However, even if this public-good problem can be overcome through
excludability, there is another public-good problem at the level of the increase in the level of specialization that the higher transaction efficiency contributes to.
The legal protection of DRMs, a private means of enforcing content
excludability, participates in the "privatization" of copyright protection.
Similarly, the
excludability from income of all or most of the gain on the sale of the home (up to the statutory limit of $500,000) constitutes a yield exemption type consumption tax, because the gains realized on the home (due to appreciation) are exempted from tax.
The
excludability of age discrimination awards reached the U.S.
(14) The key concepts in the analysis of ideas are the ones developed for the analysis of public goods: rivalry and
excludability. In general, a good that is not rivalrous introduces a nonconvexity into the technology.
Economists have focused heavily on three other dimensions of modern infrastructures, namely, their low levels of
excludability and of rivalry and their high level of externalities (de FONTENAY, HOGENDORN & LIEBENAU 2005).
The Ninth and the Seventh Circuit Courts of Appeals recently came to opposite conclusions regarding the
excludability of back pay and liquidated damages received to settle claims under the Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA).
Economists define private goods on the basis of three characteristics: rivalry in consumption;
excludability in ownership and use; and depletability (Kaufman, 1986).
The Third Circuit looked only to the nature of the claim (whether it stems from personal injury) to determine
excludability and did not draw the equitable-versus-legal distinction.
Extreme publicness marked the turnpikes, both in jointness of consumption and in nonexcludability.(5) The
excludability problem was partly the result of legal restrictions on toll collection.
In addition, these are studied with material goods having characteristics of
excludability, expendability, rivalry and their market [10].