User:Calmouk
| Regions with significant populations | |
|---|---|
| Russia 173,000[1] the People's Republic of China: 139,000[3] | |
| Languages | |
| Kalmyk, Russian | |
| Religion | |
| Tibetan Buddhism, Russian Orthodox, Atheism [4][5] | |
| Related ethnic groups | |
| Mongolian, Buryat |
The Kalmyks (alternatively Oirats, "Kalmucks," "Calmucks," "Калмыки") live in Russia, Mongolia, and the People's Republic of China.[6] Through immigration, Kalmyk communities have been established in the United States, France, Germany and the Czech Republic.
Location
[edit]In Russia, the Kalmyks live primarily in the Republic of Kalmykia, a federal subject of Russia [7]. Kalmykia is located in the southeast European part of Russia, between the Volga and the Don Rivers. It has borders with the Republic of Daghestan in the south; the Stavropol Krai (territory) in the southwest; and the Rostov and the Volgograd Oblasts (regions) in the west and the northwest, respectively. Its eastern border is the Astrakhan Oblast. The southeast border is the Caspian Sea.
In recent years, a large number of Kalmyks, primarily the young, have been leaving Kalmykia for larger cities in Russia, such as Moscow and St. Petersburg. The move has been precipitated by the desire of these Kalmyks to pursue better educational and economic opportunities.
Language
[edit]According to Robert G. Gordon, Jr., editor of the Ethnologue: Languages of the World, the Kalmyk-Oirat language belongs to the eastern branch of the Mongolian language division. Gordon further classifies Kalmyk-Oirat under the Oirat-Khalkha group, since he contends that Kalmyk-Oirat is related to Khalkha Mongolian – the national language of Mongolia. [8].
Other linguists, such as Nicholas N. Poppe, have classified the Kalmyk-Oirat language group as belonging to the western branch of the Mongolian language division, since the language group developed separately and is distinct. Moreover, Poppe contends that, although there is little phonetic and morphological difference, Kalmyk and Oirat are two distinct languages. The major distinction is in their lexicons. The Kalmyk language, for example, has adopted many words of Russian and Tatar origin. Consequently, mainly on lexiconal grounds, Kalmyk is classified as a distinct language (Poppe 1970).
The major dialects of Kalmyk are Derbet, Torghut, Khoshot, and Olöt. The Kalmyk dialects vary somewhat, but the differences are insignificant. Generally, the Russian Language less influenced the dialects of the pastoral nomadic Kalmyk tribes of the Volga region.
In contrast, some Derbets and Torghuts who migrated to the Don region took the name Buzava (or Don Kalmyks). In 1793 they officially joined the Don Cossacks and Kalmyk Sal’sk District of the Don Cossacks region was estublished. As a result of their integration into the Don Host, the Buzava incorporated many words of Russian origin into their lexicon. (Anon. 1914: 653-660)
During World War II, all Kalmyks not fighting in the Soviet Army were forcibly exiled to Siberia and Central Asia, where they were dispersed and not permitted to speak the Kalmyk language in public places. As a result, the Kalmyk language was not formally taught to the younger generation of Kalmyks.
Upon return from exile in 1957, the Kalmyks spoke and published primarily in Russian. Consequently, the younger generation of Kalmyks primarily speak Russian and not their own native language. This is a subject of popular concern. In recent years, attempts have been made by the Kalmyk government to revive the Kalmyk language. As such, some laws have been passed regarding the usage of Kalmyk on shop signs; for example, on entrance doors, the words 'Entrance' and 'Push-Pull' appear in Kalmyk.
The attempt to re-establish the Kalmyk language has suffered setbacks, however. Recently, the Russian Broadcasting Corporation cut broadcast time allocated to Kalmyk language programs on radio and television, choosing instead to purchase pre-produced programs, such as English language productions. This measure was undertaken to reduce production costs.
Writing System
[edit]In the 17th century, Zaya Pandita, a Lamist monk belonging to the Khoshot tribe, devised a script called Todo Bichig (clear script). The script, which is based on the classical vertical Mongol script, phonetically captured the Oirat language. In the later part of the 19th and early part of the 20th centuries, todo bichig fell into disuse until the Kalmyks abandoned it in 1923 and introduced the Russian Cyrillic alphabet. But soon afterwards, around 1930, Kalmyk language scholars introduced a modified Latin alphabet, which did not last long.
History
[edit]
Introduction
[edit]The Kalmyks are Oirats, a people some of European scholars have designated as Western Mongols. In contrast, European scholars have designated the Khalkha, Tumet and Chahar as Eastern Mongols. Historically, the Eastern Mongols are descendants of Chingis Khan and have used the term "Mongols" to refer to themselves only. Thus, they never considered the Kalmyks (Oirats) as Mongols for the following reasons:
- Their geographical and historic background was different.
- Their degree of ethnic kinship with the Mongols has been disputed.
- There is no historical evidence that Oirats have called themselves as Mongols
Nonetheless, the Kalmyks do share some history, geography, culture, and language with the Mongols and other Central Asian nations. Moreover, the Kalmyks and the Mongols were, at least one time, united under the leadership of Esen Khan of Oirats.
Historically, the Oirats called themselves Dörvn Öörd ("The Allied Four"). The alliance was comprised of four major divisions: Khoshot, Olöt, Torghut and Derbet. Minor divisions that belonged to the alliance periodically included the Khoit and Bayid. Turks, such as Telenguts, were also members of the alliance.
Turks, Russians and Western Europeans traditionally called Oirats as Kalmyks (Calmucks, Kalmouks) The word Kalmyk has Turkic origin meaning "remnant" or "to remain." This name was given to the Oirats by their Turkic-speaking Muslim neighbors. The name "Kalmucks" can be found in the "Cosmography" of Sebastian Munster (1488-1552), which was published in 1544.
Regarding the meaning of the name Kalmyk, since the term "Kalmyk" was in use throughout Turkic lands as early as the 1200s, some sources suggest that the name may reflect the Oirats choosing to remain in the Altai Mountains region after their Turkic neighbors migrated westward. Some have speculated that the name may reflect the Kalmyks choosing to remain Buddhist rather than converting to Islam. But according to the official historical version, Kalmyks converted to Buddhism in the middle of 16th century.
In addition, Russian sources mentioned "Kolmak Tatars" as early as 1530.
At about the same time, Kalmyk (Oirat) expansion started. On the West, they expanded to the southern Ural, Caspian Sea shore and the lower Volga region. As a result, Kalmyk (Oirat) territories stretched from the Great Wall of China to the River Don, and from the Himalaya to Siberia. It was the last Empire of the Great Nomads of Asia.
XIII-XIV centuries
[edit]Khans of Kashgar, with an army of Calmucks or Getes, invaded the Transoxian kingdom (Edward Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Chapter LXV). Colonel James Tod (1782-1835) (History of Rajasthan, vol. i. p. 166) would identify the Getes with the ancient race.
XV century
[edit]Kalmyk (Oirat) Prince Esen Tayshi, captured the Zhengtong Emperor of China after the Battle of Tumu Fortress. In 1439, Esen Tayshi succeeded his father, Toghon Tayshi, who had expanded Kalmyk territory substantially. Under Esen Tayisi's leadership, the Kalmyks took over control of Mongolia and the Hami oasis on the Silk Road between the Gobi and the Takla Makan deserts.
XVI century
[edit]According to Russian and Western European historical sources, in the first half of the 16th century, the most Western territory of the Kalmyks (Oirats) was southern Siberia, the steppes along the Ob' and Irtysh rivers.
XVII century
[edit]Kalmyks (Oirats), led by Kho Ourluk, Tayshi of Torghuts, reached the lower Volga region in 1630 and forced the native inhabitants, the Nogai Horde, to flee to Crimea and the Kuban region. Remaining nomadic tribes would subsequently become vassals of Kalmyks.
Kalmyks (Oirats), led by Gushi Khan, Tayshi of Khoshuuts, accused Amdo province near Kok Nor Lake in Northern Tibet. The unification of Tibet followed in 1641, with Gushi Khan of the Khoshuuds proclaimed as King of Tibet by the Fifth Dalai Lama.
In 1640, near Tarbagatai Mountains, the Great Convent of Oirats ratified Iki Tsaadzhin Bichig or Great Code of Nomads. This Code regulated all aspects of life of Kalmyks on their territories from the Great Wall of China to the River Don, and from the Himalaya to Siberia and was in use with certain modifications till XX century.
Numerous Buddhist monasteries were erected by Kalmyks in the Great Euroasian Steppe. Most prominent of them were Ablain Kit (modern Russian city of Ust-Kamenogorsk), Dordzhiin Kit (modern Russian city of Semipalatinsk), Karkaralinsk Palace ((modern Kazakh district of Karaganda).
Religion
[edit]The Kalmyks are the only inhabitants of Europe whose national religion is Buddhism. They belong to the Tibetan “Yellow Hat” or Gelugpa (Virtuous Way) sect of the Mahayana branch of Buddhism, which is also commonly referred to as Lamaism. They embraced Buddhism in the latter part of the 16th and the beginning of the 17th century. Prior to their conversion, the Kalmyks practiced shamanism.
Historically, Kalmyk clergy received their training either on the steppe or in Tibet. The pupils who received their religious training on the steppe joined Kalmyk monasteries, which were active centers of learning. Many of these monasteries operated out of felt tents, which accompanied the Kalmyk tribes as they migrated. Upon completion of training, Kalmyk clergy dispensed not only spiritual guidance but also medical advice. As clergyman, the Kalmyk lamas enjoyed great political clout among the nobility and held a strong influence over the general tribal population. For many commoners, the only path to prestige was to join the Kalmyk monastic system.
As a matter of policy, the Tsarist government and the Russian Orthodox Church sought to gradually absorb and convert any subject of another creed or nationality. The Kalmyks were no exception. The Tsarist government sought to convert the Kalmyks by gradually weakening the influence of the lamas. For instance, the government severely limited Kalmyk contact with Tibet. The government also required the Kalmyks to build permanent structures at government determined construction sites while imposing Russian architects (Pozdneev: 1914). In addition, the Tsar began appointing the Šajin Lama (title of the Supreme Lama of the Kalmyks). The success of this policy is borne out by the decrease in the number of Kalmyk monasteries in the Volga region during the 19th century (Loewenthal 1952 citing Riasanovsky 1929).
Table – Number of Kalmyk Monasteries in the Volga Region Year Number early 19th century 200 1834 76 1847 67 before 1895 62 before 1923 60+
Like the Tsarist government, the Communist regime was aware of the influence the Kalmyk clergy held over the general population. In the 1920s and the 1930s, the Soviet government implemented policies to eliminate religion through control and suppression. Towards that end, Kalmyk khuruls (temples) and monasteries were destroyed and property confiscated; the clergy and many believers were harassed, killed, or sent to labor camps; religious artifacts and books were destroyed; and young men were prohibited from religious training.
By 1940 all Kalmyk Buddhist temples were either closed or destroyed and the clergy systematically oppressed. Dr. Loewenthal writes that the policies were so thoroughly enforced the Kalmyk clergy and Buddhism were not mentioned in the work by B. Dzhimbinov, "Sovetskaia Kalmykiia," published in 1940. In 1944, the Soviet government exiled all Kalmyks not fighting in the Soviet army to Central Asia and Siberia, accusing them of collaborating with the German Army. Upon rehabilitation in 1957, the Kalmyks were permitted to return home from exile, but all attempts by them to restore their religion and to build a temple failed.
By the 1980s, the Soviet campaign against religion was so successful that a majority of the Kalmyks had never received any formal spiritual guidance. By the late 1980s, however, the Soviet government reversed course and implemented policies favoring the liberalization of religion. As a result, the first Buddhist community was organized in 1988. By 1995, there were 21 Buddhist temples, 17 places of worship for various Christian denominations, and 1 mosque in the Republic of Kalmykia (Grin 2000).
Genetic analysis of the Kalmyks
[edit]Recent genetic studies of the Kalmyks seem to support their Mongol origins as well. The Kalmyks, unlike other Eurasian peoples from the steppes of Siberia, have not substantially mixed with Russian and other Eastern European peoples:
- The genetic results support the historical record in that they indicate a close relationship between Kalmyks and Mongolians. Moreover, the genetic results indicate that the Kalmyk migration involved substantial numbers of individuals, and that Kalmyks have not experienced detectable admixture with Russians.[9]
The Kalmyks' ability to maintain a mostly homogenous existence sharply contrasts with the Russian admixture with other similar people, "as there is evidence for Russian admixture with Yakuts," for example.[10] Thus far, genetic analysis of the Kalmyks supports their Mongol roots that also shows that entire families of Kalmyks moved to Volga region and not simply males as is generally the case with most nomadic tribal groups.
Others doubt that result of research is credible since no data has been provided regarding if Kalmyk people of Western Mongolia or their descents were included into studied group of Mongolians.
References
[edit]- Gibbon, Edward. The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Chapter LXV, London, 1776, 1781, 1788[11]
- Anonymous. Donskaia Oblast, Donskoi Pervyi Okrug, Donskoi Vtoroi Okrug, Novyi Entsliklopedicheskii Solvar, XVI (1914),
- Pozdneev, A.M. Kalmytskoe Verouchenie, Entsiklopedicheskii Slovar Brokgauz-Efrona, XIV, St. Petersburg, 1914.
- Riasanovsky, V.A. Customary Law of the Mongol Tribes (Mongols, Buriats, Kalmucks), Harbin, 1929
- Dzhimbinov, B. Sovetskaia Kalmykiia, Moscow, 1940.
- Loewenthal, Rudolf. THE KALMUKS AND OF THE KALMUK ASSR: A Case in the Treatment of Minorities in the Soviet Union, External Research Paper No. 101, Offiice of Intelligence Research, Department of State, September 5, 1952.
- Poppe, Nicholas N. The Mongolian Language Handbook, Center for Applied Linguistics, 1970.
- Feoktistov, A. Russians, Kazakhs and Altay, Moscow - Ust-Kamenogorsk, 1991
- Grin, François. Kalmykia: From Oblivion to Assertion, European Center or Minority Issues, ECMI Working Paper #10, 2000.
External links
[edit]- Official Republic of Kalmykia page about the history of Kalmykia; features photographs of Kalmyks in traditional dress
- Map Collection of the Library of Congress: "Carte de Tartarie" of Guillaume de L'Isle (1675-1726) ; shows territories of Kalmyks as in 1706.
- Kalmyk Buddhist Temple in Belgrade (1929-1944); The history of the first Buddhist temple in Central Europe and the only functioning Kalmyk temple in Europe.