A history of Rome

List of Plates ix List of Figures and Maps xii List of Chronologies, Genealogies, and Boxes xiv Preface to the Fourth Edition xvi Preface to the Third Edition xvii Preface to the Second Edition xviii Preface to the First Edition xix List of Abbreviations xxi Introduction xxii The Sources for Roman History xxii Rome and the Mediterranean xxv The Origins of the “Roman Miracle” xxvii Part I: From the Origins to the Empire 1 1 Italy before Rome 3 1.1 The Peoples of Prehistoric Italy 5 1.2 The Cultures of Prehistoric Italy 7 1.3 The East’s Influence on the West 14 2 The Formation of Rome: From Romulus to the Tarquins 19 2.1 Latin and Sabine Kings 21 2.2 Etruscan Rome 26 2.3 The Religion of Archaic Rome 33 3 The Young Republic: The Fifth and Fourth Centuries BCE 41 3.1 The Birth of the Republic and the Struggle of the Orders 43 3.2 The Decemvirs and their Task 46 3.3 In Search of Equilibrium: 449–312 bce 49 3.4 The Republic’s Institutions at the End of the Fourth Century 56 vi Contents 4 The Growth of the Republic: War and Conquest in the Third Century BCE 61 4.1 Economy, Society, Army 63 4.2 The Conquest of Central and Southern Italy 66 4.3 The Hellenization of Art and Religion 68 4.4 The Punic Wars 73 4.5 Gladiatorial Combat: Rise and Early Development 82 5 Consequences of Conquest: The Second Century BCE 89 5.1 What Was Roman Imperialism? 91 5.2 Conquests from 200 to 148 bce: Defensive Imperialism 93 5.3 Conquests from 148 to 133 bce: Conscious Imperialism 95 5.4 War and Conquest: 133–96 bce 100 5.5 Roman Triumphs: Spectacles of Military Victory 103 5.6 The Economic, Social, and Political Consequences of the Conquests 107 5.7 Cultural Consequences 115 6 The Late Republic: The First Century BCE 121 6.1 Personal Ambitions and the Civil Wars 123 6.2 Toward a New Order 159 6.3 Social and Cultural Transformations 169 Part II: Rome, Master of the World 185 7 The Roman World in 31–28 BCE 187 7.1 Actium and its Aftermath 189 7.2 Rome and Italy 194 7.3 The Provinces 197 7.4 Boundaries and Frontiers 203 8 Augustus: The Birth of the Imperial Regime: 29 BCE–14 CE 207 8.1 The Formation of the Principate 209 8.2 The Emperor and his Entourage 218 8.3 A Hierarchy of Offices 224 8.4 The Army and its Conquests 230 8.5 The Administration of the Empire 237 8.6 Augustus: Showman and Gamesmaster of Rome 243 8.7 Religious Policy 249 8.8 The Succession 254 9 The Julio-Claudians: The System Under Stress: 14–68 CE 257 9.1 Four Personalities: Tiberius, Gaius (Caligula), Claudius, Nero 259 9.2 The Institutions and Innovations of the Julio-Claudians 271 9.3 Development of the Administration 285 10 The Flavians: Consolidating the Imperial Order: 68–96 CE 289 10.1 Events and Contenders 291 10.2 Interpretations 293 10.3 The Flavian Dynasty 294 10.4 Domitian and Tyranny: 81–96 ce 305 10.5 A Developing Municipal Life and a Changing Society 311 10.6 Social Changes 315 11 The Antonine Empire: 96–192 CE 319 11.1 Italo-Provincial Emperors 321 11.2 Italy in Decline, the Provinces Expanding 350 11.3 Romanization 364 11.4 A Mediterranean Economy 366 11.5 The Army 373 11.6 Spectacles and the Roman Empire 382 11.7 Religious Life 394 12 The African and Syrian Emperors: 193–235 CE 405 12.1 The Crisis of 193–197 ce 407 12.2 Septimius Severus and his Sons 408 12.3 Macrinus, Elagabalus, Severus Alexander 426 12.4 Provincial Upsurge and the Orientalization of the Empire? 431 Part III: Another Roman World: Third to Fifth Century CE 437 Introduction to Part III: The Nature of the Times 438 13 Equilibrium: 235 CE 439 13.1 A Fragile Balance 441 13.2 Rome and Italy 443 13.3 The Western Provinces 446 13.4 The Eastern Provinces 449 13.5 Beyond the Limes 452 13.6 Balance and Instability 454 14 A Disintegrating Order: 235–284 CE 457 14.1 Sinking into Crisis: 235–260 ce 459 14.2 The Nature and Limits of the Crisis 462 14.3 The Reaction of the Imperial Government: 260–284 ce 467 15 A Different Order: 284–361 CE 471 15.1 Diocletian and the Tetrarchy: 284–305 ce 473 15.2 Constantine: 306–337 ce 477 15.3 Constantine’s Sons: 337–361 ce 481 15.4 Three Emperors and their Achievements 484 16 Different Institutions: Reorganization 485 16.1 Central Government 487 16.2 The Army 491 16.3 Territorial Authorities 496 16.4 Cities and Municipal Life 498 16.5 An Absolute Monarchy 502 17 A Different Socio-Economic World: Recovery and State Control 503 17.1 The Economic Recovery 505 17.2 Society and the State 509 17.3 Towns and Villas 517 17.4 Expansion and Lifestyles 521 18 Between Paganism and Christianity 523 18.1 The Fourth-Century ce Renaissance 525 18.2 Paganism on the Defensive 526 18.3 Judaism between the Empire and the Church 533 18.4 Christianity Takes the Offensive 535 18.5 Boom and Decline 543 19 The End of the Roman World? 545 19.1 Julian: 361–363 ce 547 19.2 A New Crisis: 364–395 ce 550 19.3 The End of Rome? 554 Chronological Table 559 Glossary 578 Guide to Greek and Roman Writers 584 Guide to Further Reading 595 Index 617