esclusione per radiazione.<ref name="Reuters">{{cita news 
 |cognome =  Westall
 |nome = Sylvia
 |coautori = Fredrik Dahl 
 |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/03/30/us-japan-radiation-idUSTRE72T78120110330
 |titolo=High radiation outside Japan exclusion zone: IAEA 
 |autore=Sylvia Westall and Fredrik Dahl 
 |editore=[[Reuters]] 
 |lingua=en 
 |giorno = 30
 |mese = marzo
 |data = 2011
 |accesso=30 marzo 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cita web
|url=http://allthingsnuclear.org/post/4213197648/iaea-confirms-very-high-levels-of-contamination-far
|titolo=IAEA Confirms Very High Levels of Contamination Far From Reactors
|sito=All Things Nuclear
|lingua=en 
|data = 30 marzo 2011}}</ref>

;31 marzo: La IAEA ha rettificato il valore di 20 milioni di Bq/m<sup>2</sup> di iodio-131 che era stato rilevato nel villaggio di [[Iitate, Fukushima|Iitate]].<ref>{{cita web
|url=http://www.nikkei.com/news/headline/article/g=96958A9C93819499E2E3E2E2E68DE2E3E2E6E0E2E3E3E2E2E2E2E2E2 
|titolo=IAEA、検出物質はヨウ素　福島・飯舘村の測定値修正 
|sito=Nikkei Shimbun 
|città=Japan 
|accesso=1 aprile 2011(JST) 
|data=1 aprile 2011(JST) 
|lingua=Ja}}</ref> Il valore annunciato in una conferenza stampa è circa 2 milioni di Bq/m<sup>2</sup>.<ref>{{cita news
 |cognome =  Takahara
 |nome = Kanako
 |coautori = Kazuaki Nagata
 |url=http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20110401a1.html
 |titolo=High radiation found outside no-go zone
 |pubblicazione=[[The Japan Times]]
 |lingua=en 
 |giorno = 1
 |mese = aprile
 |data = 2011}}</ref>

;1 aprile, venerdì: Sono stati segnalati livelli superiori al limite legale di iodio-131 e/o di cesio 134 e cesio-137 oltre che in ortaggi a foglia e prezzemolo, anche nel manzo.<ref name=IAEAiodine/>

;3 aprile: Funzionari sanitari hanno rilevato sostanze radioattive superiori ai limiti di legge nei  [[funghi]].<ref>{{cita news
|url=http://english.kyodonews.jp/news/2011/04/82903.html
|lingua=en 
|titolo=Illegal levels of radioactive substances found in Fukushima mushrooms
|editore=[[Kyodo News]]
|data=3 aprileo 2011}}</ref> Il governo giapponese ha dichiarato pubblicamente che si aspetta che i rilasci di materiali radioattivi continuino per "mesi" ipotizzando che siano adottate normali misure di contenimento.<ref>{{cita news
|url=http://english.kyodonews.jp/news/2011/04/82864.html
|lingua=en 
|titolo=Several months needed to stop radiation from Fukushima plant: gov't
|editore=[[Kyodo News]]
|data=3 aprileo 2011}}</ref>

;4/10 aprile: La TEPCO ha annunciato che scaricherà 9.100 tonnellate di acqua, che supera di 100 volte il limite di contaminazione, da un impianto di trattamento delle acque reflue, l'operazione durerà 6 giorni.<ref>{{cita news
 |cognome =  Westall
 |nome = Sylvia
 |coautori = Fredrik Dahl
 |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/04/04/us-japan-nuclear-water-idUSTRE7336L720110404
 |giorno =4 
 |mese = aprile
 |anno = 2011
 |lingua= en
 |titolo=Japan to dump 11,500 metric tons of radioactive water
 |editore=[[Reuters]]}}</ref><ref>{{cita news
|url=http://english.kyodonews.jp/news/2011/04/84319.html
|lingua=en 
|titolo=Highly radioactive water in nuke plant to be moved for storage
|editore=[[Kyodo News]]
|data=10 aprileo 2011}}</ref>

;5 aprile: Pesce con radioattività superiore ai livelli di sicurezza pescato 50 miglia al largo della costa giapponese.<ref>[http://www.king5.com/news/environment/Fish-with-radioactive-levels-caught--119297564.html Radioactive fish caught off Japanese coast]</ref>

;15 aprile: Il livello di iodio-131 misurato nell'acqua di mare ha superato di 6.500 volte il limite legale, mentre i livelli di cesio-134 e cesio-137 sono aumentati di circa quattro volte, forse a causa di installazione di piastre in acciaio destinato a ridurre la dispersione di materiale radioattivo nell'oceano.<ref name="nytimes.com">{{Cita news
|lingua = en
|autore = 
|nome = 
|cognome = 
|url = http://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/17/world/asia/17nuke.html?_r=1&src=mv
|titolo = Levels of Radioactive Materials Rise Near Japanese Plant
|pubblicazione = [[The New York Times]]
|giorno = 16
|mese = aprile
|anno = 2011
|data =|accesso = 25 aprile 2011
}}</ref>

;21 aprile: Il governo giapponese ha vietato l'accesso alla zona attorno alla centrale di Fukushima, a causa dell'alto livello di radiazioni, finora le autorità si erano limitate ad invitare la popolazione a lasciare l'area di venti chilometri attorno alla centrale.<ref>{{Cita news
|autore = |nome = |cognome = |url = http://www.adnkronos.com/IGN/News/Esteri/Giappone-Fukushima-diventa-off-limits-Tracce-di-iodio-nel-latte-materno_311928870269.html
|titolo = Giappone, Fukushima diventa off-limits. Tracce di iodio nel latte materno
|pubblicazione = 
|editore = [[Adnkronos]]
|giorno =21 
|mese = aprile
|anno = 2011
|data = 
|accesso = 25 aprile 2011
}}</ref>

==Emissioni==
Sono stati rilasciati, principalmente, [[nuclidi]] radioattivi di iodio e cesio.
<ref name="newscientist1">{{Cita news
|lingua = en
|autore = 
|nome = Debora 
|cognome = MacKenzie
|url = http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn20285-fukushima-radioactive-fallout-nears-chernobyl-levels.html
|titolo = Fukushima radioactive fallout nears Chernobyl levels
|pubblicazione = [[New Scientist]]
|editore = Reed Business Information Ltd
|giorno = 24
|mese = marzo
|anno = 2011
|data = 
|accesso = 1º maggio 2011
}}</ref><ref>{{Cita news
|lingua = en
|autore = 
|nome =  Michael 
|cognome = Winter
|url = http://content.usatoday.com/communities/ondeadline/post/2011/03/report-radioactive-emissions-from-japan-plant-approach-chernobyl-levels/1
|titolo = Report: Emissions from Japan plant approach Chernobyl levels
|pubblicazione = [[USA Today]]
|giorno = 24
|mese = marzo
|anno = 2011
|data = 
|accesso = 1º maggio 2011
}}</ref> 
Questi elementi sono stati liberati nell'aria dal vapore<ref>{{Cita news
|lingua = en
|autore = 
|nome = Rachel 
|cognome = Mealey
|url = http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2011/03/12/3162223.htm
|titolo = Radioactive steam released from nuclear plants
|pubblicazione = [[ABC (Stati Uniti d'America)|ABC]] News
|giorno = 12
|mese = marzo
|anno = 2011
|data = 
|accesso = 1º maggio 2011
}}</ref>
e nell'acqua penetrata nelle falde acquifere<ref>{{Cita news
|lingua = en
|autore = 
|nome = 
|cognome = 
|url = http://www.mcot.net/cfcustom/cache_page/195695.html
|titolo = Groundwater radiation level at nuke plant rises: TEPCO
|pubblicazione = MCOT.NET
|giorno = 15
|mese = aprile
|anno = 2011
|data = 
|accesso = 1º maggio 2011
}}</ref> 
o dispersa nell'oceano.<ref>
{{Cita news
|lingua = en
|autore = 
|nome = Pete
|cognome = Spotts
|url = http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/2011/0402/Japan-nuclear-update-Repairing-crack-to-stop-radioactive-water-leak
|titolo = Japan nuclear update: Repairing crack to stop radioactive water leak
|pubblicazione = [[The Christian Science Monitor]]
|giorno = 2
|mese = aprile
|anno = 2011
|data = 
|accesso = 1º maggio 2011
}}</ref> 
L'esperto che ha preparato un rapporto del [[Servizio meteorologico austriaco]] frequentemente citato ha affermato che nell'"incidente di Chernobyl vi è stata un'emissione molto maggiore di radioattività e con una più ampia varietà di elementi radioattivi di quanto accaduto finora a Fukushima Daiichi, ma furono iodio e cesio la causa della maggior parte dei rischi per la salute - soprattutto nell'area immediatamente al di fuori della centrale di Chernobyl."<ref name="newscientist1"/>
Lo iodio-131 ha un [[tempo di dimezzamento]] di 8 giorni, mentre il cesio-137 ha un tempo di dimezzamento di oltre 30 anni.
La [[IAEA]] ha sviluppato un metodo che misura l'"equivalenza radiologica" di elementi diversi.<ref>{{Cita libro
|nome = 
|cognome = 
|autore = <!-- alternativo a nome, cognome, wkautore -->
|titolo = INES - The International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale user's manual
|editore = [[IAEA]]
|città = Vienna
|anno = 2009
|data = <!-- alternativo a anno, mese, giorno -->
|edizione = Edizione 2008<!-- alternativo a ed -->
|lingua = inglese
|dataoriginale = <!-- alternativo a annooriginale ecc. -->
|url = http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/INES-2009_web.pdf 
|formato = pdf
|accesso = <!-- sinonimo di annodiaccesso -->
|accesso= <!-- alternativo a annodiaccesso ecc. -->
|p = 16
|id = <!-- sinonimo di ISBN -->
}}</ref>  
La TEPCO ha pubblicato stime usando il metodo della semplice somma<ref name="tepco.co.jp">
{{cita web
|cognome=
|nome=
|autore=
|url=http://www.tepco.co.jp/en/press/corp-com/release/betu11_e/images/110421e2.pdf
|titolo=Outflow of radioactive water from the concrete crack near intake canal for Unit 2 of Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Station
|accesso=1º maggio 2011
|formato=pdf
|lingua=en
|editore=[[TEPCO]]
|sito=Press release
|data=
|anno=2011
|mese=aprile
}}</ref> e utilizzando la metodologia di ponderazione IAEA.<ref name="nisa.meti.go.jp">{{cita web
|url=http://www.nisa.meti.go.jp/english/files/en20110412-4.pdf 
|titolo=INES Rating on the Events in Fukushima Dai-ichi Nuclear Power Station by the Tohoku District - off the Pacific Ocean Earthquake 
|editore=NSC 
|lingua=en
|data=12 aprile 2011 
|accesso=15 aprile 2011}}</ref> 
Dal 25 aprile la TEPCO non ha pubblicato una stima totale delle emissioni in acqua e nell'aria.<ref>{{Cita news
|lingua = en
|autore = 
|nome = 
|cognome = 
|url = http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/ed20110414a1.html
|titolo = Almost as bad as Chernobyl
|pubblicazione = [[The Japan Times]]
|giorno = 14
|mese = aprile
|anno = 2011
|data = 
|accesso = 1º febbraio 2011
}}</ref>

===Contaminazione nell'aria===
un rapporto del 12 aprile preparata dal NISA stima il rilascio totale in aria di iodio-131 e cesio-137
a tra i 370&nbsp;[[Becquerel|PBq]] e 630&nbsp;PBq, combinando iodio e cesio secondo la metodologia IAEA.<ref name="nisa.meti.go.jp"/>
Il 23 aprile l'NSC ha aggiornato le sue stime delle emissioni,  ma non ha ripetuto la stima della liberazione totale, dando invece indicazione che 154 TBq di rilascio dell'aria si verificavano quotidianamente,  come il 5 aprile.
<ref name="translate.google.com">[http://translate.google.com/translate?js=n&prev=_t&hl=en&ie=UTF-8&layout=2&eotf=1&sl=ja&tl=en&u=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.yomiuri.co.jp%2Fscience%2Fnews%2F20110423-OYT1T00667.htm%3Ffrom%3Dmain7&act=url 154 TBq of radioactivity released into the atmosphere per day]</ref>
<ref name="yomiuri.co.jp">[http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/dy/national/20110424dy04.htm Atmospheric radiation leak underestimated]</ref>

===Iodio-131===

As of 12 April, [[Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency|NISA]] and [[Japanese Nuclear Safety Commission|NSC]] estimated the total release of [[iodine-131]] at 130,000 TBq and 150,000 TBq, respectively.<ref name="nisa.meti.go.jp">{{Cita web|url=http://www.nisa.meti.go.jp/english/files/en20110412-4.pdf |titolo=INES Rating on the Events in Fukushima Dai-ichi Nuclear Power Station by the Tohoku District - off the Pacific Ocean Earthquake |editore=NSC |data=12 aprile 2011 |accesso=15 aprile 2011}}</ref> The [[Central Institute for Meteorology and Geodynamics]] in Austria estimated the total emissions of iodine-131 from 12 to 15 March at 400,000&nbsp;[[becquerel|TBq]], about 22% of the emissions from Chernobyl,<ref>http://www.zamg.ac.at/docs/aktuell/Japan2011-03-22_1500_E.pdf</ref> which for  {{SimpleNuclide2|Iodine|131}} is estimated at 1,800,000 TBq.

===Cesio-137===
The emissions of [[caesium-137]] during the first four days were estimated at 33,000&nbsp;TBq, about 50% of the emissions from Chernobyl.<ref>{{Cita web|url=http://www.zamg.ac.at/docs/aktuell/Japan2011-03-22_1500_E.pdf Spread of Radioactivity |titolo=source estimates from CTBTO data |editore=ZAMG |data=22 marzo 2011}}</ref> American monitoring suggests that Fukushima has been averaging 5,000 TBq of caesium-137 per day. Over the course of the disaster, Chernobyl put out a total of 85,000 TBq of caesium-137.<ref>{{Cita web|url=http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn20285-fukushima-radioactive-fallout-nears-chernobyl-levels.html |titolo=Fukushima radioactive fallout nears Chernobyl levels - health - 24 March 2011 |editore=New Scientist |data= |accesso=6 aprile 2011}}</ref> While Chernobyl is inland, much of the Fukushima fallout has blown out to to sea where it will be diffused to safe levels.

The total release up to 12 April has been estimated by NISA and NSC to be 6100 and 12,000 TBq, respectively.<ref name="nisa.meti.go.jp"/>

Iodine-131 has a half-life of 8 days while caesium-137 has a half life of over 30 years.

==Radiation at the plant site==
[[:File:FukushimaI rad long term prequake.PNG|thumb|Normal radiation dose rates at the Fukushima I site as established by the stream of monitoring post readings in the 3 months preceding the accident. (03/01=1 March 2011, 1 [[Gray (unit)|Gray]]= 1 Sv for gamma radiation)<ref>{{Cita web|url=http://www.tepco.co.jp/fukushima1-np/monitoring/monita2.html|titolo=monitoring data|sito=TEPCO}}</ref>]]
Radiation fluctuated widely on the site after the tsunami and often correlated to fires and explosions on site. Radiation dose rates at one location between reactor units 3 and 4 was measured at 400&nbsp;mSv/h at 10:22 JST, 13 March, causing experts to urge rapid rotation of emergency crews as a method of limiting exposure to radiation.<ref name=Aus2>{{Cita news|url=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/stealthy-silent-destroyer-of-dna/story-fn84naht-1226022119360|titolo=Stealthy, silent destroyer of DNA |data=16 marzo 2011|pubblicazione=[[The Australian]]}}</ref> Dose rates of 1,000&nbsp;mSv/h were reported (but not confirmed by the IAEA)<ref name="IAEAiodine"/> close to the certain reactor units on 16 March, prompting a temporary evacuation of plant workers, with radiation levels subsequently dropping back to 800–600 mSv/h.<ref name=cbs1 />  At times, radiation monitoring was hampered by a belief that some radiation levels may be higher than 1&nbsp;Sv/h, but that "authorities say 1,000 millisieverts [per hour] is the upper limit of their measuring devices." <ref name="online.wsj.com">http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748704471904576229854179642220.html At Plant, a Choice Between Bad, Worse</ref>

===Exposure of workers===
Prior to the accident, the maximum permissible dose for Japanese nuclear workers was 100&nbsp;mSv per year, but on 15 March 2011, the Japanese Health and Labor Ministry increased that annual limit to 250&nbsp;mSv, for emergency situations.<ref name=NYT16>{{Cita pubblicazione|rivista=[[The New York Times]] |città= NY, USA |url= http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/16/world/asia/16workers.html |edizione= Asia |data= 2011‐3‐16 |titolo= Last Defense at Troubled Reactors: 50 Japanese Workers}}</ref><ref>{{Cita pubblicazione|editore=NHK |città= JP |url= http://www3.nhk.or.jp/daily/english/16_19.html |titolo= Gov't ups permissible radiation level}}</ref> This level is below the 500 mSv/year considered acceptable for emergency work by the [[World Health Organization]]. Some contract companies working for TEPCO have opted not to use the higher limit.<ref>http://english.kyodonews.jp/news/2011/04/84251.html TEPCO contractors reject higher radiation dose limit for workers</ref><ref name=WNN24/> On 15 March, TEPCO decided to work with a skeleton crew (in the media called the [[Fukushima 50]]) in order to minimize the number of people exposed to radiation.<ref name=Asahi>
{{Cita news|titolo=「英雄フクシマ５０」欧米メディア、原発の作業員ら称賛
|titolotradotto="Fukushima 50" western press praise workers at nuclear plant
|url=http://www.asahi.com/national/update/0318/TKY201103180477.html
|lingua=ja
|pubblicazione=[[Asahi Shimbun]] |città=JP
|data=18 marzo 2011}}</ref>

On 17 March, IAEA reported 17 persons to have suffered deposition of radioactive material on their face; the levels of exposure were too low to warrant hospital treatment.<ref name=IAEAiodine/> On 22 March, World Nuclear News reported that one worker had received over 100 mSv during "venting work" at Unit 3.<ref name=WNN22>{{Cita news|url=http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/RS_Heightened_discharges_to_sea_as_new_pump_truck_arrives_2203111.html|data=22 marzo 2011|titolo=Heightened discharges as pump truck arrives, Update 1|pubblicazione=World Nuclear News}}</ref> An additional 6 had received over 100 mSv, of which for 1 a level of over 150 mSv was reported for unspecified activities on site.<ref name=WNN22/> On 24 March, three workers were exposed to high levels of radiation which caused two of them to require hospital treatment after radioactive water seeped through their protective clothes while working in unit 3. Based on the dosimeter values, exposures of 170 mSv were estimated,<ref name=WNN24>{{Cita news|editore=[[World Nuclear News]]|data=24 marzo 2011|titolo=Exposures and progress at Fukushima Daiichi|url=http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/RS_Exposures_and_progress_at_Fukushima_Daiichi_240311.html}}</ref> the injuries indicated exposure to 2000 to 6000 mSv around their ankles.<ref name=CBS/><ref>{{Cita news|url=http://www.latimes.com/news/science/la-sci-japan-workers-exposed-20110324,0,5425809.story|titolo=2 Japanese nuclear workers hospitalized for radiation exposure|pubblicazione=LA Times|data=24 marzo 2011}}</ref><ref name="kyodo81122"/><ref>{{Cita news|url= http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/26/world/asia/26japan.html |titolo=Japan Raises Possibility of Breach in Reactor Vessel - NYTimes.com |nome= |cognome=|pubblicazione=[[The New York Times]] |editore=[[New York Times Company|NYTC]]|issn=0362-4331 |citazione=The injured workers’ dosimeters suggested exposure to 170 millisieverts of radiation. But the institute said that the actual amount of radiation the workers are thought to have been exposed to in the water is 2 to 6 sievert.|accesso=25 marzo 2011}}</ref> They were not wearing protective boots, as their employing firm's safety manuals "did not assume a scenario in which its employees would carry out work standing in water at a nuclear power plant".<ref name="kyodo81122">{{Cita web|url=http://english.kyodonews.jp/news/2011/03/81122.html |titolo=2 of 3 radiation-exposed workers suffer internal exposure |sito=Kyodo News |città=Japan|accesso=25 marzo 2011}}</ref> The amount of the radioactivity of the water was about 3.9 [[Mega-|M]][[Becquerel|Bq]] per cubic centimetre. As of 24 March, 19:30 (JST), 17 workers (of which 14 were from plant operator [[TEPCO]]) had been exposed to levels of over 100 mSv.<ref name=IAEAiodine/> By 29 March, the number of workers reported to have been exposed to levels of over 100 mSv had increased to 19.<ref name="latimes.com">http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-japan-workers-20110329,0,319767.story Workers suffer hardships in effort to stabilize Fukushima plant</ref> An American physician reported Japanese doctors have considered banking blood for future treatment of workers exposed to radiation.<ref name="latimes.com"/>

TEPCO has been criticized in providing safety equipment for its workers.<ref name="english.kyodonews.jp">http://english.kyodonews.jp/news/2011/03/82005.html Subcontractor questions safety management at Fukushima nuclear plant</ref><ref name="abcnews.go.com">http://abcnews.go.com/International/japan-nuclear-crisis-worker-speaks-radiation-dangers/story?id=13271759 Japan Nuclear Crisis: Worker Speaks Out About Radiation Dangers</ref> After NISA warned TEPCO that workers were sharing [[dosimeter]]s, since most of the devices were lost in the disaster, the utility sent more to the plant.<ref name="JapanTimesApr1"/> Others suggest that contract workers are given more dangerous work than TEPCO employees.<ref name="english.kyodonews.jp"/> TEPCO is also seeking workers willing to risk high radiation levels for short periods of time in exchange for high pay.<ref>[http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/04/01/us-japan-quake-jumpers-health-idUSTRE7303HD20110401 "Jumpers" offered big money to brave Japan's nuclear plant]</ref>

===Radiazione all'interno del contenimento primario dei reattori===

All'interno del [[contenimento primario]] dei reattori 1, 2, 3 e 4 sono stati rilevati livelli di radiazione fortemente dvariabili:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!rowspan="2"| time (JST)
! colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"| Reattore 1 (Sv/h)
! colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"| Reattore 2 (Sv/h)
! colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"| Reattore 3 (Sv/h)
|-
! Dry <br />Well
! Wet <br />Well <br />(toroide)
! Dry <br />Well
! Wet <br />Well <br />(toroide)
! Dry <br />Well
! Wet <br />Well <br />(toroide)
|-
|[[17 marzo]] [[2011]], 12:50<ref name=METI20110317_1700>{{Cita web|url=http://www.meti.go.jp/press/20110317008/20110317008-3.pdf
 |data=17 marzo 2011|titolo=プラント関連パラメータ (2011-03-17:17:00)
 |sito=Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry
 |zugriff=2011-03-25
 |lingua=ja}}</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|0.00410
| style="text-align:center;"|31.6
| style="text-align:center;"|84.4
| style="text-align:center;"|2.43
| style="text-align:center;"|---
| style="text-align:center;"|---
|-
|[[18 marzo]] [[2011]], 7:55-12:35<ref name=METI20110318_1400>{{Cita web|url=http://www.meti.go.jp/press/20110318008/20110318008-4.pdf|data=18 marzo 2011|titolo=プラント関連パラメータ (2011-03-18:14:00)|hrsg=Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry|zugriff=2011-03-25|lingua=ja}}</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|0.00375
| style="text-align:center;"|46.9
| style="text-align:center;"|78.0
| style="text-align:center;"|2.37
| style="text-align:center;"|105
| style="text-align:center;"|5.90
|-
|[[20 marzo]] [[2011]], 15:00-16:00<ref name=METI20110320_1600>{{Cita web|url=http://www.meti.go.jp/press/20110320002/20110320002-3.pdf|data=20 marzo 2011|titolo=プラント関連パラメータ (2011-03-20:16:00)|sito=Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry|zugriff=2011-03-25|lingua=ja}}</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|12.0
| style="text-align:center;"|40.0
| style="text-align:center;"|0.625
| style="text-align:center;"|2.13
| style="text-align:center;"|71.7
| style="text-align:center;"|2.00
|-
|[[23 marzo]] [[2011]], 9:10-14:20<ref name=METI20110323_1420>{{Cita web|url=http://www.meti.go.jp/press/20110323012/20110323012-4.pdf|datum=2011-03-23|titolo=プラント関連パラメータ (2011-03-23:16:00)|editore=Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry|zugriff=2011-03-25|lingua=ja}}</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|48.0
| style="text-align:center;"|29.9
| style="text-align:center;"|50.7
| style="text-align:center;"|1.67
| style="text-align:center;"|60.2
| style="text-align:center;"|1.74
|-
|[[24 marzo]] [[2011]], 17:00<ref name=GRS20110324>{{Cita web|url=http://www.grs.de/sites/default/files/Kurzübersicht%20aktuelle%20Sicherheitslage%2025.03.2011%2C%2010h00%20MEZ_0.pdf|data=25 marzo 2011|titolo=Kurzübersicht aktuelle Sicherheitslage, Stand 24.03.2011, 16:00 Uhr (MEZ)|sito=Gesellschaft für Anlagen- und Reaktorsicherheit|zugriff=2011-03-25|lingua=de}}</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|40.9
| style="text-align:center;"|25.8
| style="text-align:center;"|47.4
| style="text-align:center;"|1.36
| style="text-align:center;"|53.3
| style="text-align:center;"|1.45
|-
|[[25 marzo]] [[2011]], 10:00<ref name=GRS20110325>{{Cita web|url=http://www.grs.de/sites/default/files/Kurzuebersicht_aktuelle_Sicherheitslage_25.03.2011_16h10_MEZ.pdf|datum=2011-03-25|titolo=Kurzübersicht aktuelle Sicherheitslage, Stand 25.03.2011, 16:10 Uhr (MEZ)|hrsg=Gesellschaft für Anlagen- und Reaktorsicherheit|zugriff=2011-03-25|lingua=de}}</ref><ref name=METI20110325_1000>{{Cita web|url=http://www.meti.go.jp/press/20110325006/20110325006-3.pdf|data=25 marzo 2011|titolo=プラント関連パラメータ (2011-03-25:10:00)|hrsg=Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry|zugriff=2011-03-25|lingua=ja}}</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|38.9
| style="text-align:center;"|24.9
| style="text-align:center;"|45.6
| style="text-align:center;"|1.54
| style="text-align:center;"|51.0
| style="text-align:center;"|1.50
|-
|[[25 marzo]] [[2011]], 14:00-16:30<ref name=METI20110325_1630>{{Cita web|url=http://www.meti.go.jp/press/20110325012/20110325012-3.pdf|datum=2011-03-25|titolo=プラント関連パラメータ (2011-03-25:16:30)|sito=Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry|zugriff=2011-03-25|lingua=ja}}</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|37.1
| style="text-align:center;"|24.5
| style="text-align:center;"|45.2
| style="text-align:center;"|1.54
| style="text-align:center;"|38.8
| style="text-align:center;"|1.31
|-
|[[26 marzo]] [[2011]], 9:30-10:00<ref name=METI20110326_1100>{{Cita web|url=http://www.meti.go.jp/press/20110326003/20110326003-3.pdf|datum=2011-03-26|titolo=プラント関連パラメータ (2011-03-26:11:00)|sito=Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry|zugriff=2011-03-26|lingua=ja}}</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|35.1
| style="text-align:center;"|23.6
| style="text-align:center;"|43.4
| style="text-align:center;"|1.49
| style="text-align:center;"|36.1
| style="text-align:center;"|1.40
|}

===Radiation outside of primary containment of the reactors===
Outside of primary containment, plant radiation level measurements have also varied significantly

On 25 March, an analysis of stagnant water in the basement floor of the turbine building of Unit 1 showed heavy contamination.<ref>{{Cita web|url=http://www.nisa.meti.go.jp/english/files/en20110325-6.pdf |titolo=Regarding the result of concentration measurement in the stagnant water on the basement floor of the turbine building of Unit 1 of Fukushima Dai-ichi Nuclear Power Station |accesso=26 marzo 2011 }}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Nuclide
! Concentration ([[becquerel|Bq]]/ml)
|-
|<sup>38</sup>Cl
|{{M|1.6|e=6}}
|-
|{{SimpleNuclide2|link=yes|Arsenic|74}}
|{{M|3.9|e=2}}
|-
|{{SimpleNuclide2|link=yes|Yttrium|91}}
|{{M|5.2|e=4}}
|-
|{{SimpleNuclide2|link=yes|Iodine|131}}
|{{M|2.1|e=5}}
|-
|{{SimpleNuclide2|link=yes|Caesium|134}}
|{{M|1.6|e=5}}
|-
|{{SimpleNuclide2|link=yes|Caesium|136}}
|{{M|1.7|e=4}}
|-
|{{SimpleNuclide2|link=yes|Caesium|137}}
|{{M|1.8|e=6}}
|-
|{{SimpleNuclide2|link=yes|Lanthanum|140}}
|{{M|3.4|e=2}}
|}

On 27 March, TEPCO reported stagnant water in the basement of unit 2 (inside the reactor/turbine building complex, but outside of primary containment) was measured at 1000&nbsp;mSv/h or more, which prompted evacuation. Additional basement and trench area measurements indicated 60&nbsp;mSv/h in unit 1, "over 1000"&nbsp;mSv/h<ref name=TEPCO28/> in unit 2, and 750&nbsp;mSv/h in unit 3. The report indicated the main source was iodine-134<ref name=HNK27>{{Cita web|url=http://www3.nhk.or.jp/daily/english/27_12.html|titolo=Extreme radiation detected at No.2 reactor|data=27 marzo 2011|sito=HNK}}</ref> with a half-life of less than an hour, which resulted in a radioactive iodine concentration 10 million times the normal value in the reactor.<ref name=Reuters26/>  TEPCO later retracted its report, stating that the measurements were inaccurate and attributed the error to comparing the isotope responsible, [[isotopes of iodine|iodine-134]], to normal levels of another isotope.<ref name=WNN27/> Measurements were then corrected stating that the iodine levels were 100,000 times the normal level.<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/mar/27/japan-nuclear-error-radiation-reading Japanese nuclear firm admits error on radiation reading]</ref> On 28 March, the  erroneous radiation measurement caused TEPCO to reevaluate the software used in analysis.<ref>[http://www3.nhk.or.jp/daily/english/01_28.html Program errors force TEPCO to review all data]</ref>

Measurements within the reactor/turbine buildings, but not in the basement and trench areas, were made on 18 April.<ref name="ReferenceA">http://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/19/world/asia/19japan.html Radiation Levels a Bar to New Plan for Japanese Nuclear Plant</ref> These robotic measurements indicated up to 49&nbsp;mSv/h in unit 1 and 57&nbsp;mSv/h in unit 3.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> This is substantially lower than the basement and trench readings, but still exceed safe working levels without constant worker rotation.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref>http://www.asahi.com/english/TKY201104190209.html Editorial: TEPCO must prepare for additional risks in taming Fukushima crisis</ref> Inside primary containment, levels are much higher.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

===Site contamination===
On 31 March, TEPCO reported that it had measured radioactivity in the plant site groundwater which was 10,000 times the government limit.  The company did not think that this radiation had spread to drinking water.<ref>{{Cita web|url=http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2011-04-01-japanquake01_ST_N.htm |titolo=Nuclear crisis puts evacuation zones under scrutiny |accesso=2 aprile 2011 |autore=Rubin, Rita |data=1º aprile 2011 |sito=USAToday.com}}</ref> NISA questioned the radioactivity measurement and TEPCO is re-evaluating it.<ref name="JapanTimesApr1">{{Cita web|url=http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20110401x1.html |titolo=Iodine 131 found in groundwater |accesso=3 aprile 2011 |autore=Ito, Masami |data=1º aprile 2011 |sito=The Japan Times Online}}</ref>

===Discharge to seawater and contaminated sealife===
Results revealed on 22 March from a sample taken by TEPCO about 100m south of the discharge channel of units 1-4 showed elevated levels of Cs-137, [[Caesium-134|caesium-134 (Cs-134)]] and I-131.<ref name=WNN22/> A sample of seawater taken on 22 March 330m south of the discharge channel (30 kilometers off the coast line) had elevated levels of I-131 and Cs-137. Also north of the plant elevated levels of these ions were found (as well as Cs-134, [[Tellurium-129|Tellurium-129 (Te-129)]] and [[Tellurium-129|Tellurium-129m (Te-129m)]]), although the levels were lower.<ref name=WNN24/> Samples taken one and/or two days later contained about 80 Bq/mL of iodine-131 (1850 times the statutory limit) and 26 Bq/mL and caesium-137, most likely caused by atmospheric deposition.<ref name=IAEAiodine/> On 26 March (and 27 March) this level had decreased to 50&nbsp;Bq/mL (11)<ref name=tepco28/> iodine-131 and 7 &nbspBq/mL (2.9)<ref name=tepco28/> caesium-137 (80 times the limit).<ref name=tepcobetu11>{{Cita web|url=http://www.tepco.co.jp/en/press/corp-com/release/betu11_e/images/110326e1.pdf|titolo=The result of the nuclide analysis of the seawater (Around the discharge canal (south) of Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Station|sito=TEPCO|data=26 marzo 2011}}</ref> The radioactivity however would "be very diluted by the time it gets consumed by fish and seaweed" according to Hidehiko Nishiyama, a senior NISA official.<ref name=Reuters26/>

Furthermore, seawater containing measurable levels of iodine-131 and caesium-137 were collected by Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC) on 22–23 March at several points 30 kilometres from the coastline iodine concentrations were "at or above Japanese regulatory limits" while caesium was "well below those limits" according to an IAEA report on 24 March.<ref name=IAEAiodine/>

Above the seawater, IAEA reported "consistently low" dose rates of 0.04-0.1&nbsp;μSv/h on 27 March.

By 29 March iodine-131 levels in seawater 330m south of a key discharge outlet had reached 138 Bq/ml (3,355 times the legal limit)<ref name="asahi.com"/><ref name="www3.nhk.or.jp"/> and by 30 March, iodine-131 concentrations had reached 180 Bq/ml at the same location near the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear plant, 4,385 times the legal limit.<ref name="www3.nhk.or.jp"/><ref name="www3.nhk.or.jp"/> The high levels could be linked to a feared overflow of highly radioactive water that appeared to have leaked from the unit 2 turbine building.<ref name="online.wsj.com"/> On 15 April, I-131 radation levels were 6,500 times the legal limits.<ref name="nytimes.com"/> On 16 April, TEPCO began dumping zeolite, a mineral "that absorbs radioactive substances, aiming to slow down contamination of the ocean."<ref>http://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20110416/wl_asia_afp/japandisasteraccidentnuclearmineral Japan's TEPCO tips radiation-sucking mineral in sea</ref>

: Seawater radionuclide concentration on 2011-03-29:<ref>{{Cita web|url=http://www.tepco.co.jp/en/press/corp-com/release/betu11_e/images/110330e10.pdf |titolo=The result of the nuclide analysis of the seawater |accesso=30 marzo 2011 }}</ref>
:{| class="wikitable" border="1"
! Nuclide
! Concentration ([[becquerel|Bq]]/cm<sup>3</sup>)
! Regulatory limit (Bq/cm<sup>3</sup>)
! Concentration / Regulatory Limit
|-
|{{SimpleNuclide2|link=yes|Technetium|99m}}
|{{M|1.6|e=-1}}
|{{M|4.0|e=1}}
|.0004
|-
|{{SimpleNuclide2|link=yes|Iodine|131}}
|{{M|1.3|e=2}}
|{{M|4.0|e=-2}}
|3250
|-
|{{SimpleNuclide2|link=yes|Caesium|134}}
|{{M|3.1|e=1}}
|{{M|6.0|e=-2}}
|517
|-
|{{SimpleNuclide2|link=yes|Caesium|136}}
|{{M|2.8|e=0}}
|{{M|3.0|e=-1}}
|9.3
|-
|{{SimpleNuclide2|link=yes|Caesium|137}}
|{{M|3.2|e=1}}
|{{M|9.0|e=-2}}
|356
|-
|{{SimpleNuclide2|link=yes|Barium|140}}
|{{M|5.0|e=0}}
|{{M|3.0|e=-1}}
|17
|-
|{{SimpleNuclide2|link=yes|Lanthanum|140}}
|{{M|2.5|e=0}}
|{{M|4.0|e=-1}}
|6.3
|}

After the detection of radioactive [[caesium]] above legal limits in [[Sand lance]]s caught off the coast of [[Ibaraki Prefecture]], the Prefecture government banned fishing of Sand lances.<ref name="NHK World 20110405">{{Cita news|url=http://www3.nhk.or.jp/daily/english/05_34.html|titolo=High level of cesium detected in sand lances|editore=NHK World |data=5 aprile 2011}}</ref>

==Air exposure within 30 kilometers==
[[File:FukushimaOutlyingRadiationPlot-Log-Mar19.png|thumb|Dose rates for locations in the Fukushima Prefecture and neighboring prefectures.
*[[Iitate, Fukushima]]
*[[Minamisōma, Fukushima]]
*[[Iwaki, Fukushima]]
*[[Tamura, Fukushima]]
]]
[[:File:Fukushima area 01.png|thumb|Fukushima area detector readings]]
The zone within 20&nbsp;km from the plant was evacuated on 12 March,<ref name="wp-partial">{{Cita news|titolo=Japanese nuclear plants' operator scrambles to avert meltdowns |nome=Steven |cognome=Mufson |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2011/03/12/AR2011031205493.html |giornale=The Washington Post |data=13 marzo 2011 |accesso=13 marzo 2011}}</ref> while residents on a distance up to 30&nbsp;km were advised to stay indoors and were from 25 March subject to voluntary evacuation.<ref>{{Cita web|url=http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fgw-japan-nuclear-plant-20110326,0,5763742.story|titolo=Japan steps up nuclear plant precautions; Kan apologizes|data=25 marzo 2011|sito=L.A. Times}}</ref>

IAEA reported on 14 March that about 150 people in the vicinity of the plant "received monitoring for radiation levels"; 23 of these people were also decontaminated.<ref name=IAEAiodine/>

At a distance of 30&nbsp;km (19 miles) from the site, radiation of 0.003-0.170&nbsp;mSv/h was measured to the north-west on 17 March, while it was 0.001-0.005&nbsp;mSv/h in other directions.<ref name=IAEAiodine/><ref name=NHK18/> Experts said exposure to this amount of radiation for 6 to 7 hours would result in absorption of the maximum level considered safe for one year.<ref name=NHK18>{{Cita web|url= http://www3.nhk.or.jp/daily/english/18_25.html |titolo=NHK WORLD English |nome= |cognome=NHK WORLD |sito=www3.nhk.or.jp |anno=2011 [last update] |accesso=19 marzo 2011}}</ref> On 16 March [[Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology|Japan's ministry of science]] measured radiation levels of up to 0.33&nbsp;mSv/h 20 kilometers northwest of the power plant.<ref name=NHK16/> At some locations around 30&nbsp;km from the Fukushima plant, the dose rates rose significantly in 24 hours on 16–17 March. In one location from 0.080 to 0.170&nbsp;mSv/h and in another from 0.026 to 0.095 &nbsp;mSv/h. The levels varied according to the direction from the plant.<ref name=IAEAiodine/>

Normal [[background radiation]] varies from place to place but delivers a [[dose equivalent]] in the vicinity of 2.4&nbsp;[[sievert|mSv]]/year, or about 0.3&nbsp;µSv/h.<ref name=IAEA1>{{Cita web|url=http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Factsheets/English/radlife.html|titolo=Radiation in everyday life|editore=IAEA}}</ref><ref name="worldnuclearinf05">http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf05.html Nuclear Radiation and Health Effects</ref> For comparison, one chest x-ray is about 0.1&nbsp;mSv. People can mitigate their exposure to radiation through a variety of [[Radiation protection|protection techniques]].

<gallery>
File:DOE NNSA Fukushima Survey March 17.PNG|DOE and NNSA aerial survey of the area surrounding the plant March 17-19, 2011.  NW dispersion of plume obvious.  Source: [http://blog.energy.gov/content/situation-japan/]
File:DOE NNSA Fukushima Survey March 24.PNG|Same survey single day flight revision on March 24, 2011.
File:DOE NNSA Fukushima Survey March 24 and 26.PNG|Same survey performed March 24 and 26.
File:DOE NNSA Fukushima Survey March 27-28.PNG|Broader area survey focusing on outside the 24 mile radius, from March 27 and 28.
File:NIT Combined Flights Ground Measurements 30Mar 03Apr2011 results.jpg|Combination of measurements made from 30 March to 03 April
</gallery>

==Deposition of radioactivity and effect on agricultural products==
Radiation monitoring in all 47 [[Prefectures of Japan|prefectures]] showed strong variation, but an upward trend in 10 of them on 23 March. No deposition could be determined in 28 of them until 25 March<ref name=IAEAiodine/> The highest value obtained was in Ibaraki (480&nbsp;Bq/m<sup>2</sup> on 25 March) and Yamagata (750&nbsp;Bq/m<sup>2</sup> on 26 March) for iodine-13. For caesium-137, the highest value were in Yamagata at 150 and 1200&nbsp;Bq/m<sup>2</sup> respectively.<ref name=IAEAiodine/>

Measurements made by Japan in a number of locations have shown the presence of [[radionuclide]]s in the ground.<ref name=IAEAiodine/> On 19 March, upland soil levels of 8,100&nbsp;Bq/kg of Cs-137 and 300,000&nbsp;Bq/kg of I-131 were reported. One day later, the measured levels were  163,000&nbsp;Bq/kg of Cs-137 and 1,170,000&nbsp;Bq/kg of I-131.<ref name=Mext>{{Cita web|url=http://www.mext.go.jp/component/english/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2011/03/24/1304097_2410.pdf|titolo=Readings of environmental monitoring samples|data=24 marzo 2011|sito=MEXT}}</ref>

===Agricultural products===
On 19 March, the Japanese Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare announced that levels of radioactivity exceeding legal limits had been detected in milk produced in the Fukushima area and in certain vegetables in Ibaraki. On 21 March, IAEA indicated it confirmed that "in some areas, iodine-131 in milk and in freshly grown leafy vegetables, such as spinach and spring onions, is significantly above the levels set by Japan for restricting consumption". One day later, iodine-131 (sometimes above safe levels) and caesium-137 (always at safe levels) detection was reported in Ibaraki prefecture.<ref name=IAEAiodine/> On 21 March, spinach grown in open air in Kitaibaraki city in [[Ibaraki]], around 75 kilometers south of the nuclear plant, was 24,000 [[Becquerel (Bq)]]/kg (due to radioactive iodine), 12 times more than the limit of 2,000 Bq/kg, with caesium radioactivity of 690 Bq/kg, 190 more than the limit.<ref name=spinach/> In four Prefectures (Ibaraki, Totigi, Gunma, Fukushima) distributing of spinach and [[kakina]] was restricted as well as milk from Fukushima.<ref name=IAEAiodine/> On March 23, similar restrictions were placed on more leafy vegetables ([[komatsuna]], cabbages) and all flowerhead [[brassica]]s (like cauliflower) in Fukushima, while [[parsley]] and milk distribution was restricted in Ibaraki.<ref name=IAEAiodine/> On 24 March, IAEA reported that virtually all milk samples and vegetable samples taken in Fukushima and Ibaraki on 18-21 and 16–22 March respectively were above the limit. Samples from Chiba, Ibaraki and Tochigi contained in also too high levels in [[celery]], parsley, spinach and other leafy vegetables. Samples mainly taken on 27–29 March showed concentrations of iodine-131 and/or caesium-134 and caesium-137 above the regulatory levels in certain samples  of -besides the earlier reported leafy vegetables and parsley- also beef.<ref name=IAEAiodine/>

===Drinking water===
The regulatory safe level for iodine-131 and caesium-137 in drinking water in Japan are 100 Bq/kg and 200 Bq/kg respectively.<ref name=IAEAiodine/> 
The Japanese science ministry said on 20 March that radioactive substances were detected in [[tap water]] in Tokyo, as well as [[Tochigi]], [[Gunma]], [[Chiba]] and [[Saitama]] prefectures.<ref name=JapanTimes>{{Cita web|url=http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20110320a2.html|titolo=Tokyo tap water has trace level of radiation|sito=The Japan Times|accesso=20 marzo 2011|data=20 marzo 2011}}</ref> Also drinking water in Tokyo, Fukushima and Ibaraki had been above regulatory limits between 16 and 21 March.<ref name=IAEAiodine/> On 26 March, IAEA reported that the values were now within legal limits.<ref name=IAEAiodine/> 
On March 23, Tokyo drinking water exceeded the safe level for infants, prompting the government to distribute bottled water to families with infants.<ref name=BusinessWeek>{{Cita web|url=http://www.businessweek.com/ap/financialnews/D9M59PR00.htm|titolo=Anxiety in Tokyo over radiation in tap water|sito=Business Week|data=23 marzo 2011}}</ref> 
Measured levels were caused by [[iodine-131]] (I-131) and were 103, 137 and 174 Bq/l.<ref name=WNN24a>{{Cita web|url=http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/RS_All_clear_on_tap_water_2403111.html|titolo=All clear on tap water, update|data=24 marzo 2011|sito=World Nuclear News}}</ref>  On 24 March, iodine-131 was detected in 12 of 47 prefectures, of which the level in Tochigi was the highest at 110 Bq/kg. Caesium-137 was detected in 6 prefectures but always below 10 Bq/kg.<ref name=IAEAiodine/> On March 25, tap water was reported to have reduced to 79 Bq/kg<ref name=WNN24a/> and to be safe for infants in Tokyo and Chiba but still exceeded limits in Hitachi and Tokaimura.<ref name=CNN25>{{Cita news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/asiapcf/03/25/japan.nuclear.disaster/index.html|titolo=Japan encourages voluntary evacuations near stricken nuclear plant|editore=CNN|data=25 marzo 2011}}</ref> IAEA reported on 24 March that drinking water in Tokyo, Fukushima and Ibaraki had been above regulatory limits between 16 and 21 March.<ref name=IAEAiodine/>

===Breast milk===
Radioactive [[iodine]] has been found in the [[breast milk]] of women living east of [[Tokyo]].[http://www.japantoday.com/category/national/view/small-amounts-of-radioactive-iodine-found-in-breast-milk]

==Exposure elsewhere in Japan==
{{see also|Radiation monitoring in Japan}}
[[:File:Radiation.jpg|thumb|right|Tokyo low-level gamma radiation with comparisons to average annual radiation intake. Based on Geiger counter measurements in Tokyo. ''Does not show radiation from physically transported sources, i.e. particulate matter transported in food, water, or the atmosphere.'']]
Radiation levels in Tokyo on 15 March were at one point measured at 0.809&nbsp;μ[[Sievert|Sv]]/hour although they were later reported to be at "about twice the normal level".<ref name="eiken, radiation">{{Cita web|url=http://ftp.jaist.ac.jp/pub/emergency/monitoring.tokyo-eiken.go.jp/monitoring/past_data.html|titolo=都内の環境放射線量調査 １日単位の測定結果 （Environmental Radiation Measurement Result in Tokyo）|editore=Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Public Health|accesso=22 marzo 2011}}</ref><ref name=Newstalkzb>{{Cita web|url= http://www.newstalkzb.co.nz/newsdetail1.asp?storyid=192431 |titolo=Tokyo radiation eases – Newstalk ZB |nome= |cognome=|sito=newstalkzb.co.nz |anno=2011 |citazione=Tokyo officials say they detected 0.8 of a micro-sievert in the morning, which is about 27 times what's considered normal. Health authorities say it's now fallen to about twice the normal level in Tokyo but they need to keep a close watch on it. |accesso=15 marzo 2011}}</ref>  Later, on 15 March 2011, Edano reported that radiation levels were lower and the average radiation dose rate over the whole day was 0.109&nbsp;μSv/h.<ref name="eiken, radiation" /> The wind direction on 15 March dispersed radiatioactivity away from the land and back over the Pacific Ocean.<ref name=ABC15>{{Cita web|url= http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2011/03/15/3164827.htm|titolo=More nuclear reactors show signs of trouble|editore=[[Australian Broadcasting Commission]]|data= 15 marzo 2011}}</ref> On 16 March, the Japanese radiation warning system, SPEEDI, indicated high levels of radiation would spread further than 30&nbsp;km from the plant, but Japanese authorities did not relay the information to citizens because "the location or the amount of radioactive leakage was not specified at the time."<ref>http://www3.nhk.or.jp/daily/english/04_10.html Govt did not reveal high level radiation estimate</ref> From 17 March, IAEA received regular updates on radiation from 46 cities and indicated that they had remained stable and were "well below levels which are dangerous to human health".<ref name=IAEAiodine/> In hourly measurements of these cities until 20 March, no significant changes were reported.<ref name=IAEAiodine/>

On 30 March 2011, the [[International Atomic Energy Agency|IAEA]] stated that its operational criteria for evacuation were exceeded in the village of [[Iitate, Fukushima]], 39&nbsp;km north-west of Fukushima I, outside the existing 30&nbsp;km radiation exclusion zone. The IAEA advised the Japanese authorities to carefully assess the situation there.<ref name="Reuters"/>  The unrecovered bodies of approximately 1,000 quake and tsunami victims within the plant's evacuation zone are believed to be contaminated with dangerous levels of radiation.<ref>[[Kyodo News]], "[http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20110401a2.html Hundreds of corpses believed irradiated, inaccessible]", ''[[Japan Times]]'', 1 April 2011, p. 3.</ref> Experts from Kyoto University and Hiroshima University released research, on 11 April, that "soil samples has revealed that as much as 400 times the normal levels of radiation" which "could remain in communities beyond a 30-kilometer radius from the Fukushima" site.<ref>http://translate.google.com/translate?js=n&prev=_t&hl=en&ie=UTF-8&layout=2&eotf=1&sl=ja&tl=en&u=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.asahi.com%2Fenglish%2FTKY201104080169.html High radiation levels found beyond 30-km radius</ref>

===Gamma radiation===
A [[criticality accident]] such as the [[Tokaimura nuclear accident]] produces [[Gamma radiation]].  At Fukushima I, [[Gamma radiation]] was reported on 21 March at 2-160&nbsp;μSv/h, much higher than the background of 0.1&nbsp;μSv/h. The highest values were measured closer to the plant (16–58&nbsp;km).<ref name=IAEAiodine/>  
Based on incomplete information about the 2011 [[Fukushima I nuclear accidents]], Dr. Ferenc Dalnoki-Veress speculates that transient criticalities may have occurred there.<ref>{{Cita news|url=http://ecocentric.blogs.time.com/2011/03/30/has-fukushimas-reactor-no-1-gone-critical/
 |titolo=Has Fukushima’s Reactor No. 1 Gone Critical?
 |pubblicazione=Ecocentric - TIME.com
 |data=30 marzo 2011
 |accesso=1º aprile 2011 }}</ref>  
By March 23, 2011, neutron beams had already been observed 13 times at crippled Fukushima nuke plant.  While a [[criticality accident]] was not believed to account for these beams, the beams could indicate [[nuclear fission]] is occurring.<ref>[http://english.kyodonews.jp/news/2011/03/80539.html ''Neutron beam observed 13 times at crippled Fukushima nuke plant''], Tokyo, March 23, Kyodo News</ref>

Noting that limited, uncontrolled chain reactions might occur at Fukushima I, a spokesman for the International Atomic Energy Agency ([[IAEA]]) “emphasized that the nuclear reactors won’t explode.”<ref>Fukushima Workers Threatened by Heat Bursts; Sea Radiation Rises
By Jonathan Tirone, Sachiko Sakamaki and Yuriy Humber Mar/31/2011 http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-03-30/record-high-levels-of-radiation-found-in-sea-near-crippled-nuclear-reactor.html</ref>  Additionally, on April 15, TEPCO reported that Nuclear fuel has melted and fallen to the lower containment sections of three of the [[Fukushima I]] reactors, including reactor three.  The melted material was not expected to breach one of the lower containers, causing a massive radiation release.  Instead, the melted fuel was thought to have dispersed uniformly across the lower portions of the containers of reactors No. 1, No. 2 and No. 3, making the resumption of the fission process, known as a "recriticality" most unlikely.<ref>[http://www.globalsecuritynewswire.org/gsn/nw_20110415_5020.php ''Japan Plant Fuel Melted Partway Through Reactors: Report''], Friday, April 15, 2011</ref>

==Distribution outside Japan==
===Distribution by sea===
On 25 March, IAEA indicated that in the long term, caesium-137 (with a half-life of 30 years) would be the most relevant isotope as far as doses was concerned and indicated the possibility "to follow this nuclide over long distances for several years." The organization also said it could take months or years for the isotope to reach "other shores of the Pacific".<ref name=IAEAiodine/>

On April 4, it was reported that: "Operators of Japan's crippled power plant say they will release more than 10,000 tons of contaminated water into the ocean to make room in their storage tanks for water that is even more radioactive." <ref>{{Cita web|url=http://www.voanews.com/english/news/asia/east-pacific/Japan-Nuclear-Plant-to-Release-Contaminated-Water-Into-Ocean-119169659.html |titolo=Japan Nuclear Plant Releases Contaminated Water Into Ocean &#124; East Asia and Pacific &#124; English |editore=Voanews.com |data= |accesso=6 aprile 2011}}</ref>

===Distribution by air===
[[File:Fukushima trajectory animation for days 10 to 21 after the accident.gif|thumb|File:Fukushima trajectory animation for days 10 to 21 after the accident]]
The [[United Nations]] predicted that a the initial radiation [[Plume (hydrodynamics)|plume]] from the stricken Japanese reactors would reach the United States by 18 March. Health and nuclear experts emphasized that radioactive isotopes in the plume will be very diluted, and would have extremely minor health consequences in the United States.<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/17/science/17plume.html?_r=1&hp Scientists Project Path of Radiation Plume] By William J. Broad, 16 March 2011, [[The New York Times]]</ref> A simulation by the Belgian Institute for Space Aeronomy indicated that trace amounts of radioactivity would California and Mexico around 19 March.<ref>{{Cita web|titolo=Nouvelle simulation du nuage de pollution radioactive au Japon|data=16 marzo 2011|url=http://aeronomie.be/multimedia/video/daiichi3-washout_bira-iasb_animated.gif}}</ref><ref>{{Cita web|url=http://www.zamg.ac.at/aktuell/index.php?seite=1&artikel=ZAMG_2011-03-15GMT08:26 |titolo=Aktuelle Informationen |editore=ZAMG |data= |accesso=18 marzo 2011}}</ref> These predictions were tested by a worldwide network of highly sensitive radiative isotope measuring equipment, with the resulting data used to assess any potential impact to human health as well as the status of the reactors in Japan.<ref>http://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/03/science/03meltdown.html From Afar, a Vivid Picture of Japan Crisis</ref><ref>http://www.epa.gov/radiation/rert/radnet-data-map.html US EPA Radnet Monitoring System Webpage</ref> Consequently, by 18 March [[Nuclear fallout|radioactive fallout]] including isotopes of iodine-131, iodine-132, tellurium-132, iodine-133, caesium-134 and caesium-137 was detected in air filters at the University of Washington, [[Seattle]], USA.<ref>{{Cita web|titolo=Fission Products in Seattle Reveal Clues about Japan Nuclear Disaster|data=25 marzo 2011|url=http://www.technologyreview.com/blog/arxiv/26571/|editore=Technology Review, MIT}}</ref><ref>{{Cita web|url=http://arxiv.org/abs/1103.4853|titolo=Arrival time and magnitude of airborne fission products from the Fukushima, Japan, reactor incident as measured in Seattle, WA, USA|editore=arxiv.org |data=24 marzo 2011|autore= J. Diaz Leon, J. Kaspar, A. Knecht, M. L. Miller, R. G. H. Robertson, A. G. Schubert}}</ref>

Due to an [[anticyclone]] south of Japan, favorable westerly winds were dominant during most of the first week of the accident, depositing most of the radioactive material out to sea and away from population centers, with some unfavorable wind directions depositing radioactive material over Tokyo. [[Low-pressure area]] over Eastern Japan gave less favorable wind directions 21–22 March. Wind shift to north takes place tuesday midnight. After the shift, the plume would again be pushed out to the sea for the next becoming days. Roughly similar prediction results are presented for the next 36 hours by the Finnish Meteorological Institute.<ref>{{Cita web|url=http://en.ilmatieteenlaitos.fi/japan|sito=Finnish Meteorological Institute|data=19 March 2011<!-- 09:39&nbsp;am UTC, 20 March 07:06&nbsp;am and 21 March 09:43&nbsp;pm-->|titolo=Forecast of air movement}}</ref> In spite of winds blowing towards Tokyo during 21–22 March, he comments, "From what I've been able to gather from official reports of radioactivity releases from the Fukushima plant, Tokyo will not receive levels of radiation dangerous to human health in the coming days, should emissions continue at current levels."

[[Norwegian Institute for Air Research]] have continuous forecasts of the radioactive cloud and its movement.<ref>{{Cita web|url=http://transport.nilu.no/products/fukushima |titolo=Fukushima — Atmospheric Transport |editore=Transport.nilu.no |data=24 marzo 2011 |accesso=6 aprile 2011}}</ref> These are based on the [[FLEXPART]] model, originally designed for forecasting the spread of radioactivity from the [[Chernobyl disaster]].

==Response in other countries==
{{see also|International reaction to the Fukushima I nuclear accidents}}

===Rush for iodine===
[[File:IodineDistJapan.jpg|thumb|right|Packaged potassium iodide tablets.]] 
Fear of radiation from Japan prompted a global rush for iodine pills, including in the United States,<ref>{{Cita news|cognome=Hurd |nome=Rick |titolo=Amid Japan nuclear drama, Bay Area potassium iodide sales skyrocket |pubblicazione=[[Contra Costa Times]] |editore=[[San Jose Mercury News]] |data=17 marzo 2011 |url=http://www.mercurynews.com/ci_17631165?source=most_viewed&nclick_check=1 |accesso=19 marzo 2011}}</ref> Canada, Russia,<ref>{{Cita news|titolo=Radiation fears spark rush for iodine pills |pubblicazione=CTV News |editore=[[CTV Television Network]] |città=Canada |data=15 marzo 2011 |url=http://www.ctv.ca/CTVNews/TopStories/20110315/japan-radiation-iodine-pills-110315/ |accesso=19 marzo 2011}}</ref> Korea,<ref>{{Cita news|titolo=South Korean radiation fear iodine rush |editore=Australia Network News |url=
http://australianetworknews.com/stories/201103/3166601.htm?desktop |accesso=18 marzo 2011}}</ref> China,<ref name="autogenerated14">{{Cita news|autore=Jo Ling Kent |titolo=Chinese scramble to buy salt as radiation fears grow |editore=CNN |data=17 marzo 2011 |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/asiapcf/03/17/china.salt.scramble/# |accesso=18 marzo 2011}}</ref> Malaysia<ref name="heraldsun1">{{Cita news|titolo=Health experts warning over iodine rush |editore=Herald Sun |città=Australia |data=15 March 2011<!-- 11:38&nbsp;pm --> |url=
http://www.heraldsun.com.au/news/breaking-news/health-experts-warning-over-iodine-rush/story-e6frf7jx-1226022126886 |accesso=18 marzo 2011}}</ref> and Finland.<ref name="helsinginsanomat">{{Cita web|titolo=Finnish nuclear authority investigates problems in online reporting on Japan |editore=Helsingin Sanomat |città=Finland |data=15 marzo 2011 |url=
http://www.hs.fi/english/article/Finnish+nuclear+authority+investigates+problems+in+online+reporting+on+Japan+/1135264600262 |accesso=19 marzo 2011}}</ref> There is a rush for iodized salt in China.<ref name="autogenerated14"/> A rush for iodine antiseptic solution appeared in Malaysia. [[WHO]] warned against consumption of iodine pills without consulting a doctor and also warned against drinking iodine antiseptic solution.<ref name="heraldsun1"/> The United States Pentagon said troops are receiving [[potassium iodide]] before missions to areas where possible radiation exposure is likely.<ref>{{Cita news|titolo=U.S. to send drones over damaged nuke plant |editore=[[CBS News]] |data=16 marzo 2011 |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-503543_162-20044023-503543.html?tag=stack |accesso=19 marzo 2011}}</ref>

The World Health Organisation (WHO) says it has received reports of people being admitted to poison centres around the world after taking iodine tablets in response to fears about harmful levels of radiation coming out of the damaged nuclear power plant in Fukushima.<ref>{{Cita news|titolo=Worldwide reports of iodine overdoses: WHO |pubblicazione=[[ABC Online]] |editore=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |data=18 marzo 2011 |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2011/03/18/3168067.htm |accesso=19 marzo 2011}}</ref>

===U.S. military===
{{See also| Operation Tomodachi }}
[[File:C-17 Globemaster III Yokota.jpg|thumb|right|Humanitarian flight is checked for radiation at Yokota]]
In [[Operation Tomodachi]], the United States Navy dispatched the aircraft carrier {{USS|Ronald Reagan|CVN-76|6}} and other vessels in the [[Seventh Fleet]] to fly a series of helicopter operations.<ref>{{Cita web|url= http://www.stripes.com/news/relief-efforts-still-getting-started-days-after-earthquake-1.137703 |titolo= Relief efforts still getting started days after earthquake |editore=Stripes.com |data= |accesso= 15 marzo 2011}}</ref> A U.S. military spokesperson said that low-level radiation forced a change of course en route to Sendai.<ref>{{Cita news|cognome=Dawson |nome=Chester |titolo=WSJ online U.S. Military Joins in Quake-Relief Effort |giornale=[[Wall Street Journal]] |data=14 marzo 2011 |url=http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748704893604576200183092822382.html |accesso= 14 marzo 2011}}</ref> The ''Reagan'' and sailors aboard were exposed to "a month's worth of natural background radiation from the sun, rocks or soil"<ref>{{Cita news|cognome=Broad |nome=William J. |titolo=Military Crew Said to Be Exposed to Radiation, but Officials Call Risk in U.S. Slight |giornale=New York Times |data=13 marzo 2011 |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/14/world/asia/14plume.html |accesso=19 marzo 2011}}</ref> in an hour and the carrier was repositioned.<ref>{{Cita news|http://www.jpost.com/International/Article.aspx?id=212057|titolo=US aircraft carrier reportedly sails into radioactive cloud|editore=[[Jerusalem Post]]|data=14 marzo 2011}}</ref> Seventeen sailors were decontaminated after they and their three helicopters were found to have been exposed to low levels of radioactivity.<ref>{{Cita news|autore=Shanker, Thom|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/14/world/asia/14military.html|titolo=17 in U.S. Navy Treated for Contamination|pubblicazione=[[New York Times]]|data=14 marzo 2011}}</ref>

The aircraft carrier {{USS|George Washington|CVN-73|6}} was docked for maintenance at [[Yokosuka Naval Base]], about {{convert|280|km|mi}} from the plant, when instruments detected radiation at 07:00 JST on 15 March.<ref>{{Cita news|autore=CNN Wire Staff |titolo=U.S. Navy aircraft carrier detects radiation |editore=CNN |data=15 marzo 2011 |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/asiapcf/03/15/japan.us.navy.radiation/ |accesso=15 marzo 2011}}</ref> Rear Admiral Richard Wren stated that the nuclear crisis in Fukushima, {{convert|320|km|mi}} from Yokosuka, was too distant to warrant a discussion about evacuating the base.<ref>Erik Slavin. ''Stars and Stripes'', 14 March 2011.</ref> Daily monitoring and some precautionary measures were recommended for Yokosuka and [[Atsugi]] bases, such as limiting outdoor activities and securing external ventilation systems.<ref>{{Cita news|url=http://www.foxnews.com/world/2011/03/15/japanese-nuclear-panic-rises-agency-says-radiation-leaking-atmosphere/|titolo=Nuclear Officials May Spray Japanese Power Plant With Water by Helicopter|pubblicazione=[[Fox News]]|data=15 marzo 2011}}</ref> As a precaution, the ''Washington'' was pulled out of its Yokosuka port later in the week.<ref>{{Cita news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/asiapcf/03/21/japan.nuclear.reactors/?hpt=T2|pubblicazione=CNN|titolo=Smoke spews from 2 reactors at stricken Japanese nuclear plant|data=22 marzo 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cita news|url=http://www.kztv10.com/news/uss-george-washington-leaves-port-in-japan/|titolo=USS George Washington Leaves Port In Japan|pubblicazione=KZTV|data=21 marzo 2011}}</ref> The Navy also stopped moving its personnel to Japan.<ref>{{Cita news|url=http://www.armytimes.com/news/2011/03/navy-stop-movement-sailors-japan-031711w/|titolo=Navy stops moving sailors to Japan|data=17 marzo 2011|pubblicazione=[[Army Times]]}}</ref>

==Isotopes of possible concern==
{{see also|Nuclear fission product#Countermeasures against the worst fission products found in accident fallout}}
The isotope [[iodine-131]] is easily absorbed by the [[thyroid]]. Persons exposed to releases of I-131 from any source have a higher risk for developing [[thyroid cancer]] or thyroid disease, or both. Iodine-131 has a short [[half-life]] at approximately 8 days. Children are more vulnerable to I-131 than adults. Increased risk for thyroid [[neoplasm]] remains elevated for at least 40 years after exposure. [[Potassium iodide]] tablets prevent iodine-131 absorption.<ref name=Atsdr1>{{Cita web|titolo=Radiation Exposure from Iodine 131: Physiologic Effects |editore=[[Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry]] |città=United States |data=5 novembre 2002 |url=
http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/csem/iodine/physiologic_effects.html |accesso=21 marzo 2011}}</ref> Japan's Nuclear Safety Commission recommended local authorities to instruct evacuees leaving the 20-kilometre area to ingest stable (not radioactive) iodine.<ref name=IAEAiodine/> [[CBS News]] reported that the number of doses of potassium iodide available to the public in Japan was inadequate to meet the perceived needs for an extensive radioactive contamination event.<ref name=cbs3>{{Cita news|cognome=Millstone |nome=Ken |titolo=Expert: Japan botching crisis management, iodine distribution |pubblicazione=World Watch |editore=CBS News |data=16 marzo 2011 |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-503543_162-20043836-503543.html?tag=contentMain;contentBody |accesso=21 marzo 2011}}</ref>

[[Caesium-137]] is also a particular threat because it behaves like [[potassium]] and is taken up by cells throughout the body.  Additionally, it has a long, 30-year half-life.<ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesium-137#Radioactive_caesium_in_the_environment Radioactive caesium in the environment

Wikipedia</ref>  Cs-137 can cause acute [[radiation sickness]], and increase the risk for [[cancer]] because of exposure to high-energy gamma radiation. Internal exposure to Cs-137, through ingestion or inhalation, allows the radioactive material to be distributed in the soft tissues, especially muscle tissue, exposing these tissues to the beta particles and gamma radiation and increasing cancer risk.<ref name=CDC1>{{Cita web|titolo=Radioisotope Brief: Cesium-137 (Cs-137) |sito=Emergency Preparedness and Response |editore=[[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] |città=United States |data=18 agosto 2004 |url=
http://www.bt.cdc.gov/radiation/isotopes/cesium.asp |accesso=21 marzo 2011}}</ref>  [[Prussian blue]] helps the body excrete caesium-137.<ref name=cbs3/><ref name=Atsdr2>[http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp157.pdf Toxicological profile for Cesium] [[Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry]], April 2004</ref>

[[Strontium-90]] behaves like [[calcium]], and tends to deposit in bone and blood-forming tissue (bone marrow). 20–30% of ingested Sr-90 is absorbed and deposited in the bone. Internal exposure to Sr-90 is linked to bone cancer, cancer of the soft tissue near the bone, and leukemia.<ref name=epa1>[http://www.epa.gov/rpdweb00/radionuclides/strontium.html#affecthealth Strontium] [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]]</ref> Risk of cancer increases with increased exposure to Sr-90.<ref name=Aus2>{{Cita pubblicazione|titolo= Stealthy, silent destroyer of DNA |rivista=[[The Australian]] |data= 16 marzo 2011 |nome= Adam |cognome= Cresswell}}</ref><ref name="epa1"/>

[[Plutonium]] is also present in the MOX fuel of the Unit 3 reactor and in spent fuel rods,.<ref>[http://news.cnet.com/8301-11386_3-20042852-76.html Plutonium threat at Japan reactor, expert warns] 14 March 2011, Cnet News</ref> Officials at the International Atomic Energy Agency say the presence of MOX fuel does not add significantly to the dangers. [[Plutonium-239]] is particularly long-lived and toxic with a half-life of 24,000 years and remains hazardous for tens of thousands of years.<ref name=npr1>[http://www.npr.org/2011/03/16/134600825/plutonium-in-fuel-rods-cause-for-concern?ps=cprs Plutonium In Fuel Rods: Cause For Concern?] By Dan Charles, 17 March 2011, NPR.</ref> TEPCO confirmed finding low levels of plutonium in samples taken from five locations on 21 March and 22 March.<ref>[http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/asiapcf/03/28/japan.nuclear.plutonium/?hpt=T2 TEPCO says plutonium found on quake-damaged plant grounds]</ref>  TEPCO confirmed that "two samples out of five may be the direct result of the recent incident."<ref>http://www.tepco.co.jp/en/press/corp-com/release/11032812-e.html Press Release (Mar 28,2011)
Detection of radioactive material in the soil in Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Station</ref> Experts commented that the long-term risk associated with the plutonium is "highly dependent on the [[geochemistry]] of the particular site."<ref>[http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5hlkw9Naz9zbM-lkEkbSNZMaTjCIQ?docId=CNG.c1d5ac807748f7defd76c46d8c484e61.641 Japan lacking radioactive water storage: US experts]</ref>

==Regulatory levels==
An overview for regulatory levels in Japan is shown in the table below:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!  - !! Value !! Unit !! Reference !! Comment
|-
| Yearly exposure of workers || 250 || mSv || <ref name=NYT16/> || Increased from 100
|-
| Spinach || 2 || Bq/g (iodine-131) || <ref name=spinach/> || possibly a general standard for food
|-
| Spinach || 0.5 || Bq/g (caesium-137) || <ref name=spinach/> || possibly a general standard for food. Increased from 0.37
|-
| Seawater (at discharge) || 0.04 || Bq/mL (iodine-131) || <ref name=tepco28>{{Cita web|url=http://www.tepco.co.jp/en/press/corp-com/release/betu11_e/images/110328e3.pdf|titolo=The result of nuclide analysis of seawater|sito=TEPCO|data=28 marzo 2011}}</ref> || 
|-
|  Seawater (at discharge) ||0.09 || Bq/mL (caesium-137) || <ref name=tepco28/> || 
|-
|  drinking water ||0.1 || Bq/g (iodine-131) || <ref name=IAEAiodine/> || 
|-
|  drinking water ||0.2 || Bq/g (caesium-137) || <ref name=IAEAiodine/> || 
|}

==See also==
* [[2011 Japanese nuclear accidents]]
* [[Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents]]

==References==
{{References|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.tepco.co.jp/en/press/corp-com/release/index-e.html TEPCO News Releases], [[Tokyo Electric Power]] Company
* [http://www.nisa.meti.go.jp/english/ NISA Information update], [[Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency]], the nuclear safety authority of Japan
* [http://www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/tsunamiupdate01.html IAEA Update on Japan Earthquake], [[International Atomic Energy Agency]]

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