The tanagers (singular /ˈtænəər/) comprise the bird family Thraupidae, in the order Passeriformes. The family has a Neotropical distribution and is the second-largest family of birds. It represents about 4% of all avian species and 12% of the Neotropical birds.[1]

Tanagers
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Passeriformes
Superfamily: Emberizoidea
Family: Thraupidae
Cabanis, 1847
Type genus
Thraupis
Boie, F., 1826
Genera

Many: see text

Traditionally, the family contained around 240 species of mostly brightly colored fruit-eating birds.[2] As more of these birds were studied using modern molecular techniques, it became apparent that the traditional families were not monophyletic. Euphonia and Chlorophonia, which were once considered part of the tanager family, are now treated as members of the Fringillidae, in their own subfamily (Euphoniinae). Likewise, the genera Piranga (which includes the scarlet tanager, summer tanager, and western tanager), Chlorothraupis, and Habia appear to be members of the family Cardinalidae,[3] and have been reassigned to that family by the American Ornithological Society.[4]

Description

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Tanagers are small to medium-sized birds. The shortest-bodied species, the white-eared conebill, is 9 cm (4 in) long and weighs 6 g (0.2 oz), barely smaller than the short-billed honeycreeper. The longest, the magpie tanager is 28 cm (11 in) and weighs 76 g (2.7 oz). The heaviest is the white-capped tanager, which weighs 114 g (4.02 oz) and measures about 24 cm (9.4 in). Both sexes are usually the same size and weight.

Tanagers are often brightly colored, but some species are black and white. Males are typically more brightly colored than females and juveniles. Most tanagers have short, rounded wings. The shape of the bill seems to be linked to the species' foraging habits.

Distribution

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Tanagers are restricted to the Western Hemisphere and mainly to the tropics. About 60% of tanagers live in South America, and 30% of these species live in the Andes. Most species are endemic to a relatively small area.

Behavior

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Most tanagers live in pairs or in small groups of three to five individuals. These groups may consist simply of parents and their offspring. These birds may also be seen in single-species or mixed flocks. Many tanagers are thought to have dull songs, though some are elaborate.[citation needed]

Diet

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Tanagers are omnivorous, and their diets vary by genus. They have been seen eating fruits, seeds, nectar, flower parts, and insects. Many pick insects off branches or from holes in the wood. Other species look for insects on the undersides of leaves. Yet others wait on branches until they see a flying insect and catch it in the air. Many of these particular species inhabit the same areas, but these specializations alleviate competition.

Breeding

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The breeding season is March through June in temperate areas and in September through October in South America. Some species are territorial, while others build their nests closer together. Little information is available on tanager breeding behavior. Males show off their brightest feathers to potential mates and rival males. Some species' courtship rituals involve bowing and tail lifting.

Most tanagers build cup nests on branches in trees. Some nests are almost globular. Entrances are usually built on the side of the nest. The nests can be shallow or deep. The species of the tree in which they choose to build their nests and the nests' positions vary among genera. Most species nest in an area hidden by very dense vegetation. No information is yet known regarding the nests of some species.

The clutch size is three to five eggs. The female incubates the eggs and builds the nest, but the male may feed the female while she incubates. Both sexes feed the young. Five species have helpers assist in feeding the young. These helpers are thought to be the previous year's nestlings.

Taxonomy

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The family Thraupidae was introduced (as the subfamily Thraupinae) in 1847 by German ornithologist Jean Cabanis. The type genus is Thraupis.[5][6]

The family Thraupidae is a member of an assemblage of over 800 birds known as the New World, nine-primaried oscines. The traditional pre-molecular classification was largely based on the different feeding specializations. Nectar-feeders were placed in Coerebidae (honeycreepers), large-billed seed-eaters in Cardinalidae (cardinals and grosbeaks), smaller-billed seed-eaters in Emberizidae (New World finches and sparrows), ground-foraging insect-eaters in Icteridae (blackbirds) and fruit-eaters in Thraupidae.[1] This classification was known to be problematic as analyses using other morphological characteristics often produced conflicting phylogenies.[7] Beginning in the last decade of the 20th century, a series of molecular phylogenetic studies led to a complete reorganization of the tradition families. Thraupidae now includes large-billed seed eaters, thin-billed nectar feeders, foliage gleaners as well as fruit-eaters.[1]

One consequence of redefining the family boundaries is that for many species their common names are no longer congruent with the families in which they are placed. As of July 2020 there are 39 species with "tanager" in the common name that are not placed in Thraupidae. These include the widely distributed scarlet tanager and western tanager which are both now placed in Cardinalidae. There are also 106 species within Thraupidae that have "finch" in their common name.[8]

A molecular phylogenetic study published in 2014 revealed that many of the traditional genera were not monophyletic.[1] In the resulting reorganization six new genera were introduced, eleven genera were resurrected and seven genera were abandoned.[9][8]

As of July 2023 the family contains 386 species which are divided into 15 subfamilies and 105 genera.[1][8] For a complete list, see the article List of tanager species.

List of genera

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Catamblyrhynchinae

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The plushcap has no close relatives and is now placed in its own subfamily. It was previously placed either in the subfamily Catamblyrhynchinae within the Emberizidae or in its own family Catamblyrhynchidae.[1]

Image Genus Species
  Catamblyrhynchus Lafresnaye, 1842

Charitospizinae

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The coal-crested finch is endemic to the grasslands of Brazil and has no close relatives. It is unusual in that both sexes have a crest. It was formerly placed in Emberizidae.

Image Genus Species
  Charitospiza Oberholser, 1905

Orchesticinae

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Two species with large thick bills. Parkerthraustes was formerly placed in Cardinalidae.

Image Genus Species
  Orchesticus Cabanis, 1851
  Parkerthraustes Remsen, 1997

Nemosiinae

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Brightly colored sexually dichromatic birds, most form single-species flocks

Image Genus Species
  Nemosia Vieillot, 1816
  Cyanicterus Bonaparte, 1850
  Sericossypha Lesson, 1844
  Compsothraupis Richmond, 1915

Emberizoidinae

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Grassland dwelling birds that were formerly placed in Emberizidae.

Image Genus Species
  Coryphaspiza G.R. Gray, 1840
  Embernagra Lesson, 1831
  Emberizoides Temminck, 1822

Porphyrospizinae

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Yellow billed birds: The blue finch (Rhopospina caerulescens) was formerly placed in the Cardinalidae; the other species were formerly placed in Emberizidae.

Image Genus Species
  Incaspiza Ridgway, 1898
  Rhopospina Cabanis, 1851

Hemithraupinae

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These species are sexually dichromatic and many have yellow and black plumage. Except for Heterospingus they have slender bills.

Image Genus Species
  Chlorophanes Reichenbach, 1853
  Iridophanes Ridgway, 1901
  Chrysothlypis Berlepsch, 1912
  Heterospingus Ridgway, 1898
  Hemithraupis Cabanis, 1850

Dacninae

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Sexually dichromatic species—males have blue plumage and females are green.

Image Genus Species
  Tersina Vieillot, 1819
  Cyanerpes Oberholser, 1899
  Dacnis Cuvier, 1816

Saltatorinae

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Mainly arboreal with long tails and thick bills. Formerly placed in Cardinalidae.

Image Genus Species
  Saltatricula Burmeister, 1861
  Saltator Vieillot, 1816

Coerebinae

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Diversity of Darwin's finches

This subfamily includes Darwin's finches that are endemic to the Galápagos Islands and Cocos Island. Most of these species were formerly placed in the Emberizidae; the exceptions are the bananaquit that was placed in the Parulidae and the orangequit that was placed in the Thraupidae. These species build domed or covered nests with side entrances. They have evolved a variety of foraging techniques, including nectar-feeding (Coereba, Euneornis), seed-eating (Geospiza, Loxigilla, Tiaris), and insect gleaning (Certhidea).[1]

Image Genus Species
  Coereba Vieillot, 1809
  Tiaris Swainson, 1827
  Euneornis Fitzinger, 1856
  Melopyrrha Bonaparte, 1853
  Loxipasser Bryant, 1866
  Phonipara Bonaparte, 1850
  Loxigilla Lesson, 1831
  Melanospiza Ridgway, 1897
  Asemospiza Burns, Unitt, & Mason, 2016

Darwin's finches:

Image Genus Species
  Certhidea Gould, 1837
  Platyspiza Ridgway, 1897
  Pinaroloxias Sharpe, 1885
  Camarhynchus Gould, 1837
  Geospiza Gould, 1837

Tachyphoninae

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Most of these are lowland species. Many have ornamental features such as crests, and many have sexually dichromatic plumage.[1]

Image Genus Species
  Volatinia Reichenbach, 1850
  Conothraupis Sclater, PL, 1880
  Creurgops Sclater, PL, 1858
  Eucometis Sclater, PL, 1856
  Trichothraupis Cabanis, 1851
  Heliothraupis Lane et al., 2021
  Loriotus Jarocki, 1821
  Coryphospingus Cabanis, 1851
  Tachyphonus Vieillot, 1816
  Rhodospingus Sharpe, 1888
  Lanio Vieillot, 1816
  Ramphocelus Desmarest, 1805

Sporophilinae

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These species were formerly placed in Emberizidae.

Image Genus Species
  Sporophila Cabanis, 1844
Seedeaters and seed finches (includes species previously assigned to Dolospingus and Oryzoborus) 41 species:

Poospizinae

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Some of these species were formerly placed in Emberizidae.

Image Genus Species
  Piezorina Lafresnaye, 1843
  Xenospingus Cabanis, 1867
  Cnemoscopus Bangs & Penard, 1919
  Pseudospingus Berlepsch & Stolzmann, 1896
  Poospiza Cabanis, 1847
  Kleinothraupis Burns, Unitt, & Mason, 2016
  Sphenopsis Sclater, 1862
  Thlypopsis Cabanis, 1851
  Castanozoster Burns, Unitt, & Mason, 2016
  Donacospiza Cabanis, 1851
  Cypsnagra Lesson, R, 1831
  Poospizopsis Berlepsch, 1893
  Urothraupis Taczanowski & Berlepsch, 1885
  Nephelornis Lowery & Tallman, 1976
  Microspingus Taczanowski, 1874

Diglossinae

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This is a morphologically diverse group that includes seed-eaters (Nesospiza, Sicalis, Catamenia, Haplospiza), arthropod feeders (Conirostrum), a bamboo specialist (Acanthidops), an aphid feeder (Xenodacnis), and boulder field specialists (Idiopsar). Many species live at high altitudes. Conirostrum was previously placed in Parulidae, Diglossa was placed in Thraupidae and the remaining genera were placed in Emberizidae.[1]

Image Genus Species
  Conirostrum d'Orbigny & Lafresnaye, 1838
  Sicalis F. Boie, 1828
13 species
  Phrygilus Cabanis, 1844
  Nesospiza Cabanis, 1873
  Rowettia Lowe, 1923
  Melanodera Bonaparte, 1850
  Geospizopsis Bonaparte, 1856
  Haplospiza Cabanis, 1851
  Acanthidops Ridgway, 1882
  Xenodacnis Cabanis, 1873
  Idiopsar Cassin, 1867
  Catamenia Bonaparte, 1850
  Diglossa Wagler, 1832
18 species

Thraupinae

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Typical tanagers

Image Genus Species
  Calochaetes Sclater, PL, 1879
  Iridosornis Lesson, 1844
  Rauenia Wolters, 1980
  Pipraeidea Swainson, 1827
  Pseudosaltator K.J. Burns, Unitt & N.A. Mason, 2016
  Dubusia Bonaparte, 1850
  Buthraupis Cabanis, 1851
  Sporathraupis Ridgway, 1898
  Tephrophilus R. T. Moore, 1934
  Chlorornis Reichenbach, 1850
  Cnemathraupis Penard, 1919
  Anisognathus Reichenbach, 1850
  Chlorochrysa Bonaparte, 1851
  Wetmorethraupis Lowery & O'Neill, 1964
  Bangsia Penard, 1919
  Lophospingus Cabanis, 1878
  Neothraupis Hellmayr, 1936
  Diuca Reichenbach, 1850
  Gubernatrix Lesson, 1837
  Stephanophorus Strickland, 1841
  Cissopis Vieillot, 1816
  Schistochlamys Reichenbach, 1850
  Paroaria Bonaparte, 1832
  Ixothraupis Bonaparte, 1851
  Chalcothraupis Bonaparte, 1851
  Poecilostreptus Burns, KJ, Unitt, & Mason, NA, 2016
  Thraupis F. Boie, 1826
  Stilpnia Burns, KJ, Unitt, & Mason, NA, 2016
14 species
  Tangara Brisson, 1760
28 species

Genera formerly placed in Thraupidae

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Passerellidae – New World sparrows[10]

Cardinalidae – cardinals[11][7]

Fringillidae – subfamily Euphoniinae

Phaenicophilidae – Hispaniolan tanagers[10][12]

Mitrospingidae – Mitrospingid tanagers[10]

Nesospingidae

Spindalidae

Calyptophilidae

Rhodinocichlidae

References

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  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i Burns, K.J.; Shultz, A.J.; Title, P.O.; Mason, N.A.; Barker, F.K.; Klicka, J.; Lanyon, S.M.; Lovette, I.J. (2014). "Phylogenetics and diversification of tanagers (Passeriformes: Thraupidae), the largest radiation of Neotropical songbirds". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 75: 41–77. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2014.02.006. PMID 24583021.
  2. ^ Storer, Robert W. (1970). "Subfamily Thraupinae". In Paynter, Raymond A. Jr (ed.). Check-List of Birds of the World. Vol. 13. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Museum of Comparative Zoology. pp. 246–408.
  3. ^ Yuri, T.; Mindell, D. P. (May 2002). "Molecular phylogenetic analysis of Fringillidae, "New World nine-primaried oscines" (Aves: Passeriformes)". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 23 (2): 229–243. doi:10.1016/S1055-7903(02)00012-X. PMID 12069553.
  4. ^ "Family: Cardinalidae". American Ornithological Society. Retrieved Feb 1, 2019.
  5. ^ Cabanis, Jean (1847). "Ornithologische Notizen". Archiv für Naturgeschichte (in German). 13: 186–256, 308–352 [316].
  6. ^ Melville, R.V. (1977). "Opinion 1069 Correction of entry in official list of family-group names in zoology for name number 428 (Thraupidae)". Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature. 33 (3/4): 162–164.
  7. ^ a b Klicka, J.; Burns, K.; Spellman, G. M. (2007). "Defining a monophyletic Cardinalini: A molecular perspective". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 45 (3): 1014–1032. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2007.07.006. PMID 17920298.
  8. ^ a b c Gill, Frank; Donsker, David; Rasmussen, Pamela, eds. (July 2021). "Tanagers and allies". IOC World Bird List Version 11.2. International Ornithologists' Union. Retrieved 18 December 2021.
  9. ^ Burns, K.J.; Unitt, P.; Mason, N.A. (2016). "A genus-level classification of the family Thraupidae (Class Aves: Order Passeriformes)". Zootaxa. 4088 (3): 329–354. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.4088.3.2. PMID 27394344.
  10. ^ a b c d e f g Barker, F.K.; Burns, K.J.; Klicka, J.; Lanyon, S.M.; Lovette, I.J. (2013). "Going to extremes: contrasting rates of diversification in a recent radiation of New World passerine birds". Systematic Biology. 62 (2): 298–320. doi:10.1093/sysbio/sys094. PMID 23229025.
  11. ^ Burns, K.J.; Hackett, S.J.; Klein, N.K. (2003). "Phylogenetic relationships of Neotropical honeycreepers and the evolution of feeding morphology". Journal of Avian Biology. 34 (4): 360–370. doi:10.1111/j.0908-8857.2003.03171.x.
  12. ^ a b c d e Barker, F.K.; Burns, K.J.; Klicka, J.; Lanyon, S.M.; Lovette, I.J. (2015). "New insights into New World biogeography: An integrated view from the phylogeny of blackbirds, cardinals, sparrows, tanagers, warblers, and allies". The Auk. 132 (2): 333–348. doi:10.1642/AUK-14-110.1.

Further reading

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