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非裔美國人民權運動:修订间差异

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==参考文献==
==参考文献==
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{{Reflist}}

==更多阅读==
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* Abel, Elizabeth. ''[http://www.ucpress.edu/book.php?isbn=9780520261839 Signs of the Times: The Visual Politics of Jim Crow]''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010.
* Arsenault, Raymond. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=RZAA-hS178UC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false Freedom Riders: 1961 and the Struggle for Racial Justice].'' New York: Oxford University Press, 2006. ISBN 0-19-513674-8
* Barnes, Catherine A. ''Journey from Jim Crow: The Desegregation of Southern Transit,'' Columbia University Press, 1983.
* Berger, Martin A. ''[http://www.ucpress.edu/book.php?isbn=9780520268647 Seeing through Race: A Reinterpretation of Civil Rights Photography]''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011.
* Beito, David T. and Beito, Linda Royster, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=dS4eA77qau0C&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false Black Maverick: T.R.M. Howard's Fight for Civil Rights and Economic Power],'' University of Illinois Press, 2009. ISBN 978-0-252-03420-6
* [[Taylor Branch|Branch, Taylor]]. ''[[At Canaan's Edge: America In the King Years, 1965–1968]].'' New York: Simon & Schuster, 2006. ISBN 0-684-85712-X
* Branch, Taylor. ''Parting the waters : America in the King years, 1954–1963.'' New York: Simon & Schuster, 1988. ISBN 0-671-46097-8
* Branch, Taylor. ''Pillar of fire : America in the King years, 1963–1965.'': Simon & Schuster, 1998. ISBN 0-684-80819-6
* Breitman, George. ''The Assassination of Malcolm X.'' New York: Pathfinder Press. 1976.
* [[Clayborne Carson|Carson, Clayborne]]. ''In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 1980. ISBN 0-374-52356-8.
* Carson, Clayborne; Garrow, David J.; Kovach, Bill; Polsgrove, Carol, eds. ''Reporting Civil Rights: American Journalism 1941–1963'' and ''Reporting Civil Rights: American Journalism 1963–1973.'' New York: [[Library of America]], 2003. ISBN 1-931082-28-6 and ISBN 1-931082-29-4.
* Chandra, Siddharth and Angela Williams-Foster. "The 'Revolution of Rising Expectations,' Relative Deprivation, and the Urban Social Disorders of the 1960s: Evidence from State-Level Data." ''Social Science History,'' 29(2):299–332, 2005.
* Dann, Jim. ''Challenging the Mississippi Firebombers, Memories of Mississippi 1964-65''. Baraka Books 2013. ISBN 978-1-926824-87-1
* Fairclough, Adam. ''To Redeem the Soul of America: The Southern Christian Leadership Conference & Martin Luther King''. The University of Georgia Press, 1987.
* [[Eric Foner|Foner, Eric]] and Joshua Brown, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=10NdBej1_JEC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false Forever Free: The Story of Emancipation and Reconstruction].'' Alfred A. Knopf: New York, 2005. p. 225–238. ISBN 978-0-375-70274-7
* [[David Garrow|Garrow, David J]]. ''Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference''. 800 pages. New York: William Morrow, 1986. ISBN 0-688-04794-7.
* Garrow, David J. ''The FBI and Martin Luther King''. New York: W.W. Norton. 1981. Viking Press Reprint edition. 1983. ISBN 0-14-006486-9. Yale University Press; Revised and Expanded edition. 2006. ISBN 0-300-08731-4.
* Greene, Christina. ''Our Separate Ways: Women and the Black Freedom Movement in Durham''. North Carolina. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005.
* Holsaert, Faith (and 5 others) [http://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/catalog/54yed3wd9780252035579.html ''Hands on the Freedom Plow Personal Accounts by Women in SNCC'']. University of Illinois Press, 2010. ISBN 978-0-252-03557-9.
* Horne, Gerald. ''The Fire This Time: The Watts Uprising and the 1960s''. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia. 1995. Da Capo Press; 1st Da Capo Press ed edition. October 1, 1997. ISBN 0-306-80792-0
* Kirk, John A. ''Martin Luther King, Jr.''. London: Longman, 2005. ISBN 0-582-41431-8
* Kirk, John A. ''Redefining the Color Line: Black Activism in Little Rock, Arkansas, 1940–1970''. Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 2002. ISBN 0-8130-2496-X
* [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3651/is_200004/ai_n8888452 Kousser, J. Morgan, "The Supreme Court And The Undoing of the Second Reconstruction," ''National Forum,'' (Spring 2000).]
* Kryn, Randy. "James L. Bevel, The Strategist of the 1960s Civil Rights Movement", 1984 paper with 1988 addendum, printed in "We Shall Overcome, Volume II" edited by David Garrow, New York: Carlson Publishing Co., 1989.
* Malcolm X (with the assistance of [[Alex Haley]]). ''[[The Autobiography of Malcolm X]].'' New York: Random House, 1965. Paperback ISBN 0-345-35068-5. Hardcover ISBN 0-345-37975-6.
* [[Manning Marable|Marable, Manning]]. ''Race, Reform and Rebellion: The Second Reconstruction in Black America, 1945–1982''. 249 pages. University Press of Mississippi, 1984. ISBN 0-87805-225-9.
* [[Doug McAdam|McAdam, Doug]]. ''Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930–1970'', Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1982.
* [[Doug McAdam|McAdam, Doug]], 'The US Civil Rights Movement: Power from Below and Above, 1945-70', in [[Adam Roberts (scholar)|Adam Roberts]] and [[Timothy Garton Ash]] (eds.), ''Civil Resistance and Power Politics: The Experience of Non-violent Action from Gandhi to the Present.'' Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press, 2009. ISBN 978-0-19-955201-6.
* Minchin, Timothy J. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=hb3ETCCaWV4C&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false Hiring the Black Worker: The Racial Integration of the Southern Textile Industry, 1960–1980]''. University of North Carolina Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8078-2470-4.
* Morris, Aldon D. ''The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement: Black Communities Organizing for Change''. New York: The Free Press, 1984. ISBN 0-02-922130-7
* [[Jason Sokol|Sokol, Jason.]] ''[[There Goes My Everything (book)|There Goes My Everything: White Southerners in the Age of Civil Rights, 1945–1975]]''. New York: Knopf, 2006.
* Payne, Charles M. ''[http://www.ucpress.edu/book.php?isbn=9780520251762 I've Got the Light of Freedom: The Organizing Tradition and the Mississippi Freedom Struggle]''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995.
* Patterson, James T. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=OPvoFu_l3oYC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false Brown v. Board of Education, a Civil Rights Milestone and Its Troubled Legacy].'' Oxford University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-19-515632-3
* Raiford, Leigh. ''[http://uncpress.unc.edu/browse/book_detail?title_id=1771 Imprisoned in a Luminous Glare: Photography and the African American Freedom Struggle]''. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2011.
* Ransby, Barbara. ''Ella Baker and the Black Freedom Movement, a Radical Democratic Vision''. The University of North Carolina Press, 2003.
* {{cite book | last = Reeves | first = Richard |authorlink=Richard Reeves (American writer) | year = 1993 | title = President Kennedy: Profile of Power | publisher = Simon & Schuster | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-671-64879-4 | ref = harv }}
* Sitkoff, Howard. ''The Struggle for Black Equality'' (2nd ed. 2008)
* Tsesis, Alexander. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=A94zj6PYV7gC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false We Shall Overcome: A History of Civil Rights and the Law]''. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-0-300-11837-7
* [[Juan Williams|Williams, Juan]]. ''Eyes on the Prize: America's Civil Rights Years, 1954–1965''. New York: Penguin Books, 1987. ISBN 0-14-009653-1
* Westheider, James Edward. ''"My Fear is for You": African Americans, Racism, and the Vietnam War''. University of Cincinnati, 1993.
* Woodward, C. Vann. ''The Strange Career of Jim Crow''. Third Revised Edition. 1955; Oxford University Press, 1974. ISBN 0-19-501805-2
{{div col end}}

==外部链接==
{{div col|2}}
* [http://library.uncg.edu/dp/crg/ Civil Rights Greensboro] provides access to archival resources documenting the modern civil rights era in Greensboro, North Carolina, from the 1940s to the early 1980s
* [http://www.accordfreedomtrail.org St. Augustine Civil Rights Movement and Freedom Trail marking its sites.]
* [http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/civilrights/home.html Civil Rights Resource Guide, from the Library of Congress]
* [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/aaohtml/exhibit/aopart9.html The Civil Rights Era] Library of Congress
* [http://crdl.usg.edu/voci/go/crdl/home Civil Rights Digital Library] Digital Library of Georgia
* [http://www.crmvet.org Civil Rights Movement Veterans] ~ Movement history, personal stories, documents, and photos.
* [http://www.watson.org/~lisa/blackhistory/civilrights-55-65 Civil Rights Movement 1955–1965]
* [http://www.american.edu/bgriff/H207web/civrights/CivilRightsOutline.htm Civil Rights as a People's Movement] American University Course Syllabus
* [http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1998/1/98.01.06.x.html Let Justice Roll Down: The Civil Rights Movement Through Film] Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute
* [http://www.usm.edu/crdp/ University of Southern Mississippi's Civil Rights Documentation Project], includes an extensive Timeline
* [http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/jfkcivilrights.htm President Kennedy's Address to the nation on Civil Rights]
* [http://www.ferris.edu/news/jimcrow/what.htm What Was Jim Crow?] ''(The racial caste system that precipitated the Civil Rights Movement)''
* [http://www.sitins.com/index.shtml History and images of the sit-in movement]
* [http://www.wdashistory.org WDAS Radio's Enduring Impact on the Civil Rights Movement]
* [http://www.atlantastudentmovement.org The Committee on the Appeal for Human Rights and the Atlanta Student Movement]
* [http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-2716 The Georgia Movement]
* [http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Feature.jsp?id=s-51&sug=y Black Leaders of the Civil Rights Movement]
* [http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-1057&sug=y The Albany Movement] (entry in the New Georgia Encyclopedia)
* [http://microsites.jfklibrary.org/olemiss/home/ Materials relating to the desegregation of Ole Miss in 1962]
* [http://www.floridamemory.com/OnlineClassroom/PhotoAlbum/civil_rights.cfm Images of the Civil Rights Movement in Florida] from the State Archives of Florida
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==参见==
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{{美國專題|state=collapsed}}
{{美國專題|state=collapsed}}






[[Category:美國人權]]
[[Category:美國人權]]

2015年1月9日 (五) 13:04的版本

非裔美國人民權運動
四位民权运动领袖:左起拜亚特·鲁斯丁、安德鲁·杨、(纽约威廉·赖安、詹姆斯·法默和约翰·路易斯,1965年。
日期1954–68
地點
美国,特别是美国南部
目標终止种族隔离
方法非暴力、直接行动、投票权、抵制公民不服从、社区教育
結果1964年民权法案
1965年投票权法案
1968年公平住宅法案
衝突方

非裔美国人

白人优越主义

領導人物
1963年8月28日的“向华盛顿进军”,前領人士由華盛頓紀念碑出發,前往林肯紀念堂

非裔美國人民權運動1955年1968年)是美國民權運動的一部分,于1950年代興起,直至1970年代,是美国黑人为争取与白人同等的地位而发起的群众性斗争运动,乃是經由非暴力的抗議行動,爭取非裔美國人民權的群眾鬥爭,這個全國性政治運動除了黑人外,亦有不少白人支持。

1954年美國聯邦最高法院判定教育委員會種族隔離的學校違法,1955年阿拉巴馬州蒙哥馬利市黑人公民以全面罷乘來反對公車上的黑白隔離措施,1963年華盛頓林肯紀念堂廣場聚集二十五萬名群眾反種族隔離美國民權運動領袖馬丁·路德·金恩博士發表著名的演說《我有一個夢想》為民權運動的高峰,其他參與的著名人物還有麥爾坎·X等人。運動在1968年越戰時達到最高峰,雖然同年马丁·路德·金羅伯特·弗朗西斯·甘迺迪遭到刺殺,但運動成功促使南方廢除實行一個世紀的種族隔離

事件源起

非洲黑人最初被引進美國,主要是在南方農場當農奴,以彌補當地勞動力短缺問題。理論上,林肯總統在1863年解放宣言中,已經讓他們獲得了自由。在南北戰爭結束後,聯邦軍隊佔領南方期間(重建時期1865年1877年),黑人曾名義上獲得解放宣言所賦予的平等權利。然而黑人因為窮困及教育程度較低,為求經濟上的生存,必須再度依靠白人雇用,特別是當聯邦軍隊撤出南方後,黑人頓失聯邦法律的保護,其地位又陷入類似美國內戰前的狀況。當時被南方白人支持的民主黨上台,控制南方近一個世紀,直至1964年黑人重新受到種族不平等待遇。

1896年美國聯邦最高法院作出「普萊西訴弗格森案」判決,確立對黑人採行「隔離但平等」措施的合法性時,無異對南方黑人的人權造成嚴重的打擊,最高法院判決中有關「隔離」的部份被執行得十分徹底,但有關「平等」的部份則不然,導致南方出現更多種族隔離制度法令,甚至連在工廠、醫院及軍隊都採取種族隔離制度。

在歷經58年後,普萊西訴弗格森案法律觀念才被推翻;1954年聯邦最高法院在「布朗訴教育委員會」一案,判定種族隔離的學校並未提供黑人學生公平教育,因此公立學校應該要種族混合。一連串的非裔美國人民權運動也正式開始。

領導人物

領導黑人民權運動的靈魂人物馬丁·路德·金恩博士,出生於喬治亞州亞特蘭大市,父親是教會牧師,家境優渥,屬中產階級,得以接受良好的教育。金恩於1955年取得波士頓大學博士學位,看盡南方的種族不平等待遇,使他在成年後積極投入民權運動

事件演變

阿拉巴馬州蒙哥馬利市南北戰爭期間美利坚联盟国的首都,也是實施種族隔離制的代表性城市之一。馬丁·路德·金博士1954年到該市擔任牧師工作,1955年成功帶領該市黑人公民,以全面罷乘反對公共汽车上的黑白隔離措施。經過一年長期抗爭,終於迫使蒙哥馬利市的公共汽车取消種族隔離措施。這次的罷乘公共汽车運動雖然成效有限且未達到全面性廢除種族隔離措施的目的,但對全美各地的黑人卻起了鼓舞作用,並啟發他們的靈感,開始一波波爭取民權的運動。

運動的高峰是在1963年8月28日,金恩博士在華盛頓特區林肯紀念堂前廣場聚集了25萬名群眾,並發表他著名的演說《我有一個夢想》,這次集會所產生的輿論壓力受到聯邦政府的關注,終於使國會在翌年通過1964年民權法案,宣布種族隔離和歧視政策為非法,並賦予黑人擁有平等選舉權,這成為美國民權運動史的關鍵事件。金恩博士在演說中指出百年前林肯總統雖解放了黑奴,廢除奴隸制,但黑人平等的公民權在南方卻從未獲落實,直到金恩博士領導民權運動才獲得成功,1960年代美國民權運動興起,對其社會及學生有很大影響,當時對少數民族及婦女的權利均受到重視,開拓了新的視野,金恩博士也因此獲頒1964年諾貝爾和平獎

由於當時執政的民主黨支持民權運動,原是民主黨堅定支持者的南方白人由於不滿民主黨政府的立場,不少轉向支持共和黨,這在1964年美國總統選舉中可反映。

1967年,金恩博士在北方深刻體會,黑人及其他人種的各種形式的歧視除了南方外,北方也遭到歧視,黑人在美國社會的飽受歧視,絕大部份是因為經濟不平等所引起,經濟權才是實質、才是根本原因,公民權只是裝飾。於是,他將公民權的鬥爭轉為經濟權的鬥爭,發起「窮人運動」(Poor People's Campaign)。

1968年4月4日,金恩博士田納西州孟斐斯被射殺身亡,當時正籌劃帶領一群同志參與該市的罷工活動。非裔美國人民權運動亦算是在該年告一段落。然而民权運动仍然继续,並于該年達至最高峰。伴隨著反越戰示威,當年又是選舉年,氣氛十分緊張,暴力衝突持續。

参考文献

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