Wikipedia

Chronotype

Not to be confused with Chronotope or Chronotrope.
"Diurnal variation" redirects here. For the temperature range between daily highs and lows, see Diurnal temperature variation.

A chronotype is the behavioral manifestation of underlying circadian rhythm's myriad of physical processes. A person's chronotype is the propensity for the individual to sleep at a particular time during a 24-hour period. Eveningness (delayed sleep period; most active and alert in the evening) and morningness (advanced sleep period; most active and alert in the morning) are the two extremes with most individuals having some flexibility in the timing of their sleep period. However, across development there are changes in the propensity of the sleep period with pre-pubescent children preferring an advanced sleep period, adolescents preferring a delayed sleep period and many elderly preferring an advanced sleep period.

The causes and regulation of chronotypes, including developmental change, individual propensity for a specific chronotype, and flexible versus fixed chronotypes have yet to be determined. However, research is beginning to shed light on these questions, such as the relationship between age and chronotype.[1] There are candidate genes (called CLOCK genes) that exist in most cells in the body and brain, referred to as the circadian system that regulate physiological phenomena (hormone levels, metabolic function, body temperature, cognitive faculties, and sleeping). With the exception of the most extreme and rigid chronotypes, regulation is likely due to gene-environment interactions. Important environmental cues (zeitgebers) include light, feeding, social behavior, and work and school schedules. Additional research has proposed an evolutionary link between chronotype and nighttime vigilance in ancestral societies.[2]

Humans are normally diurnal creatures that are active in the daytime. As with most other diurnal animals, human activity-rest patterns are endogenously regulated by biological clocks with a circadian (~24-hour) period.[citation needed] Chronotypes have also been investigated in other species, such as fruit flies[3] and mice.[4]

Normal variation in chronotype encompasses sleep–wake cycles that are two to three hours later in evening types than morning types.[5] Extremes outside of this range can cause a person difficulty in participating in normal work, school, and social activities. If a person's "lark" or (more commonly) "owl" tendencies are strong and intractable to the point of disallowing normal participation in society, the person is normally considered to have a circadian rhythm sleep disorder.[6]

History

edit

Physiology professor Nathaniel Kleitman's 1939 book Sleep and Wakefulness, revised 1963,[7] summarized the existing knowledge of sleep, and it was he who proposed the existence of a basic rest-activity cycle. Kleitman, with his students including William C. Dement and Eugene Aserinsky, continued his research throughout the 1900s. O. Öquist's 1970 thesis at the Department of Psychology, University of Göteborg, Sweden, marks the beginning of modern research into chronotypes, and is entitled Kartläggning av individuella dygnsrytmer, or "Charting Individual Circadian Rhythms".[8]

Measurement

edit

Morningness–eveningness questionnaire

edit

Olov Östberg modified Öquist's questionnaire and in 1976, together with J.A. (Jim) Horne, he published the 19-item morningness–eveningness questionnaire, MEQ,[9] which is still used and referred to in virtually all research on this topic.

Researchers in many countries have worked on validating the MEQ with regard to their local cultures. A revision of the scoring of the MEQ as well as a component analysis was done by Jacques Taillard et al. in 2004,[10] working in France with employed people over the age of 50. Previously the MEQ had been validated only for subjects of university age.

Circadian Type Inventory

edit

The Circadian Type Inventory, developed by Folkard (1987), is an improved version of the 20-item Circadian Type Questionnaire (CTQ).

The CTI was initially developed to identify individuals capable of adapting to shift work. Thus, the scale assesses two factors that influence a person's ability to alter his or her sleeping rhythms: rigidity/flexibility of sleeping habits and ability/inability to overcome drowsiness. Since its creation, the scale has undergone a number of revisions to improve its psychometric properties. An 18-item version was used as part of the larger Standard Shiftwork Index (SSI) in a study conducted by Barton and colleagues. This shorter scale was then reduced and altered to make an 11 item scale by De Milia et al.[11]

Composite Scale of Morningness

edit

Smith et al. (1989)[12] analyzed items from MEQ, Diurnal Type Scale (DTS),[13] and CTQ and chose the best ones to develop an improved instrument, the 13-item Composite Scale of Morningness (CSM or CS). CSM consists of 9 items from the MEQ and 4 items from the Diurnal Type Scale and is regarded[by whom?] as an improved version of MEQ. It currently exists in 14 language versions[citation needed]; the most recently developed are Polish,[14] Russian[15] and Hindi.[16]

Others

edit

Roberts, in 1999, designed the Lark-Owl Chronotype Indicator, LOCI.[17] Till Roenneberg's Munich Chronotype Questionnaire (MCTQ) from 2003 uses a quantitative approach; his many thousands of subjects have answered questions about their sleep behavior.[18][19]

Characteristics

edit

Most people are neither evening nor morning types but lie somewhere in between. Estimates vary, but a 2007 survey of over 55,000 people by Roenneberg et al. showed that morningness–eveningness tends to follow a normal distribution.[18] People who share a chronotype, morningness or eveningness, have similar activity-pattern timing: sleep, appetite, exercise, study etc. Researchers in the field of chronobiology look for objective markers by which to measure the chronotype spectrum. Paine et al.[20] conclude that "morningness/eveningness preference is largely independent of ethnicity, gender, and socioeconomic position, indicating that it is a stable characteristic that may be better explained by endogenous factors".

Sleep

edit

Horne and Östberg found that morning types had a higher daytime temperature with an earlier peak time than evening types and that they went to sleep and awoke earlier, but no differences in sleep lengths were found. They also note that age should be considered in assessments of morningness and eveningness, noting how a "bed time of 23:30 may be indicative of a morning type within a student population, but might be more related to an evening type in the 40–60 years age group".[9]: 109  Clodoré et al. found differences in alertness between morning and evening types after a two-hour sleep reduction.[21] Duffy et al. investigated "changes in the phase relationship between endogenous circadian rhythms and the sleep-wake cycle", and found that although evening types woke at a later clock hour than morning types, morning types woke at a later circadian phase.[22] Zavada et al. show that the exact hour of mid-sleep on free (non-work) days may be the best marker for sleep-based assessments of chronotype; it correlates well with such physiological markers as dim-light melatonin onset (DLMO) and the minimum of the daily cortisol rhythm.[23] They also state that each chronotype category "contains a similar portion of short and long sleepers". Chung et al. studied sleep quality in shift-working nurses and found that "the strongest predictor of sleep quality was morningness–eveningness, not the shift schedule or shift pattern", as "evening types working on changing shifts had higher risk of poor sleep quality compared to morning types".[24]

Diurnal rhythms

edit
Main article: Diurnal cycle

Gibertini et al.[25] assessed blood levels of the hormone melatonin, finding that the melatonin acrophase (the time at which the peak of a rhythm occurs[26]) was strongly related to circadian type, whereas amplitude was not. They note that morning types evidence a more rapid decline in melatonin levels after the peak than do evening types. Baehr et al.[27] found that, in young adults, the daily body temperature minimum occurred at about 4 a.m. for morning types but at about 6 a.m. for evening types. This minimum occurred at approximately the middle of the eight-hour sleep period for morning types, but closer to waking in evening types. Evening types had a lower nocturnal temperature. The temperature minimum occurred about a half-hour earlier in women than in men. Similar results were found by Mongrain et al. in Canada, 2004.[28] Morning types had lower pain sensitivity throughout a day than evening types, but the two chronotype groups did not differ in the shape of diurnal variations in pain.[29] There are some differences between chronotypes in sexual activity, with evening chronotypes preferring later hours for sex as compared to other chronotypes.[30]

Personality

edit

Chronotypes differ in many aspects of personality, such as grit,[31] but also in intellectual domains, like creative thinking.[32] Experimental studies on discomfort glare perception and chronotype have shown that early chronotypes can tolerate more discomfort glare in the morning compared to late chronotypes.[33]

Intelligence

edit

A meta-analysis found a small positive association between an evening chronotype and intelligence;[34] similar results were subsequently found in a large sample using a standardized battery.[35]

Genetic variants associated with chronotype

edit

Studies show[a] that there are 22 genetic variants associated with chronotype. These variants occur near genes known to be important in photoreception and circadian rhythms.[37] The variant most strongly associated with chronotype occurs near RGS16, which is a regulator of G-protein signalling and has a known role in circadian rhythms. In mice, gene ablation of Rgs16 lengthens the circadian period of behavioural rhythm. By temporally regulating cAMP signalling, Rgs16 has been shown to be a key factor in synchronising intercellular communication between pacemaker neurons in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), the centre for circadian rhythm control in humans.[37][38]

PER2 is a well-known regulator of circadian rhythms and contains a variant recently shown to be associated with iris formation. This suggests a link between iris function and chronotype. Per2 knockout mice show arrhythmic locomotor activity.[37][39][40] The gene ASB1, associated with eveningness and a tendency to day-napping is a result of interbreeding between archaic and modern humans and is originally a Neanderthal trait, possibly linked to a more crepuscular lifestyle in this species.[41]

Therefore, the chronotype is genetically heritable.[42]

Chronotype and disease

edit

Disrupted circadian rhythms are associated with several human diseases, for example, chronotype is genetically correlated with BMI (body mass index).[37][43][44] However, cause-and-effect is not yet determined.[37] Evening chronotype has been reported to be a risk factor for bipolar disorder[45] and depression.[46] Chronotype is also associated with differential response to some treatments. For example, higher evening chronotype is associated with more side effects and lower efficacy of some selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and serotonin norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors in adults with depression.[47]

Notes

edit
  1. ^ For example, see Kalmbach, et al. for discussion of three landmark genome-wide association studies[36]

References

edit
  1. ^ Walker RJ, Kribs ZD, Christopher AN, Shewach OR, Wieth MB (2014). "Age, the Big Five, and time-of-day preference: A mediational model". Personality and Individual Differences. 56: 170–174. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2013.09.003. S2CID 18325145.
  2. ^ Samson DR, Crittenden AN, Mabulla IA, Mabulla AZ, Nunn CL (July 2017). "Chronotype variation drives night-time sentinel-like behaviour in hunter-gatherers". Proceedings. Biological Sciences. 284 (1858): 20170967. doi:10.1098/rspb.2017.0967. PMC 5524507. PMID 28701566.
  3. ^ Zakharenko LP, Petrovskii DV, Putilov AA (21 June 2018). "Larks, owls, swifts, and woodcocks among fruit flies: differential responses of four heritable chronotypes to long and hot summer days". Nature and Science of Sleep. 10: 181–191. doi:10.2147/NSS.S168905. PMC 6016586. PMID 29950910.
  4. ^ Refinetti R, Wassmer T, Basu P, Cherukalady R, Pandey VK, Singaravel M, et al. (July 2016). "Variability of behavioral chronotypes of 16 mammalian species under controlled conditions". Physiology & Behavior. 161: 53–59. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2016.04.019. PMID 27090227.
  5. ^ Lack L, Bailey M, Lovato N, Wright H (2009). "Chronotype differences in circadian rhythms of temperature, melatonin, and sleepiness as measured in a modified constant routine protocol". Nature and Science of Sleep. 1: 1–8. doi:10.2147/nss.s6234. PMC 3630920. PMID 23616692.
  6. ^ The international classification of sleep disorders (PDF) (revised: diagnostic and coding manual ed.). Rochester, MN: American Sleep Disorders Association. 2001. ISBN 0-9657220-1-5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 September 2007.
  7. ^ Kleitman N (1963) [1939]. Sleep and Wakefulness. The University of Chicago Press.
  8. ^ Öquist O (1970). Kartläggning av individuella dygnsrytmer [Charting Individual Circadian Rhythms] (PhD thesis) (in Swedish). Göteborgs Universitet, Psykologiska Institutionen.
  9. ^ a b Horne JA, Ostberg O (1976). "A self-assessment questionnaire to determine morningness-eveningness in human circadian rhythms". International Journal of Chronobiology. 4 (2): 97–110. PMID 1027738.
  10. ^ Taillard J, Philip P, Chastang JF, Bioulac B (February 2004). "Validation of Horne and Ostberg morningness-eveningness questionnaire in a middle-aged population of French workers". Journal of Biological Rhythms. 19 (1): 76–86. doi:10.1177/0748730403259849. PMID 14964706. S2CID 23248143.
  11. ^ Shahid A, Wilkinson K, Marcu S, Shapiro CM (2011). "Circadian Type Inventory (CTI).". In Shahid A, Wilkinson K, Marcu S, Shapiro CM (eds.). STOP, THAT and One Hundred Other Sleep Scales. New York, NY: Springer. pp. 123–126. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-9893-4_22. ISBN 978-1-4419-9893-4.
  12. ^ Smith, Carlla S.; Reilly, Christopher; Midkiff, Karen (1989). "Evaluation of three circadian rhythm questionnaires with suggestions for an improved measure of morningness". Journal of Applied Psychology. 74 (5): 728–738. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.74.5.728. PMID 2793773.
  13. ^ Torsvall, Lars; Åkerstedt, Torbjörn (1980). "A diurnal type scale: construction, consistency and validation in shift work". Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health. 6 (4): 283–290. doi:10.5271/sjweh.2608. ISSN 0355-3140. PMID 7195066.
  14. ^ Jankowski KS (January 2015). "Composite Scale of Morningness: psychometric properties, validity with Munich ChronoType Questionnaire and age/sex differences in Poland". European Psychiatry. 30 (1): 166–71. doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2014.01.004. PMID 24630377. S2CID 22020964.
  15. ^ Kolomeichuk S (2015). "Psychometric properties of the Russian version of the Composite Scale of Morningness". Biological Rhythm Research. 45 (6): 725–737. Bibcode:2015BioRR..46..725K. doi:10.1080/09291016.2015.1048963. S2CID 218602418.
  16. ^ Bhatia T, Agrawal A, Beniwal RP, Thomas P, Monk TH, Nimgaonkar VL, Deshpande SN (December 2013). "A Hindi version of the Composite Scale of Morningness". Asian Journal of Psychiatry. 6 (6): 581–4. doi:10.1016/j.ajp.2013.09.001. PMC 4026194. PMID 24309877.
  17. ^ Roberts RD (1999). "Construction and validation of the Lark-Owl (Chronotype) Indicator (LOCI): status report". University of Sydney. Archived from the original on 26 March 2012. Retrieved 21 June 2018.
  18. ^ a b Roenneberg T, Kuehnle T, Juda M, Kantermann T, Allebrandt K, Gordijn M, Merrow M (December 2007). "Epidemiology of the human circadian clock" (PDF). Sleep Medicine Reviews. 11 (6): 429–38. doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2007.07.005. hdl:11370/65d6f03a-88cd-405c-a067-4afbc1b9ba9d. PMID 17936039. S2CID 11628329.
  19. ^ Allebrandt KV, Roenneberg T (August 2008). "The search for circadian clock components in humans: new perspectives for association studies". Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research. 41 (8): 716–21. doi:10.1590/S0100-879X2008000800013. PMID 18797707.
  20. ^ Paine SJ, Gander PH, Travier N (February 2006). "The epidemiology of morningness/eveningness: influence of age, gender, ethnicity, and socioeconomic factors in adults (30-49 years)". Journal of Biological Rhythms. 21 (1): 68–76. doi:10.1177/0748730405283154. PMID 16461986. S2CID 20885196.
  21. ^ Clodoré M, Foret J, Benoit O (1986). "Diurnal variation in subjective and objective measures of sleepiness: the effects of sleep reduction and circadian type". Chronobiology International. 3 (4): 255–63. doi:10.3109/07420528609079543. PMID 3677208.
  22. ^ Duffy JF, Dijk DJ, Hall EF, Czeisler CA (March 1999). "Relationship of endogenous circadian melatonin and temperature rhythms to self-reported preference for morning or evening activity in young and older people". Journal of Investigative Medicine. 47 (3): 141–50. PMC 8530273. PMID 10198570.
  23. ^ Zavada A, Gordijn MC, Beersma DG, Daan S, Roenneberg T (2005). "Comparison of the Munich Chronotype Questionnaire with the Horne-Ostberg's Morningness-Eveningness Score" (PDF). Chronobiology International. 22 (2): 267–78. doi:10.1081/CBI-200053536. hdl:11370/4baad537-bed0-4161-8729-b5da5b22808d. PMID 16021843. S2CID 17928135. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 December 2008. Retrieved 2 November 2007.
  24. ^ Chung MH, Chang FM, Yang CC, Kuo TB, Hsu N (January 2009). "Sleep quality and morningness-eveningness of shift nurses". Journal of Clinical Nursing. 18 (2): 279–84. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2702.2007.02160.x. PMID 19120754.
  25. ^ Gibertini M, Graham C, Cook MR (May 1999). "Self-report of circadian type reflects the phase of the melatonin rhythm". Biological Psychology. 50 (1): 19–33. doi:10.1016/S0301-0511(98)00049-0. PMID 10378437. S2CID 12654232.
  26. ^ "Dictionary of Circadian Physiology". Circadian Rhythm Laboratory, University of South Carolina Salkehatchie, Walterboro campus.
  27. ^ Baehr EK, Revelle W, Eastman CI (June 2000). "Individual differences in the phase and amplitude of the human circadian temperature rhythm: with an emphasis on morningness-eveningness". Journal of Sleep Research. 9 (2): 117–27. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2869.2000.00196.x. PMID 10849238. S2CID 6104127.
  28. ^ Mongrain V, Lavoie S, Selmaoui B, Paquet J, Dumont M (June 2004). "Phase relationships between sleep-wake cycle and underlying circadian rhythms in Morningness-Eveningness". Journal of Biological Rhythms. 19 (3): 248–57. doi:10.1177/0748730404264365. PMID 15155011. S2CID 41561035.
  29. ^ Jankowski KS (August 2013). "Morning types are less sensitive to pain than evening types all day long". European Journal of Pain. 17 (7): 1068–73. doi:10.1002/j.1532-2149.2012.00274.x. PMID 23322641. S2CID 7308674.
  30. ^ Jankowski KS, Díaz-Morales JF, Randler C (October 2014). "Chronotype, gender, and time for sex" (PDF). Chronobiology International. 31 (8): 911–6. doi:10.3109/07420528.2014.925470. PMID 24927370. S2CID 207469411.
  31. ^ Allee MF, Anderson SE, Bloom MJ, Jost SR, Keating III DP, Lang AS, et al. (2020). "The Influence of Chronotype and Grit on Lifestyle and Physical Activity". Building Healthy Academic Communities Journal. 4 (2): 57–70. doi:10.18061/bhac.v4i2.7617. ISSN 2573-7643.
  32. ^ Giampietro M, Cavallera GM (2006). "Morning and evening types and creative thinking". Elsevier Ltd. Archived from the original on 28 July 2009. Retrieved 2 November 2007.
  33. ^ Kent MG, Altomonte S, Wilson R, Tregenza PR (2016). "Temporal variables and personal factors in glare sensation". Lighting Research and Technology. 48 (6): 689–710. doi:10.1177/1477153515578310. S2CID 56096900.
  34. ^ Preckel F, Lipnevich AA, Schneider S, Roberts RD (October 2011). "Chronotype, cognitive abilities, and academic achievement: A meta-analytic investigation". Learning and Individual Differences. 21 (5): 483–492. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2011.07.003.
  35. ^ Kyle SD, Sexton CE, Feige B, Luik AI, Lane J, Saxena R, et al. (October 2017). "Sleep and cognitive performance: cross-sectional associations in the UK Biobank". Sleep Medicine. 38: 85–91. doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2017.07.001. PMC 5930168. PMID 29031762.
  36. ^ Kalmbach DA, Schneider LD, Cheung J, Bertrand SJ, Kariharan T, Pack AI, Gehrman PR (February 2017). "Genetic Basis of Chronotype in Humans: Insights From Three Landmark GWAS". Sleep. 40 (2). doi:10.1093/sleep/zsw048. PMC 6084759. PMID 28364486.
  37. ^ a b c d e Jones SE, Tyrrell J, Wood AR, Beaumont RN, Ruth KS, Tuke MA, et al. (August 2016). "Genome-Wide Association Analyses in 128,266 Individuals Identifies New Morningness and Sleep Duration Loci". PLOS Genetics. 12 (8): e1006125. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1006125. PMC 4975467. PMID 27494321.
  38. ^ Doi M, Ishida A, Miyake A, Sato M, Komatsu R, Yamazaki F, et al. (1 January 2011). "Circadian regulation of intracellular G-protein signalling mediates intercellular synchrony and rhythmicity in the suprachiasmatic nucleus". Nature Communications. 2: 327. Bibcode:2011NatCo...2..327D. doi:10.1038/ncomms1316. PMC 3112533. PMID 21610730.
  39. ^ Preitner N, Damiola F, Lopez-Molina L, Zakany J, Duboule D, Albrecht U, Schibler U (July 2002). "The orphan nuclear receptor REV-ERBalpha controls circadian transcription within the positive limb of the mammalian circadian oscillator". Cell. 110 (2): 251–60. doi:10.1016/S0092-8674(02)00825-5. PMID 12150932.
  40. ^ Larsson M, Duffy DL, Zhu G, Liu JZ, Macgregor S, McRae AF, et al. (August 2011). "GWAS findings for human iris patterns: associations with variants in genes that influence normal neuronal pattern development". American Journal of Human Genetics. 89 (2): 334–43. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.07.011. PMC 3155193. PMID 21835309.
  41. ^ Dannemann M, Kelso J (October 2017). "The Contribution of Neanderthals to Phenotypic Variation in Modern Humans". American Journal of Human Genetics. 101 (4): 578–589. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2017.09.010. PMC 5630192. PMID 28985494.
  42. ^ von Schantz M, Taporoski TP, Horimoto AR, Duarte NE, Vallada H, Krieger JE, et al. (March 2015). "Distribution and heritability of diurnal preference (chronotype) in a rural Brazilian family-based cohort, the Baependi study". Scientific Reports. 5: 9214. Bibcode:2015NatSR...5.9214V. doi:10.1038/srep09214. PMC 4363835. PMID 25782397.
  43. ^ Kohsaka A, Laposky AD, Ramsey KM, Estrada C, Joshu C, Kobayashi Y, et al. (November 2007). "High-fat diet disrupts behavioral and molecular circadian rhythms in mice". Cell Metabolism. 6 (5): 414–21. doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2007.09.006. PMID 17983587.
  44. ^ Turek FW, Joshu C, Kohsaka A, Lin E, Ivanova G, McDearmon E, et al. (May 2005). "Obesity and metabolic syndrome in circadian Clock mutant mice". Science. 308 (5724): 1043–5. Bibcode:2005Sci...308.1043T. doi:10.1126/science.1108750. PMC 3764501. PMID 15845877.
  45. ^ Scott, Jan; Etain, Bruno; Miklowitz, David; Crouse, Jacob J.; Carpenter, Joanne; Marwaha, Steven; Smith, Daniel; Merikangas, Kathleen; Hickie, Ian (April 2022). "A systematic review and meta-analysis of sleep and circadian rhythms disturbances in individuals at high-risk of developing or with early onset of bipolar disorders". Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 135: 104585. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104585. PMC 8957543. PMID 35182537.
  46. ^ Crouse, Jacob J; Carpenter, Joanne S; Song, Yun Ju C; Hockey, Samuel J; Naismith, Sharon L; Grunstein, Ronald R; Scott, Elizabeth M; Merikangas, Kathleen R; Scott, Jan; Hickie, Ian B (September 2021). "Circadian rhythm sleep–wake disturbances and depression in young people: implications for prevention and early intervention". The Lancet Psychiatry. 8 (9): 813–823. doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(21)00034-1. PMID 34419186.
  47. ^ Crouse, Jacob J.; Park, Shin Ho; Byrne, Enda M.; Mitchell, Brittany L.; Chan, Karina; Scott, Jan; Medland, Sarah E.; Martin, Nicholas G.; Wray, Naomi R.; Hickie, Ian B. (July 2024). "Evening Chronotypes With Depression Report Poorer Outcomes of Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors: A Survey-Based Study of Self-Ratings". Biological Psychiatry. 96 (1): 4–14. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2023.12.023. PMID 38185236.

Further reading

edit
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chronotype&oldid=1263673971"