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Ayurveda (/ˌɑːjʊərˈveɪdə, -ˈviː-/)^[1] is an alternative medicine system with historical roots in the Indian subcontinent.^[2] The theory and practice of Ayurveda is pseudoscientific.^[3]^[4]^[5] The Indian Medical Association describes Ayurvedic practitioners who claim to practice medicine as quacks.^[6] Ayurveda is heavily practiced in India and Nepal, where around 80% of the population report using it.^[7]^[8]^[9]

Ayurveda therapies have varied and evolved over more than two millennia.^[2] Therapies include herbal medicines, special diets, meditation, yoga, massage, laxatives, enemas, and medical oils.^[10]^[11] Ayurvedic preparations are typically based on complex herbal compounds, minerals, and metal substances (perhaps under the influence of early Indian alchemy or rasashastra). Ancient Ayurveda texts also taught surgical techniques, including rhinoplasty, kidney stone extractions, sutures, and the extraction of foreign objects.^[12]^[13]

The main classical Ayurveda texts begin with accounts of the transmission of medical knowledge from the gods to sages, and then to human physicians.^[14] In Sushruta Samhita (Sushruta's Compendium), Sushruta wrote that Dhanvantari, Hindu god of Ayurveda, incarnated himself as a king of Varanasi and taught medicine to a group of physicians, including Sushruta.^[15]^[16] Ayurveda has been adapted for Western consumption, notably by Baba Hari Dass in the 1970s and Maharishi Ayurveda in the 1980s. Some scholars assert that Ayurveda originated in prehistoric times.^[17]^[18] Ayurveda developed significantly during the Vedic period and later some of the non-Vedic systems such as Buddhism and Jainism also developed medical concepts and practices that appear in the classical Ayurveda texts.^[19]

In Ayurveda texts, Dosha balance is emphasized, and suppressing natural urges is considered unhealthy and claimed to lead to illness.^[20] Ayurveda treatises describe three elemental doshas viz. vāta, pitta and kapha, and state that balance (Skt. sāmyatva) of the doshas results in health, while imbalance (viṣamatva) results in disease. Ayurveda treatises divide medicine into eight canonical components. Ayurveda practitioners had developed various medicinal preparations and surgical procedures from at least the beginning of the common era.^[21]

Cancer Research UK has stated that there is no scientific evidence to prove that Ayurveda is effective to treat or cure cancer.^[11] Some Ayurvedic preparations have been found to contain lead, mercury, and arsenic,^[10] substances known to be harmful to humans. A 2008 study found the three substances in close to 21% of U.S. and Indian-manufactured patent Ayurvedic medicines sold through the Internet.^[22] The public health implications of such metallic contaminants in India are unknown.^[22]

Etymology

The term Āyurveda (Template:Lang-sa) is composed of āyus, आयुस्, "life" or "longevity", and veda, वेद, "knowledge", translated as "knowledge of longevity"^[23]^[24] or "knowledge of life and longevity".^[25]

Eight components

Nagarjuna, known for the *Madhyamaka* (middle path), wrote the medical works *The Hundred Prescriptions* and *The Precious Collection*.^[26]

The earliest classical Sanskrit works on Ayurveda describe medicine as being divided into eight components (Skt. aṅga).^[27]^[28] This characterization of the physician's art, "the medicine that has eight components" (Skt. cikitsāyām aṣṭāṅgāyāṃ चिकित्सायामष्टाङ्गायाम्), is first found in the Sanskrit epic the Mahābhārata, c. 4th century BCE.^[29] The components are:^[30]^[25]^[31]

Kāyachikitsā: general medicine, medicine of the body
Kaumāra-bhṛtya (Pediatrics): Discussions about prenatal and postnatal care of baby and mother; methods of conception; choosing the child's sex, intelligence, and constitution; childhood diseases; and midwifery^[32]
Śalyatantra: surgical techniques and the extraction of foreign objects
Śhālākyatantra: treatment of ailments affecting openings or cavities in the upper body: ears, eyes, nose, mouth, etc.
Bhūtavidyā: pacification of possessing spirits, and the people whose minds are affected by such possession
Agadatantra/Vishagara-vairodh Tantra (Toxicology): includes epidemics; toxins in animals, vegetables and minerals; and keys for recognizing those anomalies and their antidotes
Rasāyantantra: rejuvenation and tonics for increasing lifespan, intellect and strength
Vājīkaraṇatantra: aphrodisiacs; treatments for increasing the volume and viability of semen and sexual pleasure; infertility problems; and spiritual development (transmutation of sexual energy into spiritual energy)

Principles and terminology

The central theoretical ideas of Ayurveda show parallels with Sāṅkhya and Vaiśeṣika philosophies, as well as with Buddhism and Jainism.^[33]^[34] Balance is emphasized, and suppressing natural urges is considered unhealthy and claimed to lead to illness.^[20] For example, to suppress sneezing is said to potentially give rise to shoulder pain.^[35] However, people are also cautioned to stay within the limits of reasonable balance and measure when following nature's urges.^[20] For example, emphasis is placed on moderation of food intake,^[36] sleep, and sexual intercourse.^[20]

According to ayurveda, the human body is composed of tissues (dhatus), waste (malas), and biomaterials (doshas).^[37] The seven dhatus are plasma (rasa), blood (rakta), muscles (māmsa), fat (meda), bone (asthi), marrow (majja), and semen (shukra). Like the medicine of classical antiquity, Ayurveda has historically divided bodily substances into five classical elements, (Sanskrit) panchamahabhuta, viz. earth, water, fire, air and ether.^[38] There are also twenty gunas (qualities or characteristics) which are considered to be inherent in all matter. These are organized in ten pairs: heavy/light, cold/hot, unctuous/dry, dull/sharp, stable/mobile, soft/hard, non-slimy/slimy, smooth/coarse, minute/gross, and viscous/liquid.^[39]

The three postulated elemental bodily humors, the doshas or tridosha, are vata (space or air, equated with the nervous system), pitta (fire, equated with enzymes), and kapha (earth and water, equated with mucus). Doshas are not real, but a fictional concept.^[40] A parallel set of mental doshas termed satogun, rajogun, and tamogun are said to control psychology. Each dosha has particular attributes and roles within the body and mind; the natural predominance of one or more doshas thus explains a person's physical constitution (prakriti) and personality.^[37]^[41]^[42] Ayurvedic tradition holds that imbalance among the bodily and mental doshas is a major etiologic component of disease. One Ayurvedic view is that the doshas are balanced when they are equal to each other, while another view is that each human possesses a unique combination of the doshas which define this person's temperament and characteristics. In either case, it says that each person should modulate their behavior or environment to increase or decrease the doshas and maintain their natural state. Practitioners of Ayurveda must determine an individual's bodily and mental dosha makeup, as certain prakriti are said to predispose one to particular diseases.^[43]^[37] For example, a person who is thin, shy, excitable, has a pronounced Adam's apple, and enjoys of esoteric knowledge is likely vata prakriti and therefore more susceptible to conditions such as flatulence, stuttering, and rheumatism.^[37]^[44] Deranged vata is also associated with certain mental disorders due to excited or excess vayu (gas), although the Ayurvedic text Charaka Samhita also attributes "insanity" (unmada) to cold food and possession by the ghost of a sinful Brahman (brahmarakshasa).^[37]^[43]^[45]^[46]

Ama (a Sanskrit word meaning "uncooked" or "undigested" ) is used to refer to the concept of anything that exists in a state of incomplete transformation. With regards to oral hygiene, it is claimed to be a toxic byproduct generated by improper or incomplete digestion.^[47]^[48]^[49] The concept has no equivalent in standard medicine.

In medieval taxonomies of the Sanskrit knowledge systems, Ayurveda is assigned a place as a subsidiary Veda (upaveda).^[50] Some medicinal plant names from the Atharvaveda and other Vedas can be found in subsequent Ayurveda literature.^[51] Some other school of thoughts considers 'Ayurveda' as the 'Fifth Veda'.^[52] The earliest recorded theoretical statements about the canonical models of disease in Ayurveda occur in the earliest Buddhist Canon.^[53]

Practice

Ayurvedic practitioners regard physical existence, mental existence, and personality as their own unique units, with each element being able to influence the others.^{[clarification needed]} This is a holistic approach used during diagnosis and therapy, and is a fundamental aspect of Ayurveda. Another part of Ayurvedic treatment says that there are channels (srotas) which transport fluids, and that the channels can be opened up by massage treatment using oils and Swedana (fomentation). Unhealthy, or blocked, channels are thought to cause disease.^[54]

Diagnosis

Ayurveda has eight ways to diagnose illness, called Nadi (pulse), Mootra (urine), Mala (stool), Jihva (tongue), Shabda (speech), Sparsha (touch), Druk (vision), and Aakruti (appearance).^[55] Ayurvedic practitioners approach diagnosis by using the five senses.^[56] For example, hearing is used to observe the condition of breathing and speech.^[38] The study of the lethal points or marman marma is of special importance.^[39]

Treatment and prevention

Two of the eight branches of classical Ayurveda deal with surgery (Śalya-cikitsā and Śālākya-tantra), but contemporary Ayurveda tends to stress attaining vitality by building a healthy metabolic system and maintaining good digestion and excretion.^[39] Ayurveda also focuses on exercise, yoga, and meditation.^[57] One type of prescription is a Sattvic diet.

Ayurveda follows the concept of Dinacharya, which says that natural cycles (waking, sleeping, working, meditation etc.) are important for health. Hygiene, including regular bathing, cleaning of teeth, oil pulling, tongue scraping, skin care, and eye washing, is also a central practice.^[38]

Substances used

The vast majority (90%) of Ayurvedic remedies are plant based.^[58] Plant-based treatments in Ayurveda may be derived from roots, leaves, fruits, bark, or seeds; some examples of plant-based substances include cardamom and cinnamon. In the 19th century, William Dymock and co-authors summarized hundreds of plant-derived medicines along with the uses, microscopic structure, chemical composition, toxicology, prevalent myths and stories, and relation to commerce in British India.^[59] Triphala, an herbal formulation of three fruits, Amalaki, Bibhitaki, and Haritaki, is one of the most commonly used^[60] Ayurvedic remedies.^[61]^[62] The herbs Withania somnifera (Ashwagandha)^[63] and Ocimum tenuiflorum (Tulsi)^[58] are also routinely used in Ayurveda.

Tulsi-flower (holy basil), an Ayurvedic herb

Animal products used in Ayurveda include milk, bones, and gallstones.^{[citation needed]} In addition, fats are prescribed both for consumption and for external use. Consumption of minerals, including sulphur, arsenic, lead, copper sulfate and gold, are also prescribed.^[38] The addition of minerals to herbal medicine is called rasashastra.

Ayurveda uses alcoholic beverages called Madya,^[64] which are said to adjust the doshas by increasing Pitta and reducing Vatta and Kapha.^[64] Madya are classified by the raw material and fermentation process, and the categories include: sugar-based, fruit-based, cereal-based, cereal-based with herbs, fermentated with vinegar, and tonic wines. The intended outcomes can include causing purgation, improving digestion or taste, creating dryness, or loosening joints. Ayurvedic texts describe Madya as non-viscid and fast-acting, and say that it enters and cleans minute pores in the body.^[64]

Purified opium^[65] is used in eight Ayurvedic preparations^[66] and is said to balance the Vata and Kapha doshas and increase the Pitta dosha.^[65] It is prescribed for diarrhea and dysentery, for increasing the sexual and muscular ability, and for affecting the brain. The sedative and pain-relieving properties of opium are considered in Ayurveda. The use of opium is found in the ancient Ayurvedic texts, and is first mentioned in the Sarngadhara Samhita (1300-1400 CE), a book on pharmacy used in Rajasthan in Western India, as an ingredient of an aphrodisiac to delay male ejaculation.^[67] It is possible that opium was brought to India along with or before Muslim conquests.^[66]^[68] The book Yoga Ratnakara (1700-1800 CE, unknown author), which is popular in Maharashtra, uses opium in a herbal-mineral composition prescribed for diarrhea.^[67] In the Bhaisajya Ratnavali, opium and camphor are used for acute gastroenteritis. In this drug, the respiratory depressant action of opium is counteracted by the respiratory stimulant property of Camphor.^[67] Later books have included the narcotic property for use as analgesic pain reliever.^[67]

Cannabis indica is also mentioned in the ancient Ayurveda books, and is first mentioned in the Sarngadhara Samhita as a treatment for diarrhea.^[67] In the Bhaisajya Ratnavali it is named as an ingredient in an aphrodisiac.^[67]

Ayurveda says that both oil and tar can be used to stop bleeding,^[38] and that traumatic bleeding can be stopped by four different methods: ligation of the blood vessel, cauterisation by heat, use of preparations to facilitate clotting, and use of preparations to constrict the blood vessels. Oils are also used in a number of ways, including regular consumption, anointing, smearing, head massage, application to affected areas,^[69]^{[failed verification]} and oil pulling. Liquids may also be poured on the patient's forehead, a technique called shirodhara.

Panchakarma

According to Ayurveda, panchakarma are techniques to eliminate toxic elements from the body.^[70]

Current status

Ayurveda is widely practiced in India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Nepal^[71] where public institutions offer formal study in the form of a Bachelor of Ayurveda, Medicine and Surgery (BAMS) degree. In certain parts of the world, the legal standing of practitioners is equivalent to that of conventional medicine.^[71] Several scholars have described the contemporary Indian application of Ayurvedic practice as being "biomedicalized" relative to the more "spiritualized" emphasis to practice found in variants in the West.^[72]^[73]

European colonization of India and the subsequent institutionalized support for modern medicine^[74] were highly challenging to Ayurveda, with the entire epistemology called into question. Ayurveda became politically, conceptually, and commercially dominated by modern biomedicine, resulting in two major new variations described as "Modern Ayurveda" and "Global Ayurveda".^[23] Modern Ayurveda is geographically located in the Indian subcontinent and tends towards secularization through minimization of the magic and mythic aspects of Ayurveda.^[23]^[24] Global Ayurveda encompasses multiple forms of practice that developed through dispersal to a wide geographical area outside of India.^[23] Smith and Wujastyk further delineate that Global Ayurveda includes those primarily interested in the Ayurveda pharmacopeia, and also the practitioners of New Age Ayurveda (which may link Ayurveda to yoga and Indian spirituality and/or emphasize preventative practice, mind body medicine, or Maharishi Ayurveda).^[24]

Since the 1980s, Ayurveda has also become the subject of interdisciplinary studies in ethnomedicine which seeks to integrate the hard sciences and humanities to improve the pharmacopeia of Ayurveda.^[24] According to Industry Research, the global Ayurveda market was worth US$4.5 billion in 2017.^[75]

The Indian subcontinent

India

It was reported that 80 percent of people in India used Ayurveda exclusively or combined with conventional Western medicine in 2008^[7] and again in 2018,^[76] although a 2014 national health survey found that Ayurveda was used by about 3.5% of patients.^[77]

In 1970, the Parliament of India passed the Indian Medical Central Council Act which aimed to standardise qualifications for Ayurveda practitioners and provide accredited institutions for its study and research.^[78] In 1971, the Central Council of Indian Medicine (CCIM) was established under the Department of Ayurveda, Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha medicine and Homoeopathy (AYUSH), Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, to monitor higher education in Ayurveda in India.^[79] The Indian government supports research and teaching in Ayurveda through many channels at both the national and state levels, and helps institutionalise traditional medicine so that it can be studied in major towns and cities.^[80] The state-sponsored Central Council for Research in Ayurvedic Sciences (CCRAS) is designed to do research on Ayurveda.^[81] Many clinics in urban and rural areas are run by professionals who qualify from these institutes.^[78] As of 2013^[update], India had over 180 training centers that offered degrees in traditional Ayurvedic medicine.^[57]

To fight biopiracy and unethical patents, in 2001 the government of India set up the Traditional Knowledge Digital Library in 2001 to serve as a repository for formulations from systems of Indian medicine, such as Ayurveda, Unani and Siddha.^[82]^[83] The formulations come from over 100 traditional Ayurveda books.^[84] An Indian Academy of Sciences document quoting a 2003-04 report states that India had 432,625 registered medical practitioners, 13,925 dispensaries, 2,253 hospitals and a bed strength of 43,803. 209 under-graduate teaching institutions and 16 post-graduate institutions.^[85] In 2012, it was reported that insurance companies covered expenses for Ayurvedic treatments in case of conditions such as spinal cord disorders, bone disorder, arthritis and cancer. Such claims constituted 5-10 percent of the country's health insurance claims.^[86]

Maharashtra Andhashraddha Nirmoolan Samiti, an organisation dedicated to fighting superstition in India, considers Ayurveda to be pseudoscience.^[5]

On 9 November 2014, India formed the Ministry of AYUSH.^[87]^[88] National Ayurveda Day is also observed in India on the birth of Dhanvantari that is Dhanteras.^[89]

In 2016, the World Health Organization (WHO) published a report titled "The Health Workforce in India" which found that 31 percent of those who claimed to be doctors in India in 2001 were educated only up to the secondary school level and 57 percent went without any medical qualification.^[90] The WHO study found that the situation was worse in rural India with only 18.8 percent of doctors holding a medical qualification.^[90] Overall, the study revealed that nationally the density of all doctors (mainstream, ayurvedic, homeopathic and unani) was 8 doctors per 10,000 people compared to 13 per 10,000 people in China.^[90]^[91]

The Indian Medical Association (IMA) describes Ayurvedic practitioners who claim to practice medicine as quacks.^[6]^[92] The IMA has protested against the government's relaxation of regulations,^[92] including those which allow Ayurvedic practitioners to perform surgeries.^[93]

Nepal

About 75%-80% of the population of Nepal use Ayurveda.^[8]^[9] As of 2009, Ayurveda was considered to be the most common and popular form of medicine in Nepal.^[94]

Sri Lanka

The Sri Lankan tradition of Ayurveda is similar to the Indian tradition. Practitioners of Ayurveda in Sri Lanka refer to Sanskrit texts which are common to both countries. However, they do differ in some aspects, particularly in the herbs used.

In 1980, the Sri Lankan government established a Ministry of Indigenous Medicine to revive and regulate Ayurveda.^[95] The Institute of Indigenous Medicine (affiliated to the University of Colombo) offers undergraduate, postgraduate, and MD degrees in Ayurveda Medicine and Surgery, and similar degrees in unani medicine.^[96] The public system has 62 Ayurvedic hospitals and 208 central dispensaries, which served about 3 million people (about 11% of Sri Lanka's population) in 2010. In total, there are about 20,000 registered practitioners of Ayurveda in the country.^[97]^[98]

According to the Mahavamsa, an ancient chronicle of Sinhalese royalty from the sixth century C.E., King Pandukabhaya of Sri Lanka (reigned 437 BCE to 367 BCE) had lying-in-homes and Ayurvedic hospitals (Sivikasotthi-Sala) built in various parts of the country. This is the earliest documented evidence available of institutions dedicated specifically to the care of the sick anywhere in the world.^[99]^[100] Mihintale Hospital is the oldest in the world.^[101]

Outside the Indian subcontinent

Ayurveda is a system of traditional medicine developed during antiquity and the medieval period, and as such is comparable to pre-modern Chinese and European systems of medicine. In the 1960s, Ayurveda began to be advertised as alternative medicine in the Western world. Due to different laws and medical regulations around the globe, the unregulated practice and commercialisation of Ayurveda raised ethical and legal issues. In some instances, Ayurvedic practices and terminology were adapted specifically for Western consumption, notably in the case of "Maharishi Ayurveda" in the 1980s. In some cases, this involved active fraud on the part of proponents of Ayurveda in an attempt to falsely represent the system as equal to the standards of modern medical research.^[102]^[103]^[104]

United States

Baba Hari Dass was an early proponent who helped bring Ayurveda to the United States in the early 1970s. His teachings led to the establishment of the Mount Madonna Institute.^[105] He invited several notable Ayurvedic teachers, including Vasant Lad, Sarita Shrestha, and Ram Harsh Singh. The Ayurvedic practitioner Michael Tierra wrote that the "history of Ayurveda in North America will always owe a debt to the selfless contributions of Baba Hari Dass."^[106]

In the United States, the practice of Ayurveda is not licensed or regulated by any state. The National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health says that "Few well-designed clinical trials and systematic research reviews suggest that Ayurvedic approaches are effective", warns against the issue of heavy metal poisoning, and emphasises the use of conventional health providers first.^[107] As of 2018, the NCCIH reported that 240,000 Americans were using Ayurvedic medicine.^[107]

Europe

The first Ayurvedic clinic in Switzerland was opening in 1987 by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi.^[108] In 2015, the government of Switzerland introduced a federally recognized diploma in Ayurveda.^[109]

Classification and efficacy

Ayurvedic medicine is considered pseudoscientific because its premises are not based on science.^[4]^[3] Both the lack of scientific soundness in the theoretical foundations of Ayurveda and the quality of research have been criticized.^[4]^[110]^[111]^[112]

Although laboratory experiments suggest it is possible that some herbs and substances in Ayurveda might be developed into effective treatments, there is no evidence that any are effective in themselves.^[113]^[114] Cancer Research UK (CRUK) has stated that there is no scientific evidence to prove that Ayurvedic medicine is effective to treat or cure cancer in people.^[11] Although Ayurveda may help "improve quality of life" and CRUK also acknowledges that "researchers have found that some Ayurvedic treatments can help relieve cancer symptoms," the organization warns that some Ayurvedic drugs contain toxic substances or may interact with legitimate cancer drugs in a harmful way.^[11]

Ethnologist Johannes Quack writes than although the rationalist movement Maharashtra Andhashraddha Nirmoolan Samiti officially labels Ayurveda a pseudoscience akin to astrology, these practices are in fact embraced by many of the movement's members.^[5]

A review of the use of Ayurveda for cardiovascular disease concluded that the evidence is not convincing for the use of any Ayurvedic herbal treatment for heart disease or hypertension, but that many herbs used by Ayurvedic practitioners could be appropriate for further research.^[115]

Research

In India, research in Ayurveda is undertaken by the Ministry of AYUSH, an abbreviation for the Department of Ayurveda, Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and Homoeopathy, through a national network of research institutes.^[116]

In Nepal, the National Ayurvedic Training and Research Centre (NATRC) researches medicinal herbs in the country.^[117]

In Sri Lanka, the Ministry of Health, Nutrition and Indigenous Medicine looks after the research in Ayurveda through various national research institutes.^[118]

Use of toxic metals

Rasa shastra, the practice of adding metals, minerals or gems to herbal preparations, may include toxic heavy metals such as lead, mercury and arsenic.^[22] The public health implications of metals in rasashastra in India is unknown.^[22] Adverse reactions to herbs are described in traditional Ayurvedic texts, but practitioners are reluctant to admit that herbs could be toxic and that reliable information on herbal toxicity is not readily available. There is a communication gap between practitioners of medicine and Ayurveda.^[119]

Some traditional Indian herbal medicinal products contain harmful levels of heavy metals, including lead.^[120] For example, ghasard, a product commonly given to infants for digestive issues, has been found to have up to 1.6% lead concentration by weight, leading to lead encephalopathy.^[121] A 1990 study on Ayurvedic medicines in India found that 41% of the products tested contained arsenic, and that 64% contained lead and mercury.^[7] A 2004 study found toxic levels of heavy metals in 20% of Ayurvedic preparations made in South Asia and sold in the Boston area, and concluded that Ayurvedic products posed serious health risks and should be tested for heavy-metal contamination.^[122] A 2008 study of more than 230 products found that approximately 20% of remedies (and 40% of rasashastra medicines) purchased over the Internet from U.S. and Indian suppliers contained lead, mercury or arsenic.^[22]^[123]^[124] A 2015 study of users in the United States found elevated blood lead levels in 40% of those tested, leading physician and former U.S. Air Force flight surgeon Harriet Hall to say that "Ayurveda is basically superstition mixed with a soupçon of practical health advice. And it can be dangerous."^[125]^[126]

Heavy metals are thought of as active ingredients by advocates of Indian herbal medicinal products.^[120] According to ancient Ayurvedic texts, certain physico-chemical purification processes such as samskaras or shodhanas (for metals) 'detoxify' the heavy metals in it.^[127]^[128] These are similar to the Chinese pao zhi, although the Ayurvedic techniques are more complex and may involve physical pharmacy techniques as well as mantras. However, these products have nonetheless caused severe lead poisoning and other toxic effects.^[123] Between 1978 and 2008, "more than 80 cases of lead poisoning associated with Ayurvedic medicine use [were] reported worldwide".^[129] In 2012, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) linked Ayurvedic drugs to lead poisoning, based on cases where toxic materials were found in the blood of pregnant women who had taken Ayurvedic drugs.^[130]

Ayurvedic practitioners argue that the toxicity of bhasmas (ash products) comes from improper manufacturing processes, contaminants, improper use of Ayurvedic medicine, quality of raw materials and that the end products and improper procedures are used by charlatans.^[128]

In India, the government ruled that Ayurvedic products must be labelled with their metallic content.^[131] However, in Current Science, a publication of the Indian Academy of Sciences, M. S. Valiathan said that "the absence of post-market surveillance and the paucity of test laboratory facilities [in India] make the quality control of Ayurvedic medicines exceedingly difficult at this time".^[131] In the United States, most Ayurvedic products are marketed without having been reviewed or approved by the FDA. Since 2007, the FDA has placed an import alert on some Ayurvedic products in order to prevent them from entering the United States.^[132] A 2012 toxicological review of mercury-based traditional herbo-metallic preparations concluded that the long-term pharmacotherapeutic and in-depth toxicity studies of these preparations are lacking.^[133]

History

Some of the concepts of traditional Indian medicine have existed since the times of the Indus Valley Civilization.^[134]^[135] Atharvaveda contains hymns and incantations described as magical cures for disease. There are various legendary accounts of the origin of Ayurveda, e.g. that it was received by Dhanvantari (or Divodasa) from Brahma.^[16]^[38] Tradition also holds that the writings of Ayurveda were influenced by a lost text by the sage Agnivesa.^[136]

Ayurveda is one of the few systems of medicine developed in ancient times that is still widely practiced in modern times.^[24] As such, it is open to the criticism that its conceptual basis is obsolete and that its contemporary practitioners have not taken account of the developments in medicine.^[137]^[138] Responses to this situation led to an impassioned debate in India during the early decades of the twentieth century, between proponents of unchanging tradition (śuddha "pure" ayurveda) and those who thought ayurveda should modernise and syncretize (aśuddha "impure, tainted" ayurveda).^[139]^[140]^[141] The political debate about the place of ayurveda in contemporary India has continued to the present (2015), both in the public arena and in government.^[142] Debate about the place of Ayurvedic medicine in the contemporary internationalized world also continues today (2015).^[143]^[144]

Main texts

Many ancient works on Ayurvedic medicine are lost to posterity,^[145] but manuscripts of three three principal early texts on Ayurveda have survived to the present day. These works are the Charaka Samhita, the Sushruta Samhita and the Bhela Samhita. The dating of these works is historically complicated since they each internally present themselves as composite works compiled by several editors. All past scholarship on their dating has been evaluated by Meulenbeld in volumes IA and IB of his History of Indian Medical Literature.^[2] After considering the evidence and arguments concerning the Suśrutasaṃhitā, Meulenbeld states (IA, 348), "The Suśrutasaṃhitā is most probably the work of an unknown author who drew much of the material he incorporated in his treatise from a multiplicity of earlier sources from various periods. This may explain that many scholars yield to the temptation to recognize a number of distinct layers and, consequently, try to identify elements belonging to them. As we have seen, the identification of features thought to belong to a particular stratum is in many cases determined by preconceived ideas on the age of the strata and their supposed authors." The dating of this work to 600 BC was first proposed by Hoernle over a century ago,^[146] but has long since been overturned by subsequent historical research. The current consensus amongst medical historians of South Asia is that the Suśrutasaṃhitā was compiled over a period of time starting with a kernel of medical ideas from the century or two BCE and then being revised by several hands into its present form by about 500 CE.^[2]^[21] The view that the text was updated by the Buddhist scholar Nagarjuna in the 2nd century CE^[147] has been disproved, although the last chapter of the work, the Uttaratantra, was added by an unknown later author before 500 CE.^[2]

Similar arguments apply to the Charaka Samhita, written by Charaka, and the Bhela Samhita, attributed to Atreya Punarvasu, that are also dated to the 6th century BCE by non-specialist scholars^[148]^[149]^[150] but are in fact, in their present form, datable to a period between the second and fifth centuries CE.^[2]^[21]^[12] The Charaka Samhita was also updated by Dridhabala during the early centuries of the Common Era.^[151]

Statue of Charaka, ancient Indian physician, in Haridwar, India

The Bower Manuscript (dated to the Gupta era, between the 4th and the 6th century CE) includes of excerpts from the Bheda Samhita^[152] and its description of concepts in Central Asian Buddhism. In 1987, A. F. R. Hoernle identified the scribe of the medical portions of the manuscript to be a native of India using a northern variant of the Gupta script, who had migrated and become a Buddhist monk in a monastery in Kucha. The Chinese pilgrim Fa Hsien (c. 337–422 AD) wrote about the healthcare system of the Gupta empire (320–550) and described the institutional approach of Indian medicine. This is also visible in the works of Charaka, who describes hospitals and how they should be equipped.^[153]

Other early texts are the Agnivesha Samhita, Kasyapa Samhita and Harita Samhita. The original edition of the Agnivesha Samhita, by Agnivesa, is dated to 1500 BCE,^[154] and it was later modified by Charaka.^[155] Kasyapa Samhita includes the treatise of Jivaka Kumar Bhaccha^[156] and is dated to the 6th century BCE.^[157]^[158] While Harita Samhita is dated to an earlier period, it is attributed to Harita, who was a disciple of Punarvasu Atreya.^[159] Some later texts are Astanga nighantu (8th Century) by Vagbhata, Paryaya ratnamala (9th century) by Madhava, Siddhasara nighantu (9th century) by Ravi Gupta, Dravyavali (10th Century), and Dravyaguna sangraha (11th century) by Chakrapani Datta, among others.^[160]

Illnesses portrayed

Underwood and Rhodes state that the early forms of traditional Indian medicine identified fever, cough, consumption, diarrhea, dropsy, abscesses, seizures, tumours, and leprosy,^[38] and that treatments included plastic surgery, lithotomy, tonsillectomy,^[162] couching (a form of cataract surgery), puncturing to release fluids in the abdomen, extraction of foreign bodies, treatment of anal fistulas, treating fractures, amputations, cesarean sections,^{[Vagbhata 1]}^[162]^{[disputed – discuss]} and stitching of wounds.^[38] The use of herbs and surgical instruments became widespread.^[38] During this period, treatments were also prescribed for complex ailments, including angina pectoris, diabetes, hypertension, and stones.^[164]^[165]

Further development and spread

Ayurveda flourished throughout the Indian Middle Ages. Dalhana (fl. 1200), Sarngadhara (fl. 1300) and Bhavamisra (fl. 1500) compiled works on Indian medicine.^[166] The medical works of both Sushruta and Charaka were also translated into the Chinese language in the 5th century,^[167] and during the 8th century, they were translated into the Arabic and Persian language.^[168] The 9th-century Persian physician Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi was familiar with the text.^[169]^[170] The Arabic works derived from the Ayurvedic texts eventually also reached Europe by the 12th century.^[171]^[172] In Renaissance Italy, the Branca family of Sicily and Gaspare Tagliacozzi (Bologna) were influenced by the Arabic reception of the Sushruta's surgical techniques.^[172]

British physicians traveled to India to observe rhinoplasty being performed using Indian methods, and reports on their rhinoplasty methods were published in the Gentleman's Magazine in 1794.^[173] Instruments described in the Sushruta Samhita were further modified in Europe.^[174] Joseph Constantine Carpue studied plastic surgery methods in India for 20 years and, in 1815, was able to perform the first major rhinoplasty surgery in the western world, using the "Indian" method of nose reconstruction.^[175] In 1840 Brett published an article about this technique.^[176]

During the period of British colonial rule in India, the practice of Ayurveda was not adopted by the British Indian Government, which was in favour of medicine. After Indian independence, there was more focus on Ayurveda and other traditional medical systems. Ayurveda became a part of the Indian National healthcare system, with state hospitals for Ayurveda established across the country. However, the treatments of traditional medicines were not always integrated with others.^[71]

Footnotes

^ Vāgbhaṭa's Aṣṭāṅgahṛdayasaṃhitā describes a procedure for the removal of a dead foetus from the womb of a living mother, and of a living child from the womb of a mother who has died (शारीरस्थान २, गर्भव्यापद्, २.२६-२७, २.५३).^[163] Both these descriptions speak of removal of the fetus through the uterine passage. It is disputed^{[by whom?]} to assert that early Indian Ayurvedic practitioner knew the caesarian section procedure. The earlier description of the Suśrutasaṃhitā (चिकित्सास्थान १५ "मूढगर्भ") is similar. A dead fetus is removed through the uterine passage and vagina. Although Suśruta does not describe removing a living child from a dead mother.

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^ ^a ^b Ernst, Edzard (2002). "Heavy metals in traditional Indian remedies". European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 57 (12): 891–896. doi:10.1007/s00228-001-0400-y. ISSN 0031-6970. PMID 11936709. S2CID 1698767.
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^ Saper, R. B.; Kales SN; Paquin, J; et al. (2004). "Heavy metal content of ayurveda herbal medicine products". Journal of the American Medical Association. 292 (23): 2868–73. doi:10.1001/jama.292.23.2868. PMID 15598918. S2CID 9914911.
^ ^a ^b Ellin, Abby (17 September 2008). "Skin deep: ancient, but how safe?". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 30 April 2011. Retrieved 19 September 2008. A report in the August 27 [2008] issue of The Journal of the American Medical Association found that nearly 21 percent of 193 ayurvedic herbal supplements bought online, produced in both India and the United States, contained lead, mercury or arsenic.
^ Szabo, Liz (26 August 2008). "Study finds toxins in some herbal medicines". USA Today. Archived from the original on 8 October 2012.
^ Hall, Harriet (14 December 2017). "Ayurveda: Ancient Superstition, Not Ancient Wisdom". Skeptical Inquirer. Retrieved 1 February 2018.
^ Breeher L, Mikulski MA, Czeczok T, Leinenkugel K, Fuortes LJ (6 April 2015). "A cluster of lead poisoning among consumers of Ayurvedic medicine". International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health. 21 (4): 303–307. doi:10.1179/2049396715Y.0000000009. PMC 4727589. PMID 25843124.
^ CCRAS. "Guidelines for toxicity / safety profile evaluation of Ayurveda & Siddha plant drugs". CCRAS Guidelines. Archived from the original on 11 March 2013.
^ ^a ^b Katiyar, C. K. (2006). "Safety Aspects of Ayurveda" (PDF). Ranbaxy Research Laboratories.
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^ "Ayurveda linked to lead poisoning in US women". The Financial Express (Washington ed.). 24 August 2012. Archived from the original on 9 December 2014.
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^ "Use caution with Ayurvedic products". US FDA. Retrieved 17 December 2014.
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^ Issues in Pharmaceuticals by Disease, Disorder, or Organ System: 2011 Edition. ScholarlyEditions. 9 January 2012. p. 9. ISBN 978-1-4649-6756-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
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Cited references

Chopra, Ananda S. (2003). "Āyurveda". In Selin, Helaine (ed.). Medicine across cultures: history and practice of medicine in non-western cultures. Kluwer Academic. pp. 75–83. ISBN 978-1-4020-1166-5.
Dwivedi, Girish; Dwivedi, Shridhar (2007). "History of Medicine: Sushruta – the Clinician – Teacher par Excellence" (PDF). Indian Journal of Chest Diseases and Allied Sciences. 49: 243–244. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 October 2008. (Republished by National Informatics Centre, Government of India.)
Finger, Stanley (2001). Origins of Neuroscience: A History of Explorations into Brain Function. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-514694-3.
Kutumbian, P. (1999). Ancient Indian Medicine. Andhra Pradesh, India: Orient Longman. ISBN 978-81-250-1521-5.
Lock, Stephen (2001). The Oxford Illustrated Companion to Medicine. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-262950-0.
Underwood, E. Ashworth; Rhodes, P. (2008). "History of Medicine". Encyclopædia Britannica (2008 ed.).
Wujastyk, D. (2003a). The Roots of Ayurveda: Selections from Sanskrit Medical Writings. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-044824-5.

External links

WHO benchmarks for the training of Ayurveda World Health Organization (WHO), Geneva, 2022.

[164] Vāgbhaṭa's Aṣṭāṅgahṛdayasaṃhitā describes a procedure for the removal of a dead foetus from the womb of a living mother, and of a living child from the womb of a mother who has died (शारीरस्थान २, गर्भव्यापद्, २.२६-२७, २.५३).^[163] Both these descriptions speak of removal of the fetus through the uterine passage. It is disputed^{[by whom?]} to assert that early Indian Ayurvedic practitioner knew the caesarian section procedure. The earlier description of the Suśrutasaṃhitā (चिकित्सास्थान १५ "मूढगर्भ") is similar. A dead fetus is removed through the uterine passage and vagina. Although Suśruta does not describe removing a living child from a dead mother.

[oxford-1] "Ayurveda". Oxford University Press.

[HIML-intro-2] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Meulenbeld, Gerrit Jan (1999). "Introduction". A History of Indian Medical Literature. Groningen: Egbert Forsten. ISBN 978-90-6980-124-7.

[kaufman-3] Beall, Jeffrey (2018). Kaufman, Allison B.; Kaufman, James C. (eds.). Pseudoscience: The Conspiracy Against Science. MIT Press. p. 293. ISBN 978-0-262-03742-6. Ayurveda, a traditional Indian medicine, is the subject of more than a dozen, with some of these "scholarly" journals devoted to Ayurveda alone..., others to Ayurveda and some other pseudoscience....Most current Ayurveda research can be classified as "tooth fairy science," research that accepts as its premise something not scientifically known to exist....Ayurveda is a long-standing system of beliefs and traditions, but its claimed effects have not been scientifically proven. Most Ayurveda researchers might as well be studying the tooth fairy. The German publisher Wolters Kluwer bought the Indian open-access publisher Medknow in 2011....It acquired its entire fleet of journals, including those devoted to pseudoscience topics such as An International Quarterly Journal of Research in Ayurveda.

[oxpsych-4] Semple D, Smyth R (2019). Chapter 1: Thinking about psychiatry (4th ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 24. doi:10.1093/med/9780198795551.003.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-879555-1. These pseudoscientific theories may...confuse metaphysical with empirical claims (e.g....Ayurvedic medicine) {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help) (subscription required)

[Quack-2011-5] Quack, Johannes (2011). Disenchanting India: Organized Rationalism and Criticism of Religion in India. Oxford University Press. pp. 213, 3. ISBN 978-0-19-981260-8. ordinary members told me how they practice some of these pseudosciences, either privately or as certified doctors themselves, most often Ayurveda.

[IMA-6] Aggarwal, K. K.; Sharma, V. N. "IMA Anti Quackery Wing". Indian Medical Association. Retrieved 11 February 2022. The purpose of this compendium of court orders and various rules and regulations is to acquaint doctors regarding specific provisions and orders barring quackery by unqualified people, practitioners of Indian & Integrated Medicine to practice Modern Medicine.

[Dargan-7] Dargan, Paul I.; Gawarammana, Indika B.; Archer, John R.H.; House, Ivan M.; Shaw, Debbie; Wood, David M. (2008). "Heavy metal poisoning from Ayurvedic traditional medicines: An emerging problem?". International Journal of Environment and Health. 2 (3/4): 463. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.561.9726. doi:10.1504/IJENVH.2008.020936.

[:1-8] "Weeklong programme to observe Health Day". The Himalayan Times. The Himalayan Times. 28 October 2013. Archived from the original on 23 March 2017. Retrieved 7 January 2015. In Nepal, 80 per cent of the population receives Ayurvedic medicine as first aid treatment.

[:3-9] Alam, Zulfeequar (2008). Herbal Medicines. New Delhi, India: A.P.H. Publishing. pp. 8–13, 122. ISBN 978-81-313-0358-0.

[WebMD-10] Miller, Kelli (20 March 2021). "What Is Ayurveda?". WebMD. Medically Reviewed by Melinda Ratini.

[cruk-11] "Ayurvedic medicine". Cancer Research UK. Retrieved 18 April 2022. There is no scientific evidence to prove that Ayurvedic medicine can treat or cure cancer. Researchers have found that some Ayurvedic treatments can help relieve cancer symptoms. It can also improve quality of life.

[FOOTNOTEWujastyk2003a-12] Wujastyk 2003a.

[mukh-surg-13] Mukhopadhyaya, Girindranath (1913). The Surgical Instruments of the Hindus, with a Comparative Study of the Surgical Instruments of the Greek, Roman, Arab, and the Modern European Surgeons. Calcutta: Calcutta University. Retrieved 16 October 2015.

[zysk-myth-14] Zysk, Kenneth G. (1999). "Mythology and the Brāhmaṇization of Indian medicine: Transforming Heterodoxy into Orthodoxy". In Josephson, Folke (ed.). Categorisation and Interpretation. Meijerbergs institut för svensk etymologisk forskning, Göteborgs universitet. pp. 125–145. ISBN 978-91-630-7978-8.

[15] Bhishagratna, Kaviraj Kunjalal (1907). An English Translation of the Sushruta Samhita Based on Original Sanskrit text. Calcutta: K. K. Bhishagratna. p. 1. Retrieved 16 October 2015.

[britannica-16] Dhanvantari. (2010). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 4 August 2010, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online

[17] Tyagi, Dinesh Kumar (2005). Pharma Forestry A Field Guide To Medicinal Plants. Atlantic Publishers. p. 34. ISBN 9788126904075. Ayurveda, the organised and classic system of traditional medicine had known to the Indians from prehistoric times.

[18] Hansch, Corwin; Sammes, Peter George; Taylor, John Bodenhan; Kennewell, Peter D., eds. (1990). "General principles". Comprehensive medicinal chemistry: the rational design, mechanistic study & therapeutic application of chemical compounds. Vol. 1. Pergamon Press. p. 114. ISBN 9780080325309. OCLC 20168118. The origin of Ayurveda is lost in antiquity. As was the case with many branches of human knowledge in prehistoric times, Ayurveda developed in close association with religion and mythology.

[Healingtradition-19] Gupta, Pankaj; Sharma, Vijay Kumar; Sharma, Sushma (2014). Healing Traditions of the Northwestern Himalayas. Springer. p. 23. ISBN 978-81-322-1925-5.

[WujastykXVIII-20] Wujastyk 2003a, p. xviii

[shar-hist-21] Sharma, Priya Vrat (1992). History of Medicine in India. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy.

[Saper2008-22] Saper RB; Phillips RS; et al. (2008). "Lead, mercury, and arsenic in US- and Indian-manufactured medicines sold via the internet". JAMA. 300 (8): 915–923. doi:10.1001/jama.300.8.915. PMC 2755247. PMID 18728265.

[MaasCambridge_2018-23] Maas, Philipp A. (13 December 2018). "27. Indian Medicine and Ayurveda". In Jones, Alexander; Taub, Liba (eds.). The Cambridge History of Science: Volume 1, Ancient Science. Cambridge University Press. pp. 532–550. doi:10.1017/9780511980145.029. ISBN 978-1-108-68262-6.

[Smith+Wujastyk-24] Smith, Frederick M.; Wujastyk, Dagmar (2008). "Introduction". In Smith, Frederick M.; Wujastyk, Dagmar (eds.). Modern and Global Ayurveda: Pluralism and Paradigms. New York, NY: SUNY Press. pp. 1–28. ISBN 978-0-7914-7816-5. OCLC 244771011.

[GregoryFields-25] Fields, Gregory P. (2001). Religious Therapeutics: Body and Health in Yoga, Ayurveda, and Tantra. SUNY Press. p. 36. ISBN 978-0-7914-4915-8.

[CliffordMLBD-26] Clifford, Terry; Chandra, Lokesh (2017). Tibetan Buddhist Medicine and Psychiatry. 42. Motilal Banarsidass Publications. ISBN 9788120812055.

[27] Ācārya, Yādava Trivikramātmaja, ed. (1945). "Sūtrasthāna 1.7-9". Suśrutasaṃhitā. Bombay: Nirṇayasāgara Press. pp. 2–3.

[28] Ācārya, Yādava Trivikramātmaja, ed. (1941). "Sūtrasthāna 30.28". The Carakasaṃhitā of Caraka, with the commentary by Cakrapāṇidatta, edited by Yadavaśarman Trivikarama Ācārya. Bombay: Nirṇayasāgara Press. p. 189.

[29] Wujastyk, Dominik (2003b). "Indian Medicine". In Flood, Gavin (ed.). The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. Oxford: Blackwell. p. 394. ISBN 978-1-4051-3251-0.

[30] Sharma, Priya Vrat (1999). Suśruta-Samhitā With English Translation of text…. Vol. 1. Varanasi: Chaukhambha Visvabharati. pp. 7–11.^{[need quotation to verify]}

[31] Bhishagratna, Kaviraj Kunja Lal (1907). An English Translation of the Sushruta Samhita Based on Original Sanskrit Text. Vol. 1. Calcutta: The Author. pp. 2–6.

[32] Swami Sadashiva Tirtha (1998). The Ãyurveda Encyclopedia: Natural Secrets to Healing, Prevention & Longevity. ISBN 0-9658042-2-4.

[33] Comba, Antonella (2001). "Carakasaṃhitā, Śārīrasthāna~I and Vaiśeṣika Philosophy". In Meulenbeld, Gerrit Jan; Wujastyk, Dominik (eds.). Studies on Indian Medical History. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 39–55. ISBN 9788120817685.

[34] Basham, A. L. (1976). "The Practice of Medicine in Ancient and Medieval India". In Leslie, Charles (ed.). Asian Medical Systems. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 18–43. doi:10.1525/9780520322295-005. ISBN 9780520322295.

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[Underwood&Rhodes(2008)-38] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Underwood & Rhodes (2008)

[Chopra76-39] Chopra 2003, p. 76, citing Sushrutasamhita 25.36.

[sn-40] Novella S (21 November 2019). "Ayurvedic practitioners push for licensing in Colorado". Science-Based Medicine.

[Payya-41] Payyappallimana, Unnikrishnan; Venkatasubramanian, Padma (31 March 2016). "Exploring Ayurvedic Knowledge on Food and Health for Providing Innovative Solutions to Contemporary Healthcare". Frontiers in Public Health. 4 (57): 57. doi:10.3389/fpubh.2016.00057. PMC 4815005. PMID 27066472.

[42] Shilpa, S; Venkatesha Murthy, C.G. (January 2011). "Understanding personality from Ayurvedic perspective for psychological assessment: A case". Ayu. 32 (1). Institute for Post Graduate Teaching & Research in Ayurveda: 12–19. doi:10.4103/0974-8520.85716. PMC 3215408. PMID 22131752.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)

[mental-43] Ramu, M.G.; Venkataram, B.S. (January 1985). "Manovikara (mental disorders) in Ayurveda". Ancient Science of Life. 4 (3). Wolters Kluwer Medknow Publications: 165–73. PMC 3331508. PMID 22557473.

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[46] Acharya, YT (1941). Charaka samhita. Commentary of Chakrapani. Bombay: Nirnayasagar Press.

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[50] Madhusūdanasarasvatī (1912). प्रस्थानभेदः श्रीमधुसूदनसरस्वत्या विरचितः (in Sanskrit). श्रीरङ्गम्: श्रीवाणिविलासमुद्रायन्त्रालय. p. 14. Retrieved 16 October 2015.

[zysk-veda-51] Zysk, Kenneth G. (2010). Medicine in the Veda: Religious Healing in the Veda with Translations and Annotations of Medical Hymns from the Rgveda and the Atharvaveda and Renderings from the Corresponding Ritual Texts. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1401-1.

[52] Sengupta, Pradip Kumar (2012). History of Science and Philosophy of Science: A Philosophical Perspective of the Logic of Ideas in Science. Longman. p. 486. ISBN 978-81-317-1931-2. Sometimes Ayurveda is also considered as the fifth Veda or Pañcama Veda.

[zysk-asce-53] Zysk, Kenneth G. (1998). Asceticism and Healing in Ancient India: Medicine in the Buddhist Monastery. Indian Medical Tradition. Vol. 2. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. ISBN 978-81-208-1507-0. Retrieved 28 February 2022.

[WujastykXIX-XX-54] Wujastyk 2003a, pp. XIX–XX

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[Chopra79-56] Chopra 2003, p. 79

[encarta-ayurveda-57] "Ayurveda". Encarta. Redmond, WA: Microsoft. 2008. Archived from the original on 28 October 2009.

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-'''Āyurveda''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|ɑː|j|ʊər|ˈ|v|eɪ|d|ə|,_|-|ˈ|v|iː|-}})<ref name="oxford">{{cite web|url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/ayurveda|work=Oxford University Press|title=Ayurveda}}</ref> is an [[alternative medicine]] system with historical roots in the Indian subcontinent.<ref name=HIML-intro>{{cite book|last1=Meulenbeld|first1=Gerrit Jan|title=A History of Indian Medical Literature|date=1999|publisher=Egbert Forsten|location=Groningen|isbn=978-90-6980-124-7|chapter=Introduction}}<!--|access-date=16 October 2015--></ref> The theory and practice of Ayurveda is [[pseudoscience|pseudoscientific]].<ref name="kaufman">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dwFKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA293|title=Pseudoscience: The Conspiracy Against Science|publisher=MIT Press|year=2018|isbn=978-0-262-03742-6|first=Jeffrey|last=Beall|editor-last1=Kaufman|editor-first1=Allison B.|page=293|quote=Ayurveda, a traditional Indian medicine, is the subject of more than a dozen, with some of these "scholarly" journals devoted to Ayurveda alone..., others to Ayurveda and some other pseudoscience....Most current Ayurveda research can be classified as "tooth fairy science," research that accepts as its premise something not scientifically known to exist....Ayurveda is a long-standing system of beliefs and traditions, but its claimed effects have not been scientifically proven. Most Ayurveda researchers might as well be studying the tooth fairy. The German publisher Wolters Kluwer bought the Indian open-access publisher Medknow in 2011....It acquired its entire fleet of journals, including those devoted to pseudoscience topics such as ''An International Quarterly Journal of Research in Ayurveda''.|editor-last2=Kaufman|editor-first2=James C.}}</ref><ref name="oxpsych">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=626fDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA24|title=Chapter 1: Thinking about psychiatry|vauthors=Semple D, Smyth R|work=Oxford Handbook of Psychiatry|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0-19-879555-1|edition=4th|page=24|doi=10.1093/med/9780198795551.003.0001|quote=These pseudoscientific theories may...confuse metaphysical with empirical claims (e.g....Ayurvedic medicine)}} {{subscription required}}</ref><ref name=Quack-2011/> The [[Indian Medical Association]] describes Ayurvedic practitioners who claim to practice [[medicine]] as [[Quackery|quacks]].<ref name="IMA">{{cite web|last1=Aggarwal|first1=K. K.|last2=Sharma|first2=V. N.|title=IMA Anti Quackery Wing|url=https://www.ima-india.org/ima/free-way-page.php?pid=143|access-date=February 11, 2022|work=Indian Medical Association|quote=The purpose of this compendium of court orders and various rules and regulations is to acquaint doctors regarding specific provisions and orders barring quackery by unqualified people, practitioners of Indian & Integrated Medicine to practice Modern Medicine.}}</ref> Ayurveda is heavily practiced in India and Nepal, where around 80% of the population report using it.<ref name="Dargan" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" />
+'''Ayurveda''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|ɑː|j|ʊər|ˈ|v|eɪ|d|ə|,_|-|ˈ|v|iː|-}})<ref name="oxford">{{cite web|url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/ayurveda|work=Oxford University Press|title=Ayurveda}}</ref> is an [[alternative medicine]] system with historical roots in the Indian subcontinent.<ref name=HIML-intro>{{cite book|last1=Meulenbeld|first1=Gerrit Jan|title=A History of Indian Medical Literature|date=1999|publisher=Egbert Forsten|location=Groningen|isbn=978-90-6980-124-7|chapter=Introduction}}<!--|access-date=16 October 2015--></ref> The theory and practice of Ayurveda is [[pseudoscience|pseudoscientific]].<ref name="kaufman">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dwFKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA293|title=Pseudoscience: The Conspiracy Against Science|publisher=MIT Press|year=2018|isbn=978-0-262-03742-6|first=Jeffrey|last=Beall|editor-last1=Kaufman|editor-first1=Allison B.|page=293|quote=Ayurveda, a traditional Indian medicine, is the subject of more than a dozen, with some of these "scholarly" journals devoted to Ayurveda alone..., others to Ayurveda and some other pseudoscience....Most current Ayurveda research can be classified as "tooth fairy science," research that accepts as its premise something not scientifically known to exist....Ayurveda is a long-standing system of beliefs and traditions, but its claimed effects have not been scientifically proven. Most Ayurveda researchers might as well be studying the tooth fairy. The German publisher Wolters Kluwer bought the Indian open-access publisher Medknow in 2011....It acquired its entire fleet of journals, including those devoted to pseudoscience topics such as ''An International Quarterly Journal of Research in Ayurveda''.|editor-last2=Kaufman|editor-first2=James C.}}</ref><ref name="oxpsych">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=626fDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA24|title=Chapter 1: Thinking about psychiatry|vauthors=Semple D, Smyth R|work=Oxford Handbook of Psychiatry|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0-19-879555-1|edition=4th|page=24|doi=10.1093/med/9780198795551.003.0001|quote=These pseudoscientific theories may...confuse metaphysical with empirical claims (e.g....Ayurvedic medicine)}} {{subscription required}}</ref><ref name=Quack-2011/> The [[Indian Medical Association]] describes Ayurvedic practitioners who claim to practice [[medicine]] as [[Quackery|quacks]].<ref name="IMA">{{cite web|last1=Aggarwal|first1=K. K.|last2=Sharma|first2=V. N.|title=IMA Anti Quackery Wing|url=https://www.ima-india.org/ima/free-way-page.php?pid=143|access-date=February 11, 2022|work=Indian Medical Association|quote=The purpose of this compendium of court orders and various rules and regulations is to acquaint doctors regarding specific provisions and orders barring quackery by unqualified people, practitioners of Indian & Integrated Medicine to practice Modern Medicine.}}</ref> Ayurveda is heavily practiced in India and Nepal, where around 80% of the population report using it.<ref name="Dargan" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" />
-== History ==
 Ayurveda therapies have varied and evolved over more than two millennia.<ref name="HIML-intro" /> Therapies include [[herbal medicine]]s, [[Dieting#Detox|special diets]], [[Meditation#Hinduism|meditation]], [[yoga]], [[massage]], [[Laxative#Historical and health fraud uses|laxatives]], [[Enema#Alternative medicine|enemas]], and medical oils.<ref name="WebMD" /><ref name="cruk" /> Ayurvedic preparations are typically based on complex herbal compounds, minerals, and metal substances (perhaps under the influence of early Indian alchemy or ''[[rasashastra]]''). Ancient Ayurveda texts also taught surgical techniques, including [[rhinoplasty]], [[lithotomy|kidney stone extractions]], sutures, and the extraction of foreign objects.{{sfn|Wujastyk|2003a}}<ref name="mukh-surg">{{cite book|last1=Mukhopadhyaya|first1=Girindranath|url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924012165522|title=The Surgical Instruments of the Hindus, with a Comparative Study of the Surgical Instruments of the Greek, Roman, Arab, and the Modern European Surgeons|date=1913|publisher=Calcutta University|location=Calcutta|access-date=16 October 2015}}</ref>
-The main classical Ayurveda texts begin with accounts of the transmission of medical knowledge from the gods to sages, and then to human physicians.<ref name="zysk-myth">{{cite book|last1=Zysk|first1=Kenneth G.|editor1-last=Josephson|editor1-first=Folke|title=Categorisation and Interpretation|date=1999|publisher=Meijerbergs institut för svensk etymologisk forskning, Göteborgs universitet|isbn=978-91-630-7978-8|pages=125–145|chapter=Mythology and the Brāhmaṇization of Indian medicine: Transforming Heterodoxy into Orthodoxy}}<!--|access-date=16 October 2015--></ref> Printed editions of the ''[[Sushruta Samhita]]'' (''Sushruta's Compendium''), frames the work as the teaching of [[Dhanvantari]], [[Hindu]] god of Ayurveda, incarnated as King Divodāsa of Varanasi, to a group of physicians, including Sushruta.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bhishagratna|first1=Kaviraj Kunjalal|title=An English Translation of the Sushruta Samhita Based on Original Sanskrit text|date=1907|publisher=K. K. Bhishagratna|location=Calcutta|page=1|url=https://archive.org/stream/b24758619_0001#page/n103/mode/2up|access-date=16 October 2015}}</ref><ref name="britannica">[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/160641/Dhanvantari Dhanvantari. (2010). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 4 August 2010, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online]</ref> The oldest manuscripts of the work, however, omit this frame, ascribing the work directly to King Divodāsa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Birch |first=Jason |last2=Wujastyk |first2=Dominik |last3=Klebanov |first3=Andrey |last4=Parameswaran |first4=Madhu |last5=Rimal |first5=Madhusudan |last6=Chakraborty |first6=Deepro |last7=Bhatt |first7=Harshal |last8=Shenoy |first8=Devyani |last9=Lele |first9=Vandana |date=2021 |title=Further Insight into the Role of Dhanvantari, the physician to the gods, in the Suśrutasaṃhitā |url=https://www.academia.edu/56668282/Further_Insight_into_the_Role_of_Dhanvantari_the_physician_to_the_gods_in_the_Su%C5%9Brutasa%E1%B9%83hit%C4%81 |journal=Academia Letters |doi=10.20935/al2992}}</ref> Through well-understood processes of modernization and globalization, Ayurveda has been adapted for Western consumption, notably by [[Baba Hari Dass]] in the 1970s and [[Maharishi Vedic Approach to Health|Maharishi Ayurveda]] in the 1980s.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/244771011 |title=Modern and global Ayurveda : pluralism and paradigms |date=2008 |publisher=State University of New York Press |others=Dagmar Wujastyk, Frederick M. Smith |isbn=978-1-4356-6328-2 |location=Albany |oclc=244771011}}</ref> Some scholars assert that Ayurveda originated in prehistoric times,<ref>{{cite book |author=Tyagi |first=Dinesh Kumar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q0RPhIargiwC |title=Pharma Forestry A Field Guide To Medicinal Plants |publisher=Atlantic Publishers |year=2005 |isbn=9788126904075 |page=34 |quote=Ayurveda, the organised and classic system of traditional medicine had known to the Indians from prehistoric times.}}</ref> but historical evidence for ayurvedic texts, terminology and concepts appears only from the middle of the first millennium BCE onwards.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Meulenbeld |first=G. Jan |title=A history of Indian medical literature |date= |publisher=Egbert Forsten; Brill |year=1999-2000 |isbn=90-6980-124-8 |location=Groningen |pages=passim |oclc=42207455}}</ref>
+The main classical Ayurveda texts begin with accounts of the transmission of medical knowledge from the gods to sages, and then to human physicians.<ref name="zysk-myth">{{cite book|last1=Zysk|first1=Kenneth G.|editor1-last=Josephson|editor1-first=Folke|title=Categorisation and Interpretation|date=1999|publisher=Meijerbergs institut för svensk etymologisk forskning, Göteborgs universitet|isbn=978-91-630-7978-8|pages=125–145|chapter=Mythology and the Brāhmaṇization of Indian medicine: Transforming Heterodoxy into Orthodoxy}}<!--|access-date=16 October 2015--></ref> In ''[[Sushruta Samhita]]'' (''Sushruta's Compendium''), [[Sushruta]] wrote that [[Dhanvantari]], [[Hindu]] god of Ayurveda, incarnated himself as a king of Varanasi and taught medicine to a group of physicians, including Sushruta.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bhishagratna|first1=Kaviraj Kunjalal|title=An English Translation of the Sushruta Samhita Based on Original Sanskrit text|date=1907|publisher=K. K. Bhishagratna|location=Calcutta|page=1|url=https://archive.org/stream/b24758619_0001#page/n103/mode/2up|access-date=16 October 2015}}</ref><ref name="britannica">[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/160641/Dhanvantari Dhanvantari. (2010). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 4 August 2010, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online]</ref> Ayurveda has been adapted for Western consumption, notably by [[Baba Hari Dass]] in the 1970s and [[Maharishi Vedic Approach to Health|Maharishi Ayurveda]] in the 1980s. Some scholars assert that Ayurveda originated in prehistoric times.<ref>{{cite book|author=Tyagi|first=Dinesh Kumar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q0RPhIargiwC|title=Pharma Forestry A Field Guide To Medicinal Plants|publisher=Atlantic Publishers|year=2005|isbn=9788126904075|page=34|quote=Ayurveda, the organised and classic system of traditional medicine had known to the Indians from prehistoric times.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=|first1=|url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/comprehensive-medicinal-chemistry-the-rational-design-mechanistic-study-therapeutic-application-of-chemical-compounds/oclc/20168118|title=Comprehensive medicinal chemistry: the rational design, mechanistic study & therapeutic application of chemical compounds|publisher=Pergamon Press|year=1990|isbn=9780080325309|editor-last=Hansch|editor-first=Corwin|volume=1|page=114|chapter=General principles|oclc=20168118|quote=The origin of Ayurveda is lost in antiquity. As was the case with many branches of human knowledge in prehistoric times, Ayurveda developed in close association with religion and mythology.|editor-last2=Sammes|editor-first2=Peter George|editor-last3=Taylor|editor-first3=John Bodenhan|editor-last4=Kennewell|editor-first4=Peter D.}}</ref> Ayurveda developed significantly during the [[Vedic period]] and later some of the non-Vedic systems such as Buddhism and Jainism also developed medical concepts and practices that appear in the classical Ayurveda texts.<ref name="Healingtradition">{{cite book|last1=Gupta|first1=Pankaj|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CA7vAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA23|title=Healing Traditions of the Northwestern Himalayas|last2=Sharma|first2=Vijay Kumar|last3=Sharma|first3=Sushma|publisher=Springer|year=2014|isbn=978-81-322-1925-5|page=23}}</ref>
-== Systematic concepts ==
 In Ayurveda texts, ''[[Dosha]]'' balance is emphasized, and suppressing natural urges is considered unhealthy and claimed to lead to illness.<ref name="WujastykXVIII" /> Ayurveda treatises describe three elemental ''doshas'' viz. ''vāta'', ''pitta a''nd ''kapha'', and state that balance (Skt. ''sāmyatva'') of the ''doshas'' results in health, while imbalance (''viṣamatva'') results in disease. Ayurveda treatises divide medicine into eight canonical components. Ayurveda practitioners had developed various medicinal preparations and surgical procedures from at least the beginning of the [[Common Era|common era]].<ref name="shar-hist">{{cite book|title=History of Medicine in India|last1=Sharma|first1=Priya Vrat|date=1992|publisher=Indian National Science Academy|location=New Delhi}}</ref>
 [[Cancer Research UK]] has stated that there is no scientific evidence to prove that Ayurveda is effective to treat or cure cancer.<ref name=cruk/> Some Ayurvedic preparations have been found to contain [[Lead poisoning|lead]], [[Mercury poisoning|mercury]], and [[Arsenic poisoning|arsenic]],<ref name="WebMD">{{cite web|last=Miller|first=Kelli|date=March 20, 2021|others=Medically Reviewed by Melinda Ratini|title=What Is Ayurveda?|url=https://www.webmd.com/balance/qa/is-ayurveda-treatment-approved-in-the-us|work=WebMD}}</ref> substances known to be [[Toxic heavy metal|harmful to humans]]. A 2008 study found the three substances in close to 21% of U.S. and Indian-manufactured patent Ayurvedic medicines sold through the Internet.<ref name="Saper2008">{{cite journal |author1=Saper RB |title=Lead, mercury, and arsenic in US- and Indian-manufactured medicines sold via the internet |journal=JAMA |volume=300 |issue=8 |pages=915–923 |year=2008 |pmid=18728265 |doi=10.1001/jama.300.8.915 |pmc=2755247 |author2=Phillips RS |author3=Sehgal A |last4=Khouri |first4=N |last5=Davis |first5=RB |last6=Paquin |first6=J |last7=Thuppil |first7=V |last8=Kales |first8=SN|display-authors=2 }}</ref> The public health implications of such metallic contaminants in India are unknown.<ref name="Saper2008"/>
-=== Etymology ===
+== Etymology ==
 The term ''Āyurveda'' ({{lang-sa|[[:wikt:आयुर्वेद|आयुर्वेद]]}}) is composed of ''āyus, आयुस्,'' "life" or "longevity", and ''veda, वेद,'' "knowledge", translated as "knowledge of longevity"<ref name="MaasCambridge_2018">{{Cite book |last=Maas |first=Philipp A. |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=DWV9DwAAQBAJ&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&lpg=PP1&dq=The+Cambridge+History+of+Science+vol+1+Indian+Medicine+and+Ayurveda&pg=PT727&redir_esc=y |title=The Cambridge History of Science: Volume 1, Ancient Science |date=2018-12-13 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-68262-6 |editor-last=Jones |editor-first=Alexander |pages=532–550 |language=en |chapter=27. Indian Medicine and Ayurveda |doi=10.1017/9780511980145.029 |editor-last2=Taub |editor-first2=Liba}}</ref><ref name="Smith+Wujastyk" /> or "knowledge of life and longevity".<ref name="GregoryFields">{{cite book |last=Fields |first=Gregory P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rvQhuyGpB3wC&pg=PA37 |title=Religious Therapeutics: Body and Health in Yoga, Ayurveda, and Tantra |date=2001 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-7914-4915-8 |page=36}}</ref>
-=== Eight components ===
+== Eight components ==
 [[File:Nagarjuna.gif|thumb|[[Nagarjuna]], known for the ''[[Madhyamaka]]'' (middle path), wrote the medical works ''The Hundred Prescriptions'' and ''The Precious Collection''.<ref name="CliffordMLBD">Clifford, Terry; Chandra, Lokesh (2017). [https://books.google.com/books?id=FiEzEAAAQBAJ&vq=Ayurveda&source=gbs_navlinks_s ''Tibetan Buddhist Medicine and Psychiatry''.] 42. Motilal Banarsidass Publications. {{ISBN|9788120812055|}}.</ref>|left]]
@@ Line 39: / Line 37: @@
 {{further|Mahābhūta}}The central theoretical ideas of Ayurveda show parallels with [[Sāṅkhya]] and [[Vaiśeṣika]] philosophies, as well as with [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Comba |first=Antonella |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xDvbumli2i0C |title=Studies on Indian Medical History |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=2001 |isbn=9788120817685 |editor-last=Meulenbeld |editor-first=Gerrit Jan |location=Delhi |pages=39–55 |chapter=Carakasaṃhitā, Śārīrasthāna~I and Vaiśeṣika Philosophy |editor-last2=Wujastyk |editor-first2=Dominik}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Basham |first=A. L. |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1525/9780520322295-005/html |title=Asian Medical Systems |publisher=University of California Press |year=1976 |editor-last=Leslie |editor-first=Charles |location=Berkeley |pages=18–43 |chapter=The Practice of Medicine in Ancient and Medieval India|doi=10.1525/9780520322295-005 |isbn=9780520322295 }}</ref> Balance is emphasized, and suppressing natural urges is considered unhealthy and claimed to lead to illness.<ref name="WujastykXVIII" /> For example, to suppress sneezing is said to potentially give rise to shoulder pain.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pathak |first1=Namyata |last2=Raut |first2=Ashwinikumar |last3=Vaidya |first3=Ashok |date=2008-10-01 |title=Acute cervical pain syndrome resulting from suppressed sneezing |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/23670923 |journal=The Journal of the Association of Physicians of India |volume=56 |pages=728–9}}</ref> However, people are also cautioned to stay within the limits of reasonable balance and measure when following nature's urges.<ref name="WujastykXVIII" /> For example, emphasis is placed on moderation of food intake,<ref name="Chopra75">{{Harvnb|Chopra|2003|p=75}}</ref> sleep, and sexual intercourse.<ref name="WujastykXVIII">{{harvnb|Wujastyk|2003a|page=xviii}}</ref>
-[[File:Ayurveda humors.svg|thumb|The three [[Dosha]]s and the five elements from which they are composed.]]According to ayurveda, the human body is composed of tissues (''[[Dhatu (Ayurveda)|dhatus]]''), waste (''malas''), and humoral biomaterials (''[[dosha]]s'', humours).<ref name="Mishra" /> The seven ''dhatus'' are chyle (''rasa''), blood (''rakta''), muscles (''māmsa''), fat (''meda''), bone (''asthi''), [[Bone marrow|marrow]] (''majja''), and semen (''shukra''). Like the medicine of classical antiquity, the classic treatises of Ayurveda divided bodily substances into five [[Classical element#Classical elements in Hinduism|classical elements]], (Sanskrit ''[[panchamahabhuta|pañca-mahā-bhūta)]]'', viz. [[Prithvi|earth]], [[Ap (water)|water]], [[Agni|fire]], [[Vayu|air]] and [[ether (classical element)|ether]].<ref name="Underwood&Rhodes(2008)" /> There are also twenty [[guna]]s (qualities or characteristics) which are considered to be inherent in all matter. These are organized in ten pairs: heavy/light, cold/hot, unctuous/dry, dull/sharp, stable/mobile, soft/hard, non-slimy/slimy, smooth/coarse, minute/gross, and viscous/liquid.<ref name="Chopra76">{{harvnb|Chopra|2003|p=76}}, citing Sushrutasamhita 25.36.</ref>
+[[File:Ayurveda humors.svg|thumb|The three [[Dosha]]s and the five elements from which they are composed.]]According to ayurveda, the human body is composed of tissues (''[[Dhatu (Ayurveda)|dhatus]]''), waste (''malas''), and biomaterials (''[[dosha]]s'').<ref name="Mishra" /> The seven ''dhatus'' are plasma (''rasa''), blood (''rakta''), muscles (''māmsa''), fat (''meda''), bone (''asthi''), [[Bone marrow|marrow]] (''majja''), and semen (''shukra''). Like the medicine of classical antiquity, Ayurveda has historically divided bodily substances into five [[Classical element#Classical elements in Hinduism|classical elements]], (Sanskrit) ''[[panchamahabhuta]]'', viz. [[Prithvi|earth]], [[Ap (water)|water]], [[Agni|fire]], [[Vayu|air]] and [[ether (classical element)|ether]].<ref name="Underwood&Rhodes(2008)" /> There are also twenty [[guna]]s (qualities or characteristics) which are considered to be inherent in all matter. These are organized in ten pairs: heavy/light, cold/hot, unctuous/dry, dull/sharp, stable/mobile, soft/hard, non-slimy/slimy, smooth/coarse, minute/gross, and viscous/liquid.<ref name="Chopra76">{{harvnb|Chopra|2003|p=76}}, citing Sushrutasamhita 25.36.</ref>
-The three postulated elemental bodily humors, the ''[[dosha]]s'' or ''tri-dosha'', are ''vata'' (air, which some modern authors equate with the nervous system), ''pitta'' (bile, fire, equated by some with enzymes), and ''kapha'' (phlegm, or earth and water, equated by some with mucus). Contemporary critics assert that doshas are not real, but are a fictional concept.<ref name=sn>{{cite web |publisher=[[Science-Based Medicine]] |vauthors=Novella S |title=Ayurvedic practitioners push for licensing in Colorado |url=https://sciencebasedmedicine.org/ayurvedic-practitioners-push-licensing-in-colorado/ |date=21 November 2019}}</ref>  The humours (''doshas'') may also affect mental health.  Each ''dosha'' has particular attributes and roles within the body and mind; the natural predominance of one or more ''doshas'' thus explains a person's physical constitution (''prakriti'') and personality.<ref name="Mishra">{{cite journal |last1=Mishra |first1=Lakshmi-chandra |last2=Singh |first2=Betsy B. |last3=Dagenais |first3=Simon |date=March 2001 |title=Ayurveda: a historical perspective and principles of the traditional healthcare system in India |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12079939 |journal=Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=36–42 |pmid=11253415}}</ref><ref name="Payya">{{cite journal|title=Exploring Ayurvedic Knowledge on Food and Health for Providing Innovative Solutions to Contemporary Healthcare|first1=Unnikrishnan|last1=Payyappallimana|first2=Padma|last2=Venkatasubramanian|date=31 March 2016|journal=Frontiers in Public Health|volume=4|issue=57|page=57|doi=10.3389/fpubh.2016.00057|pmid=27066472|pmc=4815005|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Understanding personality from Ayurvedic perspective for psychological assessment: A case|first1=S|last1=Shilpa|first2=C.G.|last2=Venkatesha Murthy|date=January 2011|journal=Ayu|publisher=Institute for Post Graduate Teaching & Research in Ayurveda|volume=32|issue=1|pages=12–19|doi=10.4103/0974-8520.85716|pmid=22131752|pmc=3215408}}</ref> Ayurvedic tradition holds that imbalance among the bodily and mental ''doshas'' is a major etiologic component of disease. One Ayurvedic view is that the ''doshas'' are balanced when they are equal to each other, while another view is that each human possesses a unique combination of the ''doshas'' which define this person's temperament and characteristics. In either case, it says that each person should modulate their behavior or environment to increase or decrease the ''doshas'' and maintain their natural state. Practitioners of Ayurveda must determine an individual's bodily and mental ''dosha'' makeup, as certain ''prakriti'' are said to predispose one to particular diseases.<ref name="mental" /><ref name="Mishra" /> For example, a person who is thin, shy, excitable, has a pronounced [[Adam's apple]], and enjoys of esoteric knowledge is likely ''vata prakriti'' and therefore more susceptible to conditions such as flatulence, stuttering, and rheumatism.<ref name="Mishra" /><ref>{{cite book|title=Fundamentals of Ayurvedic Medicine|last=Bhagwan Dash|first=Vaidya|year=1995|publisher=Lotus Press|isbn=978-81-220-0117-4}}</ref> Deranged ''vata'' is also associated with certain mental disorders due to excited or excess ''vayu'' (gas), although the Ayurvedic text ''[[Charaka Samhita]]'' also attributes "insanity" (''unmada'') to cold food and possession by the ghost of a sinful Brahman (''brahmarakshasa'').<ref name="Mishra" /><ref name="mental">{{cite journal|title=Manovikara (mental disorders) in Ayurveda|first1=M.G.|last1=Ramu|first2=B.S.|last2=Venkataram|date=January 1985|journal=Ancient Science of Life|volume=4|issue=3|pages=165–73|publisher=Wolters Kluwer Medknow Publications|pmid=22557473|pmc=3331508}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Ayurvedic & Western approaches to the treatment of Schizophrenia|website=ayurvedacollege.com|date=21 September 2009|url=https://www.ayurvedacollege.com/blog/schizophrenia/#Types_of_insanity_unmada|access-date=6 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Charaka samhita. Commentary of Chakrapani|last=Acharya|first=YT|date=1941|publisher=Nirnayasagar Press|location=Bombay}}</ref>
+The three postulated elemental bodily humors, the ''[[dosha]]s'' or ''tridosha'', are ''vata'' (space or air, equated with the nervous system), ''pitta'' (fire, equated with enzymes), and ''kapha'' (earth and water, equated with mucus). Doshas are not real, but a fictional concept.<ref name=sn>{{cite web |publisher=[[Science-Based Medicine]] |vauthors=Novella S |title=Ayurvedic practitioners push for licensing in Colorado |url=https://sciencebasedmedicine.org/ayurvedic-practitioners-push-licensing-in-colorado/ |date=21 November 2019}}</ref>  A parallel set of mental ''doshas'' termed ''satogun'', ''rajogun'', and ''tamogun'' are said to control psychology. Each ''dosha'' has particular attributes and roles within the body and mind; the natural predominance of one or more ''doshas'' thus explains a person's physical constitution (''prakriti'') and personality.<ref name="Mishra">{{cite journal |last1=Mishra |first1=Lakshmi-chandra |last2=Singh |first2=Betsy B. |last3=Dagenais |first3=Simon |date=March 2001 |title=Ayurveda: a historical perspective and principles of the traditional healthcare system in India |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12079939 |journal=Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=36–42 |pmid=11253415}}</ref><ref name="Payya">{{cite journal|title=Exploring Ayurvedic Knowledge on Food and Health for Providing Innovative Solutions to Contemporary Healthcare|first1=Unnikrishnan|last1=Payyappallimana|first2=Padma|last2=Venkatasubramanian|date=31 March 2016|journal=Frontiers in Public Health|volume=4|issue=57|page=57|doi=10.3389/fpubh.2016.00057|pmid=27066472|pmc=4815005|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Understanding personality from Ayurvedic perspective for psychological assessment: A case|first1=S|last1=Shilpa|first2=C.G.|last2=Venkatesha Murthy|date=January 2011|journal=Ayu|publisher=Institute for Post Graduate Teaching & Research in Ayurveda|volume=32|issue=1|pages=12–19|doi=10.4103/0974-8520.85716|pmid=22131752|pmc=3215408}}</ref> Ayurvedic tradition holds that imbalance among the bodily and mental ''doshas'' is a major etiologic component of disease. One Ayurvedic view is that the ''doshas'' are balanced when they are equal to each other, while another view is that each human possesses a unique combination of the ''doshas'' which define this person's temperament and characteristics. In either case, it says that each person should modulate their behavior or environment to increase or decrease the ''doshas'' and maintain their natural state. Practitioners of Ayurveda must determine an individual's bodily and mental ''dosha'' makeup, as certain ''prakriti'' are said to predispose one to particular diseases.<ref name="mental" /><ref name="Mishra" /> For example, a person who is thin, shy, excitable, has a pronounced [[Adam's apple]], and enjoys of esoteric knowledge is likely ''vata prakriti'' and therefore more susceptible to conditions such as flatulence, stuttering, and rheumatism.<ref name="Mishra" /><ref>{{cite book|title=Fundamentals of Ayurvedic Medicine|last=Bhagwan Dash|first=Vaidya|year=1995|publisher=Lotus Press|isbn=978-81-220-0117-4}}</ref> Deranged ''vata'' is also associated with certain mental disorders due to excited or excess ''vayu'' (gas), although the Ayurvedic text ''[[Charaka Samhita]]'' also attributes "insanity" (''unmada'') to cold food and possession by the ghost of a sinful Brahman (''brahmarakshasa'').<ref name="Mishra" /><ref name="mental">{{cite journal|title=Manovikara (mental disorders) in Ayurveda|first1=M.G.|last1=Ramu|first2=B.S.|last2=Venkataram|date=January 1985|journal=Ancient Science of Life|volume=4|issue=3|pages=165–73|publisher=Wolters Kluwer Medknow Publications|pmid=22557473|pmc=3331508}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Ayurvedic & Western approaches to the treatment of Schizophrenia|website=ayurvedacollege.com|date=21 September 2009|url=https://www.ayurvedacollege.com/blog/schizophrenia/#Types_of_insanity_unmada|access-date=6 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Charaka samhita. Commentary of Chakrapani|last=Acharya|first=YT|date=1941|publisher=Nirnayasagar Press|location=Bombay}}</ref>
 Ama (a [[Sanskrit]] word meaning "uncooked" or "undigested" ) is used to refer to the concept of anything that exists in a state of incomplete transformation. With regards to [[oral hygiene]], it is claimed to be a toxic byproduct generated by improper or incomplete [[digestion]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Kacera |first=Walter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0aQmGnxBmioC&q=Ayurvedic+Tongue+Diagnosis |title=Ayurvedic Tongue Diagnosis |publisher=Lotus Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-940985-77-3 |pages=159–176 |chapter=Ama and Disease}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Dentistry and Ayurveda – IV: Classification and management of common oral diseases|first=Sunita|last=Amruthesh|date=1 January 2008|journal=Indian Journal of Dental Research|volume=19|issue=1|pages=52–61|doi=10.4103/0970-9290.38933|pmid=18245925|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Amruthesh |first1=Sunita |title=Dentistry and Ayurveda-III (basics - ama, immunity, ojas, rasas, etiopathogenesis and prevention) |journal=Indian Journal of Dental Research |date=2007 |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=112–9 |doi=10.4103/0970-9290.33786 |pmid=17687173 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The concept has no equivalent in [[standard medicine]].
@@ Line 84: / Line 82: @@
 Ayurveda is widely practiced in India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Nepal<ref name="who01" /> where public institutions offer formal study in the form of a [[Bachelor of Ayurveda, Medicine and Surgery]] (BAMS) degree. In certain parts of the world, the legal standing of practitioners is equivalent to that of conventional medicine.<ref name="who01" /> Several scholars have described the contemporary Indian application of Ayurvedic practice as being "biomedicalized" relative to the more "spiritualized" emphasis to practice found in variants in the West.<ref name="london \2">{{cite journal |last1=Warrier |first1=Maya |date=January 2009 |title=Seekership, Spirituality and Self-Discovery: Ayurveda Trainees in Britain |journal=Asian Medicine |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=423–451 |doi=10.1163/157342009X12526658783691 |issn=1573-420X |pmc=2898496 |pmid=20617123}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sujatha |first=V. |date=January 2020 |title=The Universal and the Global: Contextualising European Ayurvedic Practices |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/2393861719883067 |journal=Society and Culture in South Asia |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=52–73 |doi=10.1177/2393861719883067 |s2cid=213828818 |issn=2393-8617 |via=Sage}}</ref>
-Exposure to European developments in medicine from the nineteenth century onwards, through [[European colonization of India]] and the subsequent institutionalized support for European forms of medicine amongst European heritage settlers in India<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sriram |first=Veena |last2=Keshri |first2=Vikash R. |last3=Kumbhar |first3=Kiran |date=2021-08-18 |title=The impact of colonial-era policies on health workforce regulation in India: lessons for contemporary reform |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8371885/ |journal=Human Resources for Health |volume=19 |pages=100 |doi=10.1186/s12960-021-00640-w |issn=1478-4491 |pmc=8371885 |pmid=34407831 |quote=Traditional practitioners of medicine were at the mercy of the ‘newly’ imposed system of modern medicine that arrived with colonialism. Despite some early efforts to understand the value of traditional medicine and some efforts at exchange between the systems, “British criticisms of indigenous medicine became increasingly strident and intolerant”.}}</ref>, were challenging to Ayurveda, with the entire epistemology called into question. From the twentieth century, Ayurveda became politically, conceptually, and commercially dominated by modern biomedicine, resulting in "Modern Ayurveda" and "Global Ayurveda".<ref name="MaasCambridge_2018" /> Modern Ayurveda is geographically located in the [[Indian subcontinent]] and tends towards secularization through minimization of the magic and mythic aspects of Ayurveda.<ref name="MaasCambridge_2018" /><ref name="Smith+Wujastyk" /> Global Ayurveda encompasses multiple forms of practice that developed through dispersal to a wide geographical area outside of India.<ref name="MaasCambridge_2018" /> Smith and Wujastyk further delineate that Global Ayurveda includes those primarily interested in the Ayurveda [[Pharmacopoeia|pharmacopeia]], and also the practitioners of [[New Age]] Ayurveda (which may link Ayurveda to [[yoga]] and Indian spirituality and/or emphasize preventative practice, mind body medicine, or Maharishi Ayurveda).<ref name="Smith+Wujastyk" />
+[[European colonization of India]] and the subsequent institutionalized support for modern medicine<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sriram |first=Veena |last2=Keshri |first2=Vikash R. |last3=Kumbhar |first3=Kiran |date=2021-08-18 |title=The impact of colonial-era policies on health workforce regulation in India: lessons for contemporary reform |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8371885/ |journal=Human Resources for Health |volume=19 |pages=100 |doi=10.1186/s12960-021-00640-w |issn=1478-4491 |pmc=8371885 |pmid=34407831 |quote=Traditional practitioners of medicine were at the mercy of the ‘newly’ imposed system of modern medicine that arrived with colonialism. Despite some early efforts to understand the value of traditional medicine and some efforts at exchange between the systems, “British criticisms of indigenous medicine became increasingly strident and intolerant”.}}</ref> were highly challenging to Ayurveda, with the entire epistemology called into question. Ayurveda became politically, conceptually, and commercially dominated by modern biomedicine, resulting in two major new variations described as "Modern Ayurveda" and "Global Ayurveda".<ref name="MaasCambridge_2018" /> Modern Ayurveda is geographically located in the [[Indian subcontinent]] and tends towards secularization through minimization of the magic and mythic aspects of Ayurveda.<ref name="MaasCambridge_2018" /><ref name="Smith+Wujastyk" /> Global Ayurveda encompasses multiple forms of practice that developed through dispersal to a wide geographical area outside of India.<ref name="MaasCambridge_2018" /> Smith and Wujastyk further delineate that Global Ayurveda includes those primarily interested in the Ayurveda [[Pharmacopoeia|pharmacopeia]], and also the practitioners of [[New Age]] Ayurveda (which may link Ayurveda to [[yoga]] and Indian spirituality and/or emphasize preventative practice, mind body medicine, or Maharishi Ayurveda).<ref name="Smith+Wujastyk" />
-Since the 1980s, Ayurveda has also become the subject of interdisciplinary studies in [[ethnomedicine]] which seeks to integrate the biomedical sciences and humanities to improve the pharmacopeia of Ayurveda.<ref name="Smith+Wujastyk" /> According to Industry Research, the global Ayurveda market was worth US$4.5 billion in 2017.<ref name="market">{{cite web |publisher=Industry Research|date=8 April 2019 |title=Global Ayurvedic Market |url=https://www.industryresearch.biz/global-ayurvedic-market-14143828 }}</ref>
+Since the 1980s, Ayurveda has also become the subject of interdisciplinary studies in [[ethnomedicine]] which seeks to integrate the hard sciences and humanities to improve the pharmacopeia of Ayurveda.<ref name="Smith+Wujastyk" /> According to Industry Research, the global Ayurveda market was worth US$4.5 billion in 2017.<ref name="market">{{cite web |publisher=Industry Research|date=8 April 2019 |title=Global Ayurvedic Market |url=https://www.industryresearch.biz/global-ayurvedic-market-14143828 }}</ref>
-== The Indian subcontinent ==
+===The Indian subcontinent===
 [[File:An Ayurvedic Pharmacy, Rishikesh (1).jpg|left|thumb|A typical Ayurvedic pharmacy, [[Rishikesh]]]]
-=== India ===
+==== India ====
 {{See also|Healthcare in India}}
 It was reported that 80 percent of people in India used Ayurveda exclusively or combined with conventional Western medicine in 2008<ref name="Dargan">{{cite journal|last1=Dargan|first1=Paul I.|last2=Gawarammana|first2=Indika B.|last3=Archer|first3=John R.H.|last4=House|first4=Ivan M.|last5=Shaw|first5=Debbie|last6=Wood|first6=David M.|year=2008|title=Heavy metal poisoning from Ayurvedic traditional medicines: An emerging problem?|url=https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.561.9726&rep=rep1&type=pdf|journal=International Journal of Environment and Health|volume=2|issue=3/4|pages=463|doi=10.1504/IJENVH.2008.020936|citeseerx=10.1.1.561.9726}}</ref> and again in 2018,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bhowmick |first=Nilanjana |date=2021-06-02 |title=Indian doctors protest herbal treatments being touted for COVID-19 |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/indian-doctors-protest-herbal-treatments-being-touted-for-covid-19 |access-date=2022-03-21 |website=National Geographic |language=en}}</ref> although a 2014 national health survey found that Ayurveda was used by about 3.5% of patients.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rudra |first1=Shalini |last2=Kalra |first2=Aakshi |last3=Kumar |first3=Abhishek |last4=Joe |first4=William |date=2017 |title=Utilization of alternative systems of medicine as health care services in India: Evidence on AYUSH care from NSS 2014 |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=12|issue=5 |pages= e0176916 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0176916 |pmid=28472197 |pmc=5417584 |bibcode=2017PLoSO..1276916R |doi-access=free }}</ref>
@@ Line 108: / Line 106: @@
 The [[Indian Medical Association]] (IMA) describes Ayurvedic practitioners who claim to practice medicine as quacks.<ref name="IMA" /><ref name=":9">{{Cite web|last=Safi|first=Michael|date=2018-01-02|title=Indian doctors protest against plan to let 'quacks' practise medicine|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jan/02/indian-doctors-protest-against-plan-to-let-quacks-practice-medicine|access-date=2022-02-06|website=The Guardian|language=en}}</ref> The IMA has protested against the government's relaxation of regulations,<ref name=":9" /> including those which allow Ayurvedic practitioners to perform surgeries.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-12-11|title=IMA strike over 'Ayurveda surgeons': 30,000 from Gujarat join protest, AIIMS doctors wear black band|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/doctors-on-nationwide-strike-today-ima-live-updates-7100914/|access-date=2022-02-06|website=The Indian Express|language=en}}</ref>
-=== Nepal ===
+==== Nepal ====
 About 75%-80% of the population of Nepal use Ayurveda.<ref name=":1">{{cite news|title=Weeklong programme to observe Health Day |url=http://thehimalayantimes.com/fullNews.php?headline=Weeklong+programme+to+observe+Health+Day&NewsID=395245 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170323212717/http://thehimalayantimes.com/fullNews.php?headline=Weeklong+programme+to+observe+Health+Day&NewsID=395245 |url-status=dead |archive-date=23 March 2017 |access-date=7 January 2015 |agency=The Himalayan Times |work=The Himalayan Times|date=28 October 2013 |quote=In Nepal, 80 per cent of the population receives Ayurvedic medicine as first aid treatment. }}</ref><ref name=":3">{{cite book|author=Alam|first=Zulfeequar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R5PfzF86mtEC&q=Ayurveda&pg=PA10|title=Herbal Medicines|publisher=A.P.H. Publishing|year=2008|isbn=978-81-313-0358-0|location=New Delhi, India|pages=8–13, 122}}</ref> As of 2009, Ayurveda was considered to be the most common and popular form of medicine in Nepal.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Guneratne |first=Arjun |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L2qLAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1 |title=Culture and the Environment in the Himalaya |publisher=Routledge |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-415-77883-1 |series=Routledge contemporary South Asia series, #24 |location=New York |pages=84–85}}</ref>
-=== Sri Lanka ===
+==== Sri Lanka ====
 [[File:SwaSwara Ayurveda and Yoga on Om Beach meditation (4).jpg|thumb|Practitioners in 2017 in Sri Lanka where Ayurveda spas are common.]]
 The Sri Lankan tradition of Ayurveda is similar to the Indian tradition. Practitioners of Ayurveda in Sri Lanka refer to Sanskrit texts which are common to both countries. However, they do differ in some aspects, particularly in the herbs used.
@@ Line 119: / Line 117: @@
 According to the [[Mahavamsa]], an ancient chronicle of [[Sinhalese people|Sinhalese]] royalty from the sixth century C.E., King [[Pandukabhaya of Sri Lanka]] (reigned 437 BCE to 367 BCE) had lying-in-homes and Ayurvedic hospitals (Sivikasotthi-Sala) built in various parts of the country. This is the earliest documented evidence available of institutions dedicated specifically to the care of the sick anywhere in the world.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Arjuna|last=Aluvihare|title=Rohal Kramaya Lovata Dhayadha Kale Sri Lankikayo|journal=Vidhusara Science Magazine |date=November 1993}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/ihsg/publications/pdf/No-42.PDF |title=Resource Mobilization in Sri Lanka's Health Sector |author1=Rannan-Eliya, Ravi P. |author2=De Mel, Nishan  |publisher=[[Harvard School of Public Health]] & Health Policy Programme, Institute of Policy Studies|date=February 1997|page=19|access-date=17 December 2014}}</ref> [[Mihintale]] Hospital is the oldest in the world.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Müller-Dietz, Heinz E. |year=1975|title=Die Krankenhaus-ruinen in Mihintale (Ceylon) |journal=Historia Hospitalium|volume=10|pages=65–71|pmid=11627253}}</ref>
-== Outside the Indian subcontinent ==
+===Outside the Indian subcontinent===
 [[File:Aankomst Maharish Makesh Yogi op Schiphol. M. M. Yogi vergezeld van Dramayari Do, Bestanddeelnr 920-6590.jpg|left|thumb|[[Maharishi Mahesh Yogi]] in [[Amsterdam]] in 1967]]Ayurveda is a system of traditional medicine developed during antiquity and the medieval period, and as such is comparable to pre-modern [[traditional Chinese medicine|Chinese]] and [[Medieval medicine of Western Europe|European]] systems of medicine. In the 1960s, Ayurveda began to be advertised as [[alternative medicine]] in the Western world. Due to different laws and medical regulations around the globe, the unregulated practice and commercialisation of Ayurveda raised ethical and legal issues. In some instances, Ayurvedic practices and terminology were adapted specifically for Western consumption, notably in the case of "[[Maharishi Vedic Approach to Health|Maharishi Ayurveda]]" in the 1980s. In some cases, this involved active fraud on the part of proponents of Ayurveda in an attempt to falsely represent the system as equal to the standards of modern [[medical research]].<ref>{{Cite journal| author=Skolnick, Andrew A. | year = 1991 | title=The Maharishi Caper: Or How to Hoodwink Top Medical Journals | journal = ScienceWriters: The Newsletter of the National Association of Science Writers | issue = Fall | format = print | url = http://www.aaskolnick.com/naswmav.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080716041551/http://www.aaskolnick.com/naswmav.htm | archive-date=16 July 2008 |author-link=Andrew A. Skolnick| quote = From time to time, even the most prestigious science journals publish erroneous or fraudulent data, unjustified conclusions, and sometimes balderdash. Balderdash was the right word when The [[Journal of the American Medical Association]] (JAMA) published the article, "Maharishi Ayur-Veda: Modern Insights Into Ancient Medicine," in its 22/29 May issue. Discovering that they had been deceived by the article's authors, the editors published a correction in the 14 August issue, which was followed on 2 October by a six-page exposé on the people who had hoodwinked them. | access-date = 23 January 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Skolnick|first1=Andrew A.|author-link=Andrew A. Skolnick|title=Maharishi Ayur-Veda: Guru's marketing scheme promises the world eternal 'perfect health'|journal=JAMA|volume=266|pages=1741–2, 1744–5, 1749–50|year=1991|doi=10.1001/jama.1991.03470130017003|pmid=1817475|issue=13}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=National Policy on Traditional Medicine and Regulation of Herbal Medicines |date=May 2005 |publisher=World Health Organization |url=http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/pdf/s7916e/s7916e.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090927001412/http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/pdf/s7916e/s7916e.pdf |archive-date=27 September 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
+==== United States ====
-=== United States ===
 [[Baba Hari Dass]] was an early proponent who helped bring Ayurveda to the United States in the early 1970s. His teachings led to the establishment of the Mount Madonna Institute.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Jones |first=Constance |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC&pg=PP1 |title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |last2=Ryan |first2=James D. |publisher=Infobase Publishing |year=2006 |isbn=9780816075645 |editor-last=Melton |editor-first=J. Gordon |series=Encyclopedia of World Religions |page=179}}</ref> He invited several notable Ayurvedic teachers, including Vasant Lad, Sarita Shrestha, and [[Ram Harsh Singh]]. The Ayurvedic practitioner Michael Tierra wrote that the "history of Ayurveda in North America will always owe a debt to the selfless contributions of Baba Hari Dass."<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Khalsa |first1=Karta Purkh Singh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fOK33vv_29UC&pg=PP1 |title=The Way of Ayurvedic Herbs: The Most Complete Guide to Natural Healing and Health with Traditional Ayurvedic Herbalism |last2=Tierra |first2=Michael |date=2008 |publisher=Lotus Press |isbn=978-0-940985-98-8 |pages=x |language=en |quote=Independently, we both first learned Ayurvedic medicine from our respective spiritual mentors – myself with Baba Hari Dass and K.P., with Yogi Bhajan.}}</ref>
 In the United States, the practice of Ayurveda is not licensed or regulated by any state. The [[National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health]] says that "Few well-designed clinical trials and systematic research reviews suggest that Ayurvedic approaches are effective", warns against the issue of heavy metal poisoning, and emphasises the use of conventional health providers first.<ref name=":5">{{cite web|date=December 2018|title=Ayurvedic Medicine: In Depth|url=https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/ayurvedic-medicine-in-depth|access-date=23 August 2020|website=National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health}}</ref> As of 2018, the NCCIH reported that 240,000 Americans were using Ayurvedic medicine.<ref name=":5" />
-=== Europe ===
+==== Europe ====
 The first Ayurvedic clinic in Switzerland was opening in 1987 by [[Maharishi Mahesh Yogi]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Wujastyk |first1=Dagmar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M3XBu-vpXgoC&pg=PP1 |title=Modern and Global Ayurveda: Pluralism and Paradigms |last2=Smith |first2=Frederick M. |date=September 9, 2013 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-7914-7816-5 |pages=285 |language=en}}</ref> In 2015, the government of Switzerland introduced a federally recognized diploma in Ayurveda.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |last=Chandrasekhar |first=Anand |date=June 4, 2017 |title=Ayurveda seeks respectability through Swiss diploma |url=https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/society/traditional-indian-medicine_ayurveda-seeks-respectability-through-swiss-diploma/43189578 |access-date=2022-03-16 |website=SWI |language=en}}</ref>
@@ Line 134: / Line 131: @@
 Ayurvedic medicine is considered [[pseudoscientific]] because its premises are not based on science.<ref name="oxpsych" /><ref name="kaufman" /> Both the lack of scientific soundness in the theoretical foundations of Ayurveda and the quality of research have been criticized.<ref name="oxpsych" /><ref name="Sujatha2011">{{cite journal|last=Sujatha|first=V|date=July 2011|title=What could 'integrative' medicine mean? Social science perspectives on contemporary Ayurveda|journal=Journal of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine|volume=2|issue=3|pages=115–23|doi=10.4103/0975-9476.85549|pmc=3193682|pmid=22022153}}</ref><ref name="Manohar2013">{{cite journal|last=Manohar|first=PR|date=April 2013|title=Uniform standards and quality control of research publications in the field of Ayurveda|journal=Ancient Science of Life|volume=32|issue=4|pages=185–6|doi=10.4103/0257-7941.131968|pmc=4078466|pmid=24991064}}</ref><ref name="Bausell">{{cite book|last1=Bausell|first1=R. Barker|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195313680|title=Snake Oil Science: The Truth About Complementary and Alternative Medicine|date=2007|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-538342-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195313680/page/259 259]|author-link=R. Barker Bausell|url-access=registration}}</ref>
-Although laboratory experiments suggest that some herbs and substances in Ayurveda might be developed into effective treatments, there is no evidence that any are effective in themselves.<ref name="ACS2011">{{cite web|date=26 August 2011|title=Ayurveda|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/mindbodyandspirit/ayurveda|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222053347/http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/mindbodyandspirit/ayurveda|archive-date=22 February 2014|access-date=7 January 2015|publisher=American Cancer Society|quote=The effectiveness of Ayurveda has not been proven in scientific studies, but early research suggests that certain herbs may offer potential therapeutic value... Although Ayurveda has been largely untested by Western researchers, there is a growing interest in integrating some parts of the system into medical practice. In fact, a few of the herbs and substances have been purified into drugs that are used (along with other medicines) to treat cancer. Early studies suggest that other parts of Ayurveda may have potential therapeutic value.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Patwardhan|first=Bhushan|date=2014-11-01|title=Bridging Ayurveda with evidence-based scientific approaches in medicine|journal=The EPMA Journal|volume=5|issue=1|pages=19|doi=10.1186/1878-5085-5-19|issn=1878-5077|pmc=4230501|pmid=25395997}}</ref> [[Cancer Research UK]] (CRUK) has stated that there is no scientific evidence to prove that Ayurvedic medicine is effective to treat or cure cancer in people.<ref name="cruk" /> Although Ayurveda may help "improve quality of life" and CRUK also acknowledges that "researchers have found that some Ayurvedic treatments can help relieve cancer symptoms," the organization warns that some Ayurvedic drugs contain toxic substances or may [[drug interaction|interact]] with legitimate cancer drugs in a harmful way.<ref name="cruk">{{cite web |date= |title=Ayurvedic medicine |url=https://about-cancer.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/cancer-in-general/treatment/complementary-alternative-therapies/individual-therapies/ayurvedic-medicine |access-date=18 April 2022 |website=[[Cancer Research UK]] |quote=There is no scientific evidence to prove that Ayurvedic medicine can treat or cure cancer. Researchers have found that some Ayurvedic treatments can help relieve cancer symptoms. It can also improve quality of life.}}</ref>
+Although laboratory experiments suggest it is possible that some herbs and substances in Ayurveda might be developed into effective treatments, there is no evidence that any are effective in themselves.<ref name="ACS2011">{{cite web|date=26 August 2011|title=Ayurveda|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/mindbodyandspirit/ayurveda|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222053347/http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/mindbodyandspirit/ayurveda|archive-date=22 February 2014|access-date=7 January 2015|publisher=American Cancer Society|quote=The effectiveness of Ayurveda has not been proven in scientific studies, but early research suggests that certain herbs may offer potential therapeutic value... Although Ayurveda has been largely untested by Western researchers, there is a growing interest in integrating some parts of the system into medical practice. In fact, a few of the herbs and substances have been purified into drugs that are used (along with other medicines) to treat cancer. Early studies suggest that other parts of Ayurveda may have potential therapeutic value.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Patwardhan|first=Bhushan|date=2014-11-01|title=Bridging Ayurveda with evidence-based scientific approaches in medicine|journal=The EPMA Journal|volume=5|issue=1|pages=19|doi=10.1186/1878-5085-5-19|issn=1878-5077|pmc=4230501|pmid=25395997}}</ref> [[Cancer Research UK]] (CRUK) has stated that there is no scientific evidence to prove that Ayurvedic medicine is effective to treat or cure cancer in people.<ref name="cruk" /> Although Ayurveda may help "improve quality of life" and CRUK also acknowledges that "researchers have found that some Ayurvedic treatments can help relieve cancer symptoms," the organization warns that some Ayurvedic drugs contain toxic substances or may [[drug interaction|interact]] with legitimate cancer drugs in a harmful way.<ref name="cruk">{{cite web |date= |title=Ayurvedic medicine |url=https://about-cancer.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/cancer-in-general/treatment/complementary-alternative-therapies/individual-therapies/ayurvedic-medicine |access-date=18 April 2022 |website=[[Cancer Research UK]] |quote=There is no scientific evidence to prove that Ayurvedic medicine can treat or cure cancer. Researchers have found that some Ayurvedic treatments can help relieve cancer symptoms. It can also improve quality of life.}}</ref>
 Ethnologist [[Johannes Quack]] writes than although the rationalist movement [[Maharashtra Andhashraddha Nirmoolan Samiti]] officially labels Ayurveda a pseudoscience akin to [[astrology]], these practices are in fact embraced by many of the movement's members.<ref name="Quack-2011">{{cite book|last=Quack|first=Johannes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=55wFpydSZ8oC|title=Disenchanting India: Organized Rationalism and Criticism of Religion in India|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2011|isbn=978-0-19-981260-8|pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=TNbxUwhS5RUC&pg=PA213 213], [https://books.google.com/books?id=TNbxUwhS5RUC&pg=PA3 3]|quote=ordinary members told me how they practice some of these pseudosciences, either privately or as certified doctors themselves, most often Ayurveda.}}</ref>
@@ Line 163: / Line 160: @@
 {{third-party|section|date=April 2018}}
-Some scholars assert that the concepts of traditional Indian medicine have existed since the times of the [[Indus Valley Civilization]],<ref name="Svoboda1992">{{cite book|last=Svoboda|first=Robert|title=Ayurveda: Life, Health and Longevity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3lD-8u-KtJgC|year=1992|publisher=Penguin Books India|isbn=978-0-14-019322-0|pages=9–10}}</ref> but since the [[Indus script]] has not been deciphered, such assertions are moot.  The [[Atharvaveda]] contains hymns and prayers aimed at curing disease. There are various legendary accounts of the origin of Ayurveda, e.g. that it was received by [[Dhanvantari]] (or [[Divodasa]]) from [[Brahma]].<ref name="britannica" /><ref name="Underwood&Rhodes(2008)" /> Tradition also holds that the writings of Ayurveda were influenced by a lost text by the sage [[Agnivesa]].<ref name="Thakara">{{cite book|first=Vināyaka Jayānanda|last=Ṭhākara|year=1989|title=Methodology of Research in Ayurveda|page=7|publisher=[[Gujarat Ayurved University]] Press|location=Jamnagar, India}}</ref>
+Some of the concepts of traditional Indian medicine have existed since the times of the [[Indus Valley Civilization]].<ref name="Issues in Pharmaceuticals 2011">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XbhvXzqwCRsC&pg=PT9 |title=Issues in Pharmaceuticals by Disease, Disorder, or Organ System: 2011 Edition |date=2012-01-09 |publisher=ScholarlyEditions |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-4649-6756-6 |page=9}}</ref><ref name="Svoboda1992">{{cite book|last=Svoboda|first=Robert|title=Ayurveda: Life, Health and Longevity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3lD-8u-KtJgC|year=1992|publisher=Penguin Books India|isbn=978-0-14-019322-0|pages=9–10}}</ref> [[Atharvaveda]] contains hymns and incantations described as magical cures for disease. There are various legendary accounts of the origin of Ayurveda, e.g. that it was received by [[Dhanvantari]] (or [[Divodasa]]) from [[Brahma]].<ref name="britannica" /><ref name="Underwood&Rhodes(2008)" /> Tradition also holds that the writings of Ayurveda were influenced by a lost text by the sage [[Agnivesa]].<ref name="Thakara">{{cite book|first=Vināyaka Jayānanda|last=Ṭhākara|year=1989|title=Methodology of Research in Ayurveda|page=7|publisher=[[Gujarat Ayurved University]] Press|location=Jamnagar, India}}</ref>
 Ayurveda is one of the few systems of medicine developed in ancient times that is still widely practiced in modern times.<ref name="Smith+Wujastyk">{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Frederick M. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M3XBu-vpXgoC&pg=PP1 |title=Modern and Global Ayurveda: Pluralism and Paradigms |last2=Wujastyk |first2=Dagmar |publisher=[[SUNY Press]] |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-7914-7816-5 |editor-last1=Smith |editor-first1=Frederick M. |location=New York, NY |pages=1–28 |chapter=Introduction |oclc=244771011 |editor-last2=Wujastyk |editor-first2=Dagmar}}</ref> As such, it is open to the criticism that its conceptual basis is obsolete and that its contemporary practitioners have not taken account of the developments in medicine.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jjDo1Xxj4XUC&pg=PP1 |title=Asian Medical Systems |publisher=University of California Press |year=1976 |isbn=978-0-520-03511-9 |editor-last=Leslie |editor-first=Charles |location=Berkeley |pages=passim |ref=lesl-asia}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Taylor |first=Carl |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jjDo1Xxj4XUC |title=Asian Medical Systems |publisher=University of California Press |year=1977 |isbn=9780520035119 |editor-last=Leslie |editor-first=Charles |pages=285–292 |chapter=The Place of Indigenous Medical Practitioners in the Modernization of Health Services |ref=lesl-asia}}</ref> Responses to this situation led to an impassioned debate in India during the early decades of the twentieth century, between proponents of unchanging tradition (''śuddha'' "pure" ayurveda) and those who thought ayurveda should modernise and syncretize (''aśuddha'' "impure, tainted" ayurveda).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Leslie |first=Charles |url=https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520322295-022 |title=The Ambiguites of Medical Revivalism in Modern India |chapter=The Ambiguities of Medical Revivalism in Modern India |work=Asian Medical Systems: A Comparative Study |publisher=University of California Press |year=1976 |pages=356–367 |doi=10.1525/9780520322295-022 |isbn=9780520322295 |ref=lesl-asia}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title = Ayurvedic Medicine: Past and Present|last = Sharma|first = Shiv|publisher = Dabur (S. K. Burman)|year = 1975|location = Calcutta}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Berger |first=Rachel |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1057/9781137315908 |title=Ayurveda made modern : political histories of indigenous medicine in North India, 1900-1955 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-230-28455-5 |location=New York, NY|doi=10.1057/9781137315908 }}</ref> The political debate about the place of ayurveda in contemporary India has continued to the present (2015), both in the public arena and in government.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wujastyk |first=Dominik |url=https://doi.org/10.7939/r3-xjj8-cg73 |title=Modern and Global Ayurveda: Pluralism and Paradigms |publisher=SUNY Press |year=2008 |isbn=9780791474907 |pages=43–76 |chapter=The Evolution of Indian Government Policy on Ayurveda in the Twentieth Century |doi=10.7939/r3-xjj8-cg73 |ref=smit-mode}}</ref> Debate about the place of Ayurvedic medicine in the contemporary internationalized world also continues today (2015).<ref>{{Cite journal|url = http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1066/1/submission-article.pdf|title = Policy Formation and Debate Concerning the Government Regulation of Ayurveda in Great Britain in the 21st Century|last = Wujastyk|first = Dominik|date = 2005|journal = Asian Medicine|doi = 10.1163/157342105777996719|pages = 162–184|volume = 1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Redy |first=Sita |date=2002 |title=Asian Medicine in America: The Ayurvedic Case |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/249666385 |journal=Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science |volume=583 |pages=97–121 |doi=10.1177/000271620258300107 |jstor=1049691 |s2cid=145626093}}</ref>
 ===Main texts===
-Many ancient works on Ayurvedic medicine are lost to posterity,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meulenbeld|first=G. Jan|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/42207455|title=A history of Indian medical literature|date=1999–2000|isbn=90-6980-124-8|volume=IA|location=Groningen|pages=689–699|oclc=42207455}}</ref> but manuscripts of three three principal early texts on Ayurveda have survived to the present day.  These works are the [[Charaka Samhita]], the [[Sushruta Samhita]] and the Bhela Samhita. The dating of these works is historically complicated since they each internally present themselves as composite works compiled by several editors.  All past scholarship on their dating has been evaluated by Meulenbeld in volumes IA and IB of his ''History of Indian Medical Literature''.<ref name="HIML-intro" /> After considering the evidence and arguments concerning the ''Suśrutasaṃhitā'', Meulenbeld stated (IA, 348), <blockquote>"The ''Suśrutasaṃhitā'' is most probably the work of an unknown author who drew much of the material he incorporated in his treatise from a multiplicity of earlier sources from various periods. This may explain that many scholars yield to the temptation to recognize a number of distinct layers and, consequently, try to identify elements belonging to them. As we have seen, the identification of features thought to belong to a particular stratum is in many cases determined by preconceived ideas on the age of the strata and their supposed authors."  </blockquote>The dating of this work to 600 BC was first proposed by Hoernle over a century ago,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hoernle|first=A. F. Rudolf|title=Osteology or the bones of the human body.|date=1907|publisher=Clarendon P.|location=Oxford|language=en|oclc=28563136}}</ref> but has long since been overturned by subsequent historical research. The current consensus amongst medical historians of South Asia is that the ''Suśrutasaṃhitā'' was compiled over a period of time starting with a kernel of medical ideas from the century or two BCE and then being revised by several hands into its present form by about 500 CE.<ref name="HIML-intro" /><ref name="shar-hist" /> The view that the text was updated by the Buddhist scholar [[Nagarjuna]] in the 2nd century CE<ref>{{cite book|title=India and Central Asia: Classical to Contemporary Periods|author1=J. N. Roy |author2=Braja Bihārī Kumāra |page=103|publisher=Concept Publishing Company}}</ref> has been disproved, although the last chapter of the work, the Uttaratantra, was added by an unknown later author before 500 CE.<ref name="HIML-intro" />
+Many ancient works on Ayurvedic medicine are lost to posterity,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meulenbeld|first=G. Jan|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/42207455|title=A history of Indian medical literature|date=1999–2000|isbn=90-6980-124-8|volume=IA|location=Groningen|pages=689–699|oclc=42207455}}</ref> but manuscripts of three three principal early texts on Ayurveda have survived to the present day.  These works are the [[Charaka Samhita]], the [[Sushruta Samhita]] and the Bhela Samhita. The dating of these works is historically complicated since they each internally present themselves as composite works compiled by several editors.  All past scholarship on their dating has been evaluated by Meulenbeld in volumes IA and IB of his ''History of Indian Medical Literature''.<ref name="HIML-intro" /> After considering the evidence and arguments concerning the ''Suśrutasaṃhitā'', Meulenbeld states (IA, 348), "The ''Suśrutasaṃhitā'' is most probably the work of an unknown author who drew much of the material he incorporated in his treatise from a multiplicity of earlier sources from various periods. This may explain that many scholars yield to the temptation to recognize a number of distinct layers and, consequently, try to identify elements belonging to them. As we have seen, the identification of features thought to belong to a particular stratum is in many cases determined by preconceived ideas on the age of the strata and their supposed authors."  The dating of this work to 600 BC was first proposed by Hoernle over a century ago,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hoernle|first=A. F. Rudolf|title=Osteology or the bones of the human body.|date=1907|publisher=Clarendon P.|location=Oxford|language=en|oclc=28563136}}</ref> but has long since been overturned by subsequent historical research. The current consensus amongst medical historians of South Asia is that the Suśrutasaṃhitā was compiled over a period of time starting with a kernel of medical ideas from the century or two BCE and then being revised by several hands into its present form by about 500 CE.<ref name="HIML-intro" /><ref name="shar-hist" /> The view that the text was updated by the Buddhist scholar [[Nagarjuna]] in the 2nd century CE<ref>{{cite book|title=India and Central Asia: Classical to Contemporary Periods|author1=J. N. Roy |author2=Braja Bihārī Kumāra |page=103|publisher=Concept Publishing Company}}</ref> has been disproved, although the last chapter of the work, the Uttaratantra, was added by an unknown later author before 500 CE.<ref name="HIML-intro" />
 Similar arguments apply to the Charaka Samhita, written by [[Charaka]], and the Bhela Samhita, attributed to [[Atreya|Atreya Punarvasu]], that are also dated to the 6th century BCE by non-specialist scholars<ref>{{cite book|title=Spirit Versus Scalpel: Traditional Healing and Modern Psychotherapy|page=76|author1=Leonore Loeb Adler |author2=B. Runi Mukherji |publisher=Greenwood}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Development of Plant-Based Medicines: Conservation, Efficacy and Safety|first=Praveen K.|last=Saxena|publisher=Springer|page=48}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v56tj2EPZ-YC&pg=PA116|page=116|author1=Mohammad Ali Jazayery |first2=Werner |last2=Winter |publisher=Walter de Gruyter|year=1988|title=Languages and Cultures: Studies in Honor of Edgar C. Polomé|isbn=978-3-11-010204-8}}</ref> but are in fact, in their present form, datable to a period between the second and fifth centuries CE.<ref name="HIML-intro" /><ref name="shar-hist" />{{sfn|Wujastyk|2003a}} The [[Charaka Samhita#Contents|Charaka Samhita]] was also updated by [[Dridhabala]] during the early centuries of the Common Era.<ref>{{cite book|author=Glucklich, Ariel|year=2008|title=The Strides of Vishnu: Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective|location=Oxford, England|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tfZNoX09XNAC&pg=PA141&dq=samhita 141]|isbn=978-0-19-531405-2}}</ref>[[File:Charak.jpg|thumb|Statue of [[Charaka]], ancient Indian physician, in [[Haridwar]], India]]
-The [[Bower Manuscript]] (dated to the early 6th century CE<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sander |first=Lore |title="Origin and Date of the {Bower Manuscript}, a New Approach" in Investigating Indian Art: Proceedings of a Symposium on the Development of Early Buddhist and Hindu Iconography Held at the Museum of Indian Art, Berlin, in May 1986 |publisher=Museum Fuer Indische Kunst |year=1987 |location=Berlin |pages=313-323}}</ref>) includes of excerpts from the ''Bheda Samhita''<ref>{{cite book|title=History of Science and Technology in Ancient India: Formation of the theoretical fundamentals of natural science|page=153|first=Debiprasad|last=Chattopadhyaya|year=1991}}</ref> and its description of concepts in Central Asian Buddhism. In 1987, A. F. R. Hoernle identified the scribe of the medical portions of the manuscript to be a native of India using a northern variant of the Gupta script, who had migrated and become a Buddhist monk in a monastery in Kucha. The Chinese pilgrim [[Fa Hsien]] (c. 337–422 AD) wrote about the healthcare system of the Gupta empire (320–550) and described the institutional approach of Indian medicine. This is also visible in the works of Charaka, who describes hospitals and how they should be equipped.<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&q=Charaka+hospital&pg=PA543|first=Upinder|last=Singh|publisher=Pearson|year=2008|isbn=978-81-317-1120-0}}</ref>
+The [[Bower Manuscript]] (dated to the Gupta era, between the 4th and the 6th century CE) includes of excerpts from the Bheda Samhita<ref>{{cite book|title=History of Science and Technology in Ancient India: Formation of the theoretical fundamentals of natural science|page=153|first=Debiprasad|last=Chattopadhyaya|year=1991}}</ref> and its description of concepts in Central Asian Buddhism. In 1987, A. F. R. Hoernle identified the scribe of the medical portions of the manuscript to be a native of India using a northern variant of the Gupta script, who had migrated and become a Buddhist monk in a monastery in Kucha. The Chinese pilgrim [[Fa Hsien]] (c. 337–422 AD) wrote about the healthcare system of the Gupta empire (320–550) and described the institutional approach of Indian medicine. This is also visible in the works of Charaka, who describes hospitals and how they should be equipped.<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&q=Charaka+hospital&pg=PA543|first=Upinder|last=Singh|publisher=Pearson|year=2008|isbn=978-81-317-1120-0}}</ref>
-Some dictionaries of materia medica include the ''Astanga nighantu'' (8th Century) by Vagbhata, ''Paryaya ratnamala'' (9th century) by Madhava, ''Siddhasara nighantu'' (9th century) by Ravi Gupta, ''Dravyavali ''(10th Century), and ''Dravyaguna sangraha'' (11th century) by [[Chakrapani Datta]], among others.<ref>{{cite book|title=Materia Medica of Ayurveda: Based on: Madanapala's Nighantu|page=14|author=Vaidya Bhagwan Dash|publisher=B. Jain Publishers}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=AYUSH |title=e-Nighantu |url=https://niimh.nic.in/ebooks/e-Nighantu/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
+Other early texts are the Agnivesha Samhita, Kasyapa Samhita and Harita Samhita. The original edition of the Agnivesha Samhita, by Agnivesa, is dated to 1500 BCE,<ref>{{cite book|title=Pharmacognosy: An Indian perspective|page=36|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2UQ8BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA36|publisher=Pearson Education|author=K. Mangathayaru|isbn=978-93-325-2026-4|year=2013}}</ref> and it was later modified by Charaka.<ref>{{cite book|title=Health & Harmony Through Ayurveda|page=41|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t4ymSRXTCaoC&pg=PT41|publisher=B. Jain Publishers|author1=Anil Kumar Mehta |first2=Naveen K. |last2=Gupta |author3=R. N. Sharma |year=2002|isbn=978-81-7021-934-7}}</ref> Kasyapa Samhita includes the treatise of [[Jivaka Kumar Bhaccha]]<ref>{{cite book|title=Indian Journal of Medical Education, Volume 5|page=185|author=J. Chandy|year=1965}}</ref> and is dated to the 6th century BCE.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Indo-Asian Culture, Volume 9|page=61|year=1960}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pearson General Knowledge Manual 2009|first1=Edgar |last1=Thorpe |first2=Showick |last2=Thorpe |page=196|publisher=Pearson}}</ref> While Harita Samhita is dated to an earlier period, it is attributed to [[Harita]], who was a disciple of Punarvasu Atreya.<ref>{{cite book|title=Biographical History of Indian Medicine: Pictorial|pages=33–35|author=K. R. Srikanthamurthy|publisher=Chaukhambha Orientalia|year=2005}}</ref> Some later texts are ''Astanga nighantu'' (8th Century) by Vagbhata, ''Paryaya ratnamala'' (9th century) by Madhava, ''Siddhasara nighantu'' (9th century) by Ravi Gupta, ''Dravyavali ''(10th Century), and ''Dravyaguna sangraha'' (11th century) by [[Chakrapani Datta]], among others.<ref>{{cite book|title=Materia Medica of Ayurveda: Based on: Madanapala's Nighantu|page=14|author=Vaidya Bhagwan Dash|publisher=B. Jain Publishers}}</ref>
+===Illnesses portrayed===
-=== Illnesses portrayed<ref>{{cite book |last1= |first1= |url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/comprehensive-medicinal-chemistry-the-rational-design-mechanistic-study-therapeutic-application-of-chemical-compounds/oclc/20168118 |title=Comprehensive medicinal chemistry: the rational design, mechanistic study & therapeutic application of chemical compounds |publisher=Pergamon Press |year=1990 |isbn=9780080325309 |editor-last=Hansch |editor-first=Corwin |volume=1 |page=114 |chapter=General principles |oclc=20168118 |quote=The origin of Ayurveda is lost in antiquity. As was the case with many branches of human knowledge in prehistoric times, Ayurveda developed in close association with religion and mythology. |editor-last2=Sammes |editor-first2=Peter George |editor-last3=Taylor |editor-first3=John Bodenhan |editor-last4=Kennewell |editor-first4=Peter D.}}</ref> ===
 [[File:Cataract in human eye.png|thumb|[[Cataract]] surgery is mentioned in the ''[[Sushruta Samhita]]'', to be performed with a ''jabamukhi salaka'', a curved needle used to loosen and remove the obstructing phlegm, with eye soaked with warm butter and bandaged afterward.<ref name="finger66">Finger, p. 66</ref>|left|200x200px]]Underwood and Rhodes state that the early forms of traditional Indian medicine identified fever, cough, [[Tuberculosis|consumption]], diarrhea, [[dropsy]], [[abscesses]], [[seizure]]s, tumours, and [[leprosy]],<ref name="Underwood&Rhodes(2008)" /> and that treatments included [[plastic surgery]], [[lithotomy]], [[tonsillectomy]],<ref name=":2" /> [[couching (ophthalmology)|couching]] (a form of cataract surgery), puncturing to release fluids in the [[abdomen]], extraction of foreign bodies, treatment of [[anal fistula]]s, treating fractures, [[amputation]]s, [[Caesarean section#History|cesarean sections]],{{refn|group=Vagbhata|Vāgbhaṭa's Aṣṭāṅgahṛdayasaṃhitā describes a procedure for the removal of a dead foetus from the womb of a living mother, and of a living child from the womb of a mother who has died (शारीरस्थान २, गर्भव्यापद्, २.२६-२७, २.५३).<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Vāgbhaṭa|title=Ashtanga Hridaya|url=https://archive.org/stream/Ashtanga.Hridaya.of.Vagbhata#page/n567/mode/2up|website=archive.org|access-date=2 January 2017|year=1939}}</ref> Both these descriptions speak of removal of the fetus through the uterine passage. It is disputed{{by whom|date=October 2021}} to assert that early Indian Ayurvedic practitioner knew the caesarian section procedure. The earlier description of the Suśrutasaṃhitā (चिकित्सास्थान १५ "मूढगर्भ") is similar. A dead fetus is removed through the uterine passage and vagina. Although Suśruta does not describe removing a living child from a dead mother.}}<ref name=":2">{{cite book|last1=Magner|first1=Lois N.|title=A History of the Life Sciences, Revised and Expanded|date=13 August 2002|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-0-8247-0824-5|page=6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YKJ6gVYbrGwC&pg=PA6|access-date=26 December 2016}}</ref>{{disputed inline|date=December 2016}} and stitching of wounds.<ref name="Underwood&Rhodes(2008)" /> The use of herbs and surgical instruments became widespread.<ref name="Underwood&Rhodes(2008)">Underwood & Rhodes (2008)</ref> During this period, treatments were also prescribed for complex ailments, including [[angina pectoris]], [[diabetes]], [[hypertension]], and [[Calculus (medicine)|stones]].<ref name="Dwivedi&Dwivedi07">{{cite journal|last=Dwivedi |first=Girish |author2=Dwivedi, Shridhar |year=2007 |url=http://medind.nic.in/iae/t07/i4/iaet07i4p243.pdf |title=History of Medicine: Sushruta&nbsp;– the Clinician&nbsp;– Teacher par Excellence |journal=Indian Journal of Chest Diseases and Allied Sciences |volume=49 |pages=243–244 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081010045900/http://medind.nic.in/iae/t07/i4/iaet07i4p243.pdf |archive-date=10 October 2008}} (Republished by [[National Informatics Centre]], Government of India.)</ref><ref name="Lock836">Lock ''et al.'', p. 836</ref>

v t e Ayurveda
Introduction	Ancient origin: Proto Shiva in Yogic pose, 2350-2000 BCE Rigveda, c 1500–1000 BCE Indian-origin religions Ancient Hindu texts: Ayurveda Brhat Trayi Viswanatha chikitsa Yoga Sutras of Patanjali Yoga Korunta Ancient pioneers: Agnivesha Ashvins Chyavana Dhanvantari Sushruta Patanjali
Eight limbs (specialised branches)	Kāyachikitsā (general practice) Kaumāra-bhṛtya (paediatrics) Śalya (surgery) Śhālākya (ear, nose, and throat) Bhūtavidyā (exorcism) Agada (antidotes) Rasāyana (health tonics) Vājīkaraṇa (aphrodisiacs and fertility)
Basic concepts	Agni (metabolic fire) Dhātu (bodily substances) Dosha (bodily humours) Mala (bodily wastes) Pañcabhūta (five elements)
Substances used	Churna (medicinal powder) Gomutra (cow urine) Herbal preparations Polyherbal formulation Kaṣāyaṁ (water decoction) Sura (alcoholic drink)
Practices	Abhyanga (massage) Basti (enema) Dinacharya (routine) Neti (nasal irrigation) Oil pulling Pulse diagnosis Rasaśāstra (alchemy) Samskara Shodhana Sattvic diet Svedana (steam bathing) Urine therapy Yoga as exercise Yoga for children Yoga for elderly Yoga for office Yoga for women
Practitioner roles	Traditional designations: Ashtavaidya Guru–shishya tradition Yogachara Vaidya Yogi Modern designations: AYUSH Medical Officer Bachelor of Ayurveda, Medicine and Surgery (BAMS) MD (Ayurveda)
Educational institutions	Ashram All India Institute of Ayurveda Central Council of Indian Medicine Gurukula Morarji Desai National Institute of Yoga North Eastern Institute of Ayurveda and Homeopathy North Eastern Institute of Folk Medicine National Institute of Ayurveda at Jaipur National Institute of Ayurveda at Punchkula National Institute of Siddha Yoga teacher training
Works	Ashtānga Hridayam Charaka Samhita Harita Samhita Kashyapa Samhita Nibandha Samgraha Rājamārtaṇḍa Rājamṛgāṅka (Ayurveda book) Sushruta Samhita Viswanatha chikitsa
Organisations	Companies Sadhana Aushadhalaya (Bangladesh) Regulation and management: Ministry of AYUSH Alliances and NGOs: British Wheel of Yoga Isha Foundation The Yoga Institute Yoga Alliance
Prominent people	Contemporary: Dalhana Jeronis de Soysa Maya Tiwari
Celebrations and festivals	Hindu festivals related to Yoga: Holi Navaratri Gita Mahotsav International Day of Yoga Other yoga festivals: Santa Fe Yoga Festival Wanderlust Festival Yoga tourism
Related or inspired similar systems	Indian influence on Southeast Asia Jamu Maharishi Vedic Approach to Health Sri Lankan traditional medicine Yoga in the United States
See also	Cultural appropriation Glossary of Ayurveda Greater India Indianisation

v t e Traditional medicine
Africa	Ancient Egyptian medicine Tabernanthe iboga Muti Nganga Saltigue Traditional African medicine Traditional Hausa medicine Traditional healers of Southern Africa Yorùbá medicine
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Europe	Ancient Greek medicine Byzantine medicine Medicine in ancient Rome Medieval medicine of Western Europe
Oceania	Bush medicine
Other	Alchemy Alternative medicine Apothecary Medicine in the medieval Islamic world Electuary Ethnomedicine Health care Herbal medicine herbs and fungi History of alternative medicine Humorism Mithridatism Naturopathy Prehistoric medicine Shamanism Theriac
Category:Traditional medicine