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Chicano Park

Coordinates: 32°42′00″N 117°8′35″W / 32.70000°N 117.14306°W / 32.70000; -117.14306
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Chicano Park
Chicano Park logo, originally by Rico Bueno. La Tierra Mía means "My Land."
Map
LocationLogan Heights, San Diego, California
Area7.9 acres (32,000 m2)
CreatedApril 22, 1970
Operated byChicano Park Steering Committee
Chicano Park
NRHP reference No.12001192[1]
SDHL No.143
Significant dates
Added to NRHPJanuary 23, 2013
Designated NHLDecember 23, 2016
Designated SDHLMarch 7, 1980[2]
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Chicano Park is a 7.9 acres (32,000 m2) park located beneath the San Diego–Coronado Bridge in Barrio Logan, a predominantly Chicano or Mexican American and Mexican-migrant community in central San Diego, California. The park is home to the country's largest collection of outdoor murals,[3] as well as various sculptures, earthworks, and an architectural piece dedicated to the cultural heritage of the community.

The park was designated an official historic site by the San Diego Historical Site Board in 1980,[4] and its murals were officially recognized as public art by the San Diego Public Advisory Board in 1987. The park was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2013 owing to its association with the Chicano Movement,[5] and was designated a National Historic Landmark in 2016.[6][7]

Chicano Park, like Berkeley's People's Park, was the result of a militant (but nonviolent) people's land takeover.[8] Every year on April 22 (or the nearest Saturday), the community celebrates the anniversary of the park's takeover with a celebration called Chicano Park Day.[9]

Background

[edit]

The area was originally known as the East End, but was renamed Logan Heights in 1905. The first Mexican settlers there arrived in the 1890s, followed soon after by refugees fleeing the violence of the Mexican Revolution, which began in 1910. So many Mexican immigrants and Mexican-Americans settled there that the southern portion of Logan Heights eventually became known as Barrio Logan.

The original neighborhood reached all the way to San Diego Bay, with waterfront access for the residents. This access was denied beginning with World War II, when Naval installations blocked local access to the beach.[10] The denial of beachfront access was the initial source of the community's resentment of the government and its agencies.

This resentment grew in the 1950s, when the area was rezoned as mixed residential and industrial. Junk dealers and repair shops moved into the barrio, creating air pollution, loud noise, and aesthetic conditions unsuitable for a residential area.[11] Resentment continued to grow as the barrio was cleaved in two by Interstate 5 in 1963 and was further divided in 1969 by the elevated onramps of the San Diego–Coronado Bridge.[12]

At this time, Mexicans were accustomed to not being included in discussions concerning their communities and to not being represented by their officials, so no formal complaint was lodged.[12] This attitude began to change as the Civil Rights Movement unfolded in parallel with park development efforts. As various community campaigns coalesced under the banner of the Chicano Movement, so too did the political awareness and sense of empowerment grow in Barrio Logan. The Chicano Movement developed to support Mexican-American rights, including for the right to organize and collectively bargain, led by César Chávez and Dolores Huerta of the United Farm Workers, the rights to the full benefits guaranteed to veterans, led by Dr. Hector P. Garcia of the American G.I. Forum, the right to equal and pertinent education, led by the student group MEChA which issued the Plan de Santa Barbara, for the rights of Mexicans guaranteed under the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, (especially land grants and bilingual education) under Reies Tijerina, and for recognition of the historic contributions of Mexican-Americans and the validity of Mexican culture.[citation needed]

Community residents had long been demanding a park.[8] The City Council had promised to build a park to compensate for the loss of over 5,000 homes and businesses removed for the construction of the freeway and bridge, as well as for the aesthetic degradation created by the overhead freeways supported by a forest of gray concrete piers. In June 1969, the park was officially approved and a site was designated, but no action was taken to implement the decision.[12]

The takeover

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The final straw came on April 22, 1970. On his way to school, a community member, San Diego City College student and Brown Beret member named Mario Solis noticed bulldozers next to the area designated for the park. When he inquired about the nature of the work being undertaken, he was shocked to discover that, rather than a park, the crew was preparing to build a parking lot next to a building that would be converted into a California Highway Patrol station.[3][13]

Solis went door-to-door to spread the news of the construction. At school, he alerted the students of Professor Gil Robledo's Chicano studies class, who printed fliers to bring more attention to the affair. At noon that day, Mexican-American high school students walked out of their classes to join other neighbors who had already congregated at the site.[14] Some protesters formed human chains around the bulldozers, while others planted trees, flowers, and cactus.[8] Solis is reported to have commandeered a bulldozer to flatten the land for planting. Also, the flag of Aztlán was raised on an old telephone pole, marking a symbolic "reclamation" of land that was once Mexico by people of Mexican descent.[8]

Muralist Salvador Torres sitting in the park he is credited with envisioning

There were many young people and families at the protest.[13] When the crowd grew to 250, construction was called off. The occupation of Chicano Park lasted for twelve days[8] while community members and city officials held meetings to negotiate the creation of a park. During that time, groups of people came from Los Angeles and Santa Barbara to join the occupation and express solidarity.[8] The Chicano Park Steering Committee was founded by Josephine Talamantez, Victor Ochoa, Jose Gomez, and others.[15][16] Not trusting the city and fearing that abandoning the land would be tantamount to conceding defeat, an agreement was finally reached and the Steering Committee called for an end to the occupation of the land while stationing informal picketers on the public sidewalks around the disputed terrain to provide residents with information regarding the project. They maintained that the park would be re-occupied if negotiations failed.[12]

At a meeting on April 23, a young artist named Salvador Torres, recently returned to the barrio from the College of Arts and Crafts in Oakland, shared his vision of adorning the freeway support pillars with beautiful artworks[8] and a green belt with trees and other vegetation that would stretch all the way to the waterfront.[4] For this reason, he is sometimes referred to as "the architect of the dream."[17] Finally, on July 1, 1970, $21,814.96 was allocated for the development of a 1.8 acre (7,300 m²) parcel of land.

Park establishment

[edit]

While the creation of the park was actually begun on the day of the takeover, with minor landscaping improvements being undertaken by the occupiers, the murals that brought the park to prominence[18] were not begun until 1973.[17] Adding unplanned murals and splashes of color did start in 1970, however, with Guillermo Aranda, Mario Acevedo, Victor Ochoa, Tomas Castaneda and others working on the freeway retaining walls and pylons.[4] With few exceptions, the artists and their organizations raised the money necessary to purchase muriatic acid to wash the columns, rubber surface conditioner to prepare them, and paints. Victor Ochoa, a founding member of the Chicano Park Steering Committee,[13] recalls that on March 23, 1973, he brought 300 brushes and there were nearly 300 people helping to paint all weekend.[8][14] The Centro Cultural de la Raza in San Diego's Balboa Park served as a training area for many of the muralists.[14] Many non-Chicanos also participated including Anglo artist, Michael Schnorr.[19] Eventually a core of about 16 artists were dedicated to finishing the murals[14] with many well-known Chicano artists and groups participating, such as members of the Royal Chicano Air Force.[19] Over time, more vegetation was planted to create a cactus garden.

A map of the murals located within the park including the name of the works and artists

The first group of murals took nearly two years to complete.[8] The murals at Chicano Park act as a way to transmit the history and culture of Mexican-Americans and Chicanos.[11] Murals have many themes including addressing immigration, feminist concerns and featuring historical and civil rights leaders.[11]

In 1978, there was a "Mural Marathon" which took place from April 1 through April 22.[11] During those twenty-one days, approximately 10,000 square feet of murals were painted.[11]

Other additions to the park have been piecemeal, as the comprehensive "Master Plan" put forth by the artists was never adopted by the city. The park has expanded, and currently reaches almost "all the way to the bay", a phrase used as the rally cry to extend the park in a 1980 campaign. The Cesar E. Chávez Waterfront Park was begun in 1987 and completed in 1990, finally restoring beach access to the community. With the exception of three city blocks that are not part of the park, the original goal of creating a community park with waterfront access has been achieved.

On Saturday, April 24, 2010, there was a 40th Anniversary Celebration held at Chicano Park with the theme being: "40 Años de la Tierra Mia: Aquí Estamos y No Nos Vamos."[13]

An 80-foot-wide community sign (24 m) for the park was planned to go up by 2014.[20]

In 2014, the park had lights installed so that it would be well-lit at night-time, to create a more family-friendly atmosphere.[5]

Landmark and historical status

[edit]
The front page headline and photo that appeared in the Street Journal depicting community members breaking ground for landscaping the park

Because of the magnitude and historical significance of the murals, the park was designated an official historic site by the San Diego Historical Site Board in 1980,[4] and its murals were officially recognized as public art by the San Diego Public Advisory Board in 1987. Josephine Talamantez and Manny Galaviz submitted the proposal that successfully added Chicano Park to the National Register of Historic Places in 2013 due to its association with the Chicano Movement.

In 1997, Josephine Talamantez began the process of placing Chicano Park with its artwork and murals on the National Register in order to prevent the city of San Diego from damaging the murals while retrofitting Coronado Bridge.[15] After years of work, Chicano Park was officially designated as a National Historic Landmark in December 2016.[21][22] Talamantez helped lead the opening of Chicano Park Museum and Cultural Center inside a nearby city-owned building that used to house the Cesar Chavez Continuing Education Center.[23][24][15]

Museum

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Murals inside the women’s public restroom at Chicano Park, Barrio Logan, 2024.
Murals on Chicano Park public bathrooms, 2024

The Chicano Park Museum and Cultural Center in Logan Heights, San Diego, had its grand opening on October 8, 2022, with their pillar exhibit: Stories of Resilience and Self-Determination.[25] Like the park, the museum is a communal space that often corporates and collaborates with other local non-profit organizations. Within the museum, there is a local artist gallery, where local Chicano artists are given the opportunity to represent and sell their artwork. There is a main exhibit space, an archival room, a community room and a gift shop. Inside of the Chicano Park Museum and Cultural Center’s gift shop there are varieties of art pieces created by local California artists that guests are encouraged to browse or purchase.[26][27]

The museum’s first exhibition, which ran through September 9, 2023, highlighted the organizations or “elements of the heart of the Chicano Park Movement including: The Brown Berets, Centro Cultural de la Raza, the Chicano Park Steering Committee, Danza Azteca, Danza Folklorica, Kumeyaay Story, Lowriders, Música, Our Lady of Guadalupe Church, Teatro, Unión del Barrio, and the Youth. In addition, the exhibition will have an installation by Visionary Elder Artist Salvador “Queso” Torres.” The significance behind the exhibitions is the knowledge given to individuals about “Chicana/o, Latina/o, and Indigenous culture and history.”[28] The exhibit was open to the community for more than a year.[26][27]

Murals

[edit]

Mural restoration projects began in 1984, and the murals have been restored almost continuously ever since.[3] A large-scale restoration project took place in 2012 with many of the original artists returning to work on the art.[29] The number of restored murals added to 23. Artists such as Victor Ochoa participated in the Chicano Park Mural Restoration Project, which lasted 13 months. Ochoa was widely known as one of the leaders in organizing local artists to paint murals at Chicano Park back in the 1970’s. He is also the editor of an instruction manual on restoring the murals.[30] The murals were fully restored by 2013 in time for the 43rd Anniversary Celebration.[20]

Murals of Chicano history that decorate the freeway that overpasses Chicano park.

On Jun 25, 2023, a new mural was unveiled on Barrio Logan, which honored the ruling of the Supreme Court of California in 1975 which banned “el cortito”.[31] Mo Jourdane, an attorney with California Rural Legal Assistance represented the farmworkers.[32] "El corito" was a short-handed hoe that caused many farm workers to spend hours bent down, which later caused spinal issues. This mural honors the work and sacrifice of those working in the fields, depicting farmworkers. The mural was created by artists Mario Chacon, Ariana Arroyo, and Gary Hartbur.[33]

Lowriders Mural in Chicano Park 2024

Controversy

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Since its inception, there have been disputes within the community about who decides who gets to paint the murals, what imagery should be represented, who is responsible for the restoration of the murals, etc. But conflicts between the community artists and city and state officials have been much greater. Conflicts have also arisen between supporters and opponents of the park on political grounds.

  • In 1979, a San Diego grand jury investigation forced the Chicano Federation to vacate the park building.
  • A demand for a kiosk, called the Chicano Park kiosko and based on traditional community centers in Mexican villages, was fulfilled in 1977, but only after a great deal of bureaucratic wrangling and disputes over the style of architecture to be used. Councilman Jess Haro wanted the architecture to be in the Spanish style, while the barrio residents wanted an indigenous style of architecture. The community won out, and today the kiosko resembles a Mayan temple.
"Barrio Sí, Yonkes No" mural
  • An effort to have the barrio re-zoned as solely residential provoked the ire of the neighborhood junk dealers, who vandalized the murals, especially the "Barrio Sí, Yonkes No" mural created to commemorate the effort.
  • In the mid-1990s, Caltrans decided to retrofit the San Diego-Coronado Bay Bridge to make it earthquake safe. Fearing that the murals would be damaged or destroyed, the community mobilized to stop the project to protect the murals from what they viewed as official insensitivity to the history and culture the murals represented. Eventually, a compromise was reached whereby the murals would be boarded over with plywood to protect their surfaces from damage during the retrofitting process, and would be restored to their previous condition afterward.
  • A 2003 plan to renovate the park was stalled when Caltrans objected to the word "Aztlán", which for years had been spelled out in rocks on the park's grounds. Calling the term "militant", they claimed that using federal funding for the project would violate Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 by showing preference to Mexicans and Mexican Americans. However, Caltrans district director Pedro Orso, after consultations with civil rights experts from within the agency and from the Federal Highway Administration, decided that the word did not violate the law, and the $600,000 grant was allowed to go through.
  • Chicano Park was added to the list of National Historic Landmarks by Obama's Secretary of the Interior, Sally Jewell on December 23, 2016.[34][35]
A statue of General Emiliano Zapata, a Mexican revolutionary and national hero
  • Conservatives have objected to murals depicting or referring to communist and socialist leaders such as Fidel Castro, Che Guevara, and Salvador Allende.
  • On September 3, 2017, Roger Ogden, leader of a far-right group called Patriot Fire, organized a "Patriot Picnic" in the park as a protest against "anti-American" murals. Over 500 community members and supporters held the park in response, and Ogden and his supporters were escorted from the park by police.[36]
  • On February 3, 2018, a second "Patriot Picnic" was organized by an anonymous group calling itself "Bordertown Patriots", with the intention of forcing down the Aztlán flag in the park and replacing it with a U.S. flag. Numerous far-right figures, including Ogden and white nationalist[37] Kristopher Wyrick,[38] attempted to enter the park, but were prevented from entering the park by hundreds of Barrio Logan residents and supporters. Four people were arrested in connection with the protest, including a man who urinated on a mural.[39] Police also attacked and beat a man who was allegedly jaywalking, who was subsequently arrested for assault on a peace officer; despite initial press reports to the contrary, the man was not involved with either side of the protests.[40] Barricades separated the groups, preventing any physical altercations between them.[41]

Anniversary days

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Every year around April 22, Chicano Park marks an anniversary celebration to "celebrate the takeover of the area."[9] The Park hosts traditional music as well as modern bands.[9] Ballet folklorico, lowrider car exhibits and art workshops have also been a part of these celebrations.[20]

  • 40th Anniversary Theme: 40 Años de the Tierra Mia: Aquí Estamos y No Nos Vamos
  • 43rd Anniversary Theme: Chicano Park: Aztlan's Jewel & National Chicano Treasure
  • 44th Anniversary Theme: La Tierra Es De Quien La Trabaja: The Land Belongs To Those Who Work It...[42]

Tragic anniversary

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A fatal car crash occurred at Chicano Park in 2016. An intoxicated navy petty officer drove off the Coronado Bridge into a busy festival at Chicano Park. The names of those who were fatally killed: Cruz Elias Contreras, 52, and Annamarie Contreras, 50, both from Chandler, Arizona and Andre Christopher Banks, 49, and Francine Denise Jimenez, 46, both from Hacienda Heights. A vigil was held for those that died.

Park use

[edit]
The park sees use as a skate park.

The park hosts many different events and groups throughout the year. Different groups who practice and perform Aztec dance use Chicano Park to prepare for ceremonies and other events.[43]

Quotes

[edit]

"The takeover of that land underneath the bridge in the barrio, that was a political expression. That was an expression of the community saying, 'Hey, we're not going to take it anymore. We're going to decide what's going to happen with this land.' And out of that political expression came cultural expression."—Veronica Enrique[8]

"The community spirit and pent-up energy exploded in free, uncomposed murals of bright color."—Victor Ochoa[8]

[edit]
  • Public restrooms at the park
    Public restrooms at the park
  • Korean couple visiting the park
    Korean couple visiting the park
  • Murals and sculptures
    Murals and sculptures
  • "All the Way to the Bay"
    "All the Way to the Bay"
  • Mural in Chicano Park, San Diego stating "All the way to the Bay"
    Mural in Chicano Park, San Diego stating "All the way to the Bay"
  • "Hasta La Bahia!!"
    "Hasta La Bahia!!"
  • Image of Emiliano Zapata with English translation of famous quote "Es mejor morir de pie que vivir de rodillas."
    Image of Emiliano Zapata with English translation of famous quote "Es mejor morir de pie que vivir de rodillas."
  • "Better to die standing up, than to live on the knees"
    "Better to die standing up, than to live on the knees"
  • Anti-Immigration Enforcement mural
    Anti-Immigration Enforcement mural
  • "United in Brotherhood"
    "United in Brotherhood"
  • "Mi Gente"
    "Mi Gente"
  • "Yes I did it!"
    "Yes I did it!"
  • Virgin de Guadalupe mural: "In Love everything is possible"
    Virgin de Guadalupe mural: "In Love everything is possible"
  • "Strength Willpower and Love"
    "Strength Willpower and Love"
  • "Indigenous Beauty"
    "Indigenous Beauty"
  • "Blue Race"
    "Blue Race"
  • "Super Gladiator"
    "Super Gladiator"
  • Aztec Warriors mural
    Aztec Warriors mural
  • Birth of a Child
    Birth of a Child
  • Skeleton sculpture
    Skeleton sculpture

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ "Weekly list of actions taken on properties: 01/22/13 through 01/25/13". National Park Service. February 1, 2013. Retrieved February 23, 2013.
  2. ^ "Historical Landmarks Designated by the San Diego Historical Resources Board" (PDF). City of San Diego.
  3. ^ a b c Manson, Bill (July 4, 2012). "Original Artists Work to Restore Chicano Park Murals". San Diego Reader. Retrieved September 5, 2012.
  4. ^ a b c d Ybarra-Frausto, Tomas. Califas: Socio-Aesthetic Chronology of Chicano Art. Unpublished Manuscript. pp. 9–10. Archived from the original on April 1, 2015. Retrieved April 1, 2015.
  5. ^ a b Herrera, Vanessa (August 31, 2014). "Lights Turn on in Chicano Park". NBC 7 San Diego. Retrieved April 2, 2015.
  6. ^ National Park Service (March 3, 2017), Weekly List of Actions Taken on Properties: 2/16/2017 through 3/2/2017, archived from the original on March 7, 2017, retrieved March 7, 2017.
  7. ^ Warth, Gary. "Chicano Park named National Historic Landmark". sandiegouniontribune.com. Retrieved April 23, 2018.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Brookman, Philip (1986). "El Centro Cultural de la Raza, Fifteen Years". In Brookman, Philip; Gomez-Pena, Guillermo (eds.). Made in Aztlan. San Diego, California: Centro Cultural de la Raza. pp. 19–21, 38–43. ISBN 978-0938461005.
  9. ^ a b c Beltran, Brent (April 16, 2014). "New Chicano Park Muralists Are Honored to Paint in the Park". San Diego Free Press. Retrieved April 2, 2015.
  10. ^ "The Takeover of Chicano Park". History of Chicano Park. San Diego State University. Retrieved April 1, 2015.
  11. ^ a b c d e "Murals at Chicano Park, Victor Ochoa". Internet Archive. August 13, 1983. Retrieved April 1, 2015.
  12. ^ a b c d Delgado, Kevin (Winter 1998). "A Turning Point: The Conception and Realization of Chicano Park". Journal of San Diego History. 44 (1).
  13. ^ a b c d Burke, Megan; Cavanuagh, Maureen (April 22, 2010). "Celebrating Chicano Park's 40th Anniversary". KPBS. Retrieved April 2, 2015.
  14. ^ a b c d Gormlie, Frank (April 26, 2013). "Victor Ochoa - Mural Maestro of Chicano Park". San Diego Free Press. Archived from the original on April 2, 2015. Retrieved April 1, 2015.
  15. ^ a b c "Josephine Talamantez: Preserving the History of Barrio Logan | La Prensa San Diego". laprensa-sandiego.org. Archived from the original on April 23, 2018. Retrieved April 23, 2018.
  16. ^ "Chicano Park - Brief History of the Takeover". chicano-park.com. Retrieved April 23, 2018.
  17. ^ a b "Guide to the Salvador Roberto Torres Papers". UC Santa Barbara Library. August 19, 2011. Retrieved September 5, 2012.
  18. ^ "Victor Ochoa". UC Santa Barbara Library. August 19, 2011. Retrieved April 1, 2015.
  19. ^ a b Goldman, Shifra M. (1990). "How, Why, Where and When it All Happened: Chicano Murals of California". In Cockcroft, Eva Sperling; Barnet-Sanchez, Holly (eds.). Signs from the Heart: California Chicano Murals. Venice, California: Social and Public Art Resource Center. p. 52. ISBN 978-0962641909.
  20. ^ a b c Cabrera, Marissa; Cavanaugh, Maureen; Pico, Peggy (April 16, 2013). "Barrio Logan Celebrates Murals, Chicano Park's 43rd Anniversary". KPBS. Retrieved April 2, 2015.
  21. ^ Warth, Gary. "Chicano Park named National Historic Landmark". sandiegouniontribune.com. Retrieved April 22, 2018.
  22. ^ Lipkin, Maureen Cavanaugh, Michael. "With Landmark Status For Chicano Park, Boosters Renew Push For Museum". KPBS Public Media. Retrieved April 22, 2018.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  23. ^ Bailey, Torrey (April 5, 2017). "Neighborhood Watch: Barrio Logan". San Diego CityBeat. Retrieved April 22, 2018.
  24. ^ Cavanaugh, Daniela Contreras, Maureen. "Barrio Logan's Chicano Park: The Efforts To Cement Its History". KPBS Public Media. Retrieved April 22, 2018.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  25. ^ "Chicano Park Museum and Cultural Center". Chicano Park Museum and Cultural Center. Retrieved October 8, 2023.
  26. ^ a b "New Chicano Park Museum opens for learning and legacy". KPBS Public Media. October 15, 2022. Retrieved October 15, 2022.
  27. ^ a b "Chicano Park Museum | Logan Heights Archival Project". Retrieved October 15, 2022.
  28. ^ "Chicano Park Museum and Cultural Center". San Diego Museum Council. Retrieved October 8, 2023.
  29. ^ Salas, Dagny (January 9, 2012). "Touching Up a Revolution in Chicano Park". Voice of San Diego. Retrieved April 2, 2015.
  30. ^ "Victor Ochoa – Mural Maestro of Chicano Park". San Diego Free Press. April 22, 2017. Retrieved December 16, 2023.
  31. ^ "New mural unveiled at Chicano Park". FOX 5 San Diego. June 27, 2023. Retrieved December 16, 2023.
  32. ^ "The fight against the devil's arm: The story behind Chicano Park's new mural". KPBS Public Media. June 23, 2023. Retrieved December 16, 2023.
  33. ^ "New farmworker mural unveiled at Chicano Park". cbs8.com. June 25, 2023. Retrieved December 16, 2023.
  34. ^ "Chicano Park, San Diego, California -- National Register of Historic Places Official Website--Part of the National Park Service". www.nps.gov. Retrieved October 16, 2018.
  35. ^ U.S. House of Representatives (December 8, 2016). "H.R. 3711 Chicano Park Preservation Act". Congress.Gov. U.S. Congress. Retrieved August 9, 2018.
  36. ^ "Far-right activists and counter-protesters clash at Chicano Park in San Diego". Los Angeles Times. September 4, 2017. Retrieved April 24, 2023.
  37. ^ "Hunter tweets, then deletes photo with white nationalist on July 4th after criticisms". June 9, 2019. Retrieved April 24, 2023. ...Kristopher Wyrick, a cofounder of the Bordertown Patriots, a white nationalist group that organized an event at Chicano Park that reportedly resulted in clashes with counterprotesters and multiple arrests
  38. ^ "Five white men walk into Chicano Park..." San Diego Reader. November 19, 2017. Retrieved April 24, 2023.
  39. ^ "Officer punched, tensions flare at 'Patriot Picnic' at Chicano Park". San Diego Union-Tribune. February 3, 2018. Retrieved April 24, 2023.
  40. ^ Stegall, Katy (March 27, 2018). "Judge blames police for provoking fight". Southwestern College Sun. Retrieved August 4, 2018.
  41. ^ Dibble, Sandra; Davis, Kristina (February 3, 2018). "Officer punched, tensions flare at 'Patriot Picnic' at Chicano Park". San Diego Union Tribune. Retrieved February 3, 2018.
  42. ^ Sloss, Jason (October 16, 2016). "Community gathers at vigil for Chicano Park crash victims". Fox News. Retrieved October 8, 2023.
  43. ^ Beltran, Olympia Andrade (April 20, 2013). "Drums Beat at the Heart of Chicano Park". San Diego Free Press. Retrieved April 2, 2015.

References

[edit]
  • Brookman, Philip, and Gómez-Peña, Guillermo, editors. Made in Aztlan. 1986. San Diego: Tolteca Publications, Centro Cultural de la Raza. ISBN 0-938461-00-1
  • Mulford, Marilyn, director. Chicano Park [videorecording]. 1988. United States: Redbird Films.
[edit]
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