![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Parameters.............................................................................................272
Return Value ..........................................................................................272
Example .................................................................................................272
Description .............................................................................................272
Syntax ....................................................................................................272
Parameters.............................................................................................272
Return Value ..........................................................................................273
Example .................................................................................................273
Description .............................................................................................273
Syntax ....................................................................................................273
Parameters.............................................................................................273
Return Value ..........................................................................................273
Example .................................................................................................273
os.mkdir(path[, mode]) Description ........................................................274
Syntax ....................................................................................................274
Parameters.............................................................................................274
Return Value ..........................................................................................274
Example .................................................................................................274
os.mknod(filename[, mode=0600, device]) ............................................275
Description .............................................................................................275
Syntax ....................................................................................................275
Parameters.............................................................................................276
Return Value ..........................................................................................276
Example .................................................................................................276
os.open(file, flags[, mode]).....................................................................276
Description .............................................................................................276
Syntax ....................................................................................................276
Parameters.............................................................................................276
Return Value ..........................................................................................277
Example .................................................................................................277
os.pathconf(path, name) Description .....................................................278
Syntax ....................................................................................................278
Parameters.............................................................................................278
Return Value ..........................................................................................278
Example .................................................................................................278
Description .............................................................................................279
Syntax ....................................................................................................279
Parameters.............................................................................................279
Return Value ..........................................................................................279](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-30-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Python Basic Syntax
The Python language has many similarities to Perl, C and Java. However, there are some definite
differences between the languages. This chapter is designed to quickly get you up to speed on the syntax that is
expected in Python.
First Python Program:
INTERACTIVE MODE PROGRAMMING:
Invoking the interpreter without passing a script file as a parameter brings up the following prompt:
$ python
Python 2.4.3 (#1, Nov 11 2010, 13:34:43)
[GCC 4.1.2 20080704 (Red Hat 4.1.2-48)] on linux2
Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
>>>
Type the following text to the right of the Python prompt and press the Enter key:
>>> print "Hello, Python!";
If you are running new version of Python, then you would need to use print statement with parenthesis like print
("Hello, Python!");. However at Python version 2.4.3, this will produce following result:
Hello, Python!
SCRIPT MODE PROGRAMMING:
Invoking the interpreter with a script parameter begins execution of the script and continues until the script is
finished. When the script is finished, the interpreter is no longer active.
Let us write a simple Python program in a script. All python files will have extension .py. So put the following
source code in a test.py file.
print "Hello, Python!";
Here, I assumed that you have Python interpreter set in PATH variable. Now, try to run this program as follows:
$ python test.py
CHAPTER
3](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-48-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
if len(file_name) == 0:
print "Next time please enter something"
sys.exit()
try:
file = open(file_name, "r")
except IOError:
print "There was an error reading file"
sys.exit()
file_text = file.read()
file.close()
print file_text
Multi-Line Statements:
Statements in Python typically end with a new line. Python does, however, allow the use of the line continuation
character () to denote that the line should continue. For example:
total = item_one +
item_two +
item_three
Statements contained within the [], {} or () brackets do not need to use the line continuation character. For
example:
days = ['Monday', 'Tuesday', 'Wednesday',
'Thursday', 'Friday']
Quotation in Python:
Python accepts single ('), double (") and triple (''' or """') quotes to denote string literals, as long as the same type
of quote starts and ends the string.
The triple quotes can be used to span the string across multiple lines. For example, all the following are legal:
word = 'word'
sentence = "This is a sentence."
paragraph = """This is a paragraph. It is
made up of multiple lines and sentences."""
Comments in Python:
A hash sign (#) that is not inside a string literal begins a comment. All characters after the # and up to the physical
line end are part of the comment and the Python interpreter ignores them.
#!/usr/bin/python
# First comment
print "Hello, Python!"; # second comment
This will produce the following result:
Hello, Python!
A comment may be on the same line after a statement or expression:
name = "Madisetti" # This is again comment](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-51-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
You can comment multiple lines as follows:
# This is a comment.
# This is a comment, too.
# This is a comment, too.
# I said that already.
Using Blank Lines:
A line containing only whitespace, possibly with a comment, is known as a blank line and Python totally ignores it.
In an interactive interpreter session, you must enter an empty physical line to terminate a multiline statement.
Waiting for the User:
The following line of the program displays the prompt, Press the enter key to exit and waits for the user to press
the Enter key:
#!/usr/bin/python
raw_input("nnPress the enter key to exit.")
Here, "nn" are being used to create two new lines before displaying the actual line. Once the user presses the
key, the program ends. This is a nice trick to keep a console window open until the user is done with an
application.
Multiple Statements on a Single Line:
The semicolon ( ; ) allows multiple statements on the single line given that neither statement starts a new code
block. Here is a sample snip using the semicolon:
import sys; x = 'foo'; sys.stdout.write(x + 'n')
Multiple Statement Groups as Suites:
A group of individual statements, which make a single code block are called suites in Python. Compound or
complex statements, such as if, while, def, and class, are those which require a header line and a suite.
Header lines begin the statement (with the keyword) and terminate with a colon ( : ) and are followed by one or
more lines, which make up the suite. For example:
if expression :
suite
elif expression :
suite
else :
suite
Command-Line Arguments:
You may have seen, for instance, that many programs can be run so that they provide you with some basic
information about how they should be run. Python enables you to do this with -h:
$ python -h
usage: python [option] ... [-c cmd | -m mod | file | -] [arg] ...
Options and arguments (and corresponding environment variables):](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-52-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
-c cmd : program passed in as string (terminates option list)
-d : debug output from parser (also PYTHONDEBUG=x)
-E : ignore environment variables (such as PYTHONPATH)
-h : print this help message and exit
[ etc. ]
You can also program your script in such a way that it should accept various options.
Accessing Command-Line Arguments:
Python provides a getopt module that helps you parse command-line options and arguments.
$ python test.py arg1 arg2 arg3
The Python sys module provides access to any command-line arguments via the sys.argv. This serves two
purpose:
sys.argv is the list of command-line arguments.
len(sys.argv) is the number of command-line arguments.
Here sys.argv[0] is the program ie. script name.
Example:
Consider the following script test.py:
#!/usr/bin/python
import sys
print 'Number of arguments:', len(sys.argv), 'arguments.'
print 'Argument List:', str(sys.argv)
Now run above script as follows:
$ python test.py arg1 arg2 arg3
This will produce following result:
Number of arguments: 4 arguments.
Argument List: ['test.py', 'arg1', 'arg2', 'arg3']
NOTE: As mentioned above, first argument is always script name and it is also being counted in number of
arguments.
ParsingCommand-LineArguments:
Python provided a getopt module that helps you parse command-line options and arguments. This module
provides two functions and an exception to enable command-line argument parsing. This tutorial would discuss
about one method and one exception, which are sufficient for your programming requirements.
getopt.getopt method:
This method parses command-line options and parameter list. Following is simple syntax for this method:](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-53-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
getopt.getopt(args, options[, long_options])
Here is the detail of the parameters:
args: This is the argument list to be parsed.
options: This is the string of option letters that the script wants to recognize, with options that require an
argument should be followed by a colon (:).
long_options: This is optional parameter and if specified, must be a list of strings with the names of the long
options, which should be supported. Long options, which require an argument should be followed by an
equal sign ('='). To accept only long options, options should be an empty string.
This method returns value consisting of two elements: the first is a list of (option, value) pairs. The second is the
list of program arguments left after the option list was stripped.
Each option-and-value pair returned has the option as its first element, prefixed with a hyphen for short options
(e.g., '-x') or two hyphens for long options (e.g., '--long-option').
exception getopt.GetoptError:
This is raised when an unrecognized option is found in the argument list or when an option requiring an argument
is given none.
The argument to the exception is a string indicating the cause of the error. The attributes msg and opt give the
error message and related option
Example
Consider we want to pass two file names through command line and we also want to give an option to check the
usage of the script. Usage of the script is as follows:
usage: test.py -i <inputfile> -o <outputfile>
Here is the following script to test.py:
#!/usr/bin/python
import sys, getopt
def main(argv):
inputfile = ''
outputfile = ''
try:
opts, args = getopt.getopt(argv,"hi:o:",["ifile=","ofile="])
except getopt.GetoptError:
print 'test.py -i <inputfile> -o <outputfile>'
sys.exit(2)
for opt, arg in opts:
if opt == '-h':
print 'test.py -i <inputfile> -o <outputfile>'
sys.exit()
elif opt in ("-i", "--ifile"):
inputfile = arg
elif opt in ("-o", "--ofile"):
outputfile = arg
print 'Input file is "', inputfile
print 'Output file is "', outputfile
if __name__ == "__main__":
main(sys.argv[1:])](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-54-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Here, an integer object is created with the value 1, and all three variables are assigned to the same memory
location. You can also assign multiple objects to multiple variables. For example:
a, b, c = 1, 2, "john"
Here, two integer objects with values 1 and 2 are assigned to variables a and b, and one string object with the
value "john" is assigned to the variable c.
Standard Data Types:
The data stored in memory can be of many types. For example, a person's age is stored as a numeric value and
his or her address is stored as alphanumeric characters. Python has various standard types that are used to
define the operations possible on them and the storage method for each of them.
Python has five standard data types:
Numbers
String
List
Tuple
Dictionary
Python Numbers:
Number data types store numeric values. They are immutable data types which means that changing the value of
a number data type results in a newly allocated object.
Number objects are created when you assign a value to them. For example:
var1 = 1
var2 = 10
You can also delete the reference to a number object by using the del statement. The syntax of the del statement
is:
del var1[,var2[,var3[....,varN]]]]
You can delete a single object or multiple objects by using the del statement. For example:
del var
del var_a, var_b
Python supports four different numerical types:
int (signed integers)
long (long integers [can also be represented in octal and hexadecimal])
float (floating point real values)](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-57-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
complex (complex numbers)
Examples:
Here are some examples of numbers:
Int Long float complex
10 51924361L 0.0 3.14j
100 -0x19323L 15.20 45.j
-786 0122L -21.9 9.322e-36j
080 0xDEFABCECBDAECBFBAEl 32.3+e18 .876j
-0490 535633629843L -90. -.6545+0J
-0x260 -052318172735L -32.54e100 3e+26J
0x69 -4721885298529L 70.2-E12 4.53e-7j
Python allows you to use a lowercase L with long, but it is recommended that you use only an uppercase L to
avoid confusion with the number 1. Python displays long integers with an uppercase L.
A complex number consists of an ordered pair of real floating-point numbers denoted by a + bj, where a is
the real part and b is the imaginary part of the complex number.
Python Strings:
Strings in Python are identified as a contiguous set of characters in between quotation marks. Python allows for
either pairs of single or double quotes. Subsets of strings can be taken using the slice operator ( [ ] and [ : ] ) with
indexes starting at 0 in the beginning of the string and working their way from -1 at the end.
The plus ( + ) sign is the string concatenation operator and the asterisk ( * ) is the repetition operator. For
example:
#!/usr/bin/python
str = 'Hello World!'
print str # Prints complete string
print str[0] # Prints first character of the string
print str[2:5] # Prints characters starting from 3rd to 5th
print str[2:] # Prints string starting from 3rd character
print str * 2 # Prints string two times
print str + "TEST" # Prints concatenated string
This will produce the following result:
Hello World!
H
llo
llo World!
Hello World!Hello World!
Hello World!TEST](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-58-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Python Lists:
Lists are the most versatile of Python's compound data types. A list contains items separated by commas and
enclosed within square brackets ([]). To some extent, lists are similar to arrays in C. One difference between them
is that all the items belonging to a list can be of different data type.
The values stored in a list can be accessed using the slice operator ( [ ] and [ : ] ) with indexes starting at 0 in the
beginning of the list and working their way to end -1. The plus ( + ) sign is the list concatenation operator, and the
asterisk ( * ) is the repetition operator. For example:
#!/usr/bin/python
list = [ 'abcd', 786 , 2.23, 'john', 70.2 ]
tinylist = [123, 'john']
print list # Prints complete list
print list[0] # Prints first element of the list
print list[1:3] # Prints elements starting from 2nd till 3rd
print list[2:] # Prints elements starting from 3rd element
print tinylist * 2 # Prints list two times
print list + tinylist # Prints concatenated lists
This will produce the following result:
['abcd', 786, 2.23, 'john', 70.200000000000003]
abcd
[786, 2.23]
[2.23, 'john', 70.200000000000003]
[123, 'john', 123, 'john']
['abcd', 786, 2.23, 'john', 70.200000000000003, 123, 'john']
Python Tuples:
A tuple is another sequence data type that is similar to the list. A tuple consists of a number of values separated
by commas. Unlike lists, however, tuples are enclosed within parentheses.
The main differences between lists and tuples are: Lists are enclosed in brackets ( [ ] ) and their elements and
size can be changed, while tuples are enclosed in parentheses ( ( ) ) and cannot be updated. Tuples can be
thought of as read-only lists. For example:
#!/usr/bin/python
tuple = ( 'abcd', 786 , 2.23, 'john', 70.2 )
tinytuple = (123, 'john')
print tuple # Prints complete list
print tuple[0] # Prints first element of the list
print tuple[1:3] # Prints elements starting from 2nd till 3rd
print tuple[2:] # Prints elements starting from 3rd element
print tinytuple * 2 # Prints list two times
print tuple + tinytuple # Prints concatenated lists
This will produce the following result:
('abcd', 786, 2.23, 'john', 70.200000000000003)
abcd
(786, 2.23)](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-59-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
(2.23, 'john', 70.200000000000003)
(123, 'john', 123, 'john')
('abcd', 786, 2.23, 'john', 70.200000000000003, 123, 'john')
Following is invalid with tuple, because we attempted to update a tuple, which is not allowed. Similar case is
possible with lists:
#!/usr/bin/python
tuple = ( 'abcd', 786 , 2.23, 'john', 70.2 )
list = [ 'abcd', 786 , 2.23, 'john', 70.2 ]
tuple[2] = 1000 # Invalid syntax with tuple
list[2] = 1000 # Valid syntax with list
Python Dictionary:
Python's dictionaries are kind of hash table type. They work like associative arrays or hashes found in Perl and
consist of key-value pairs. A dictionary key can be almost any Python type, but are usually numbers or strings.
Values, on the other hand, can be any arbitrary Python object.
Dictionaries are enclosed by curly braces ( { } ) and values can be assigned and accessed using square braces (
[] ). For example:
#!/usr/bin/python
dict = {}
dict['one'] = "This is one"
dict[2] = "This is two"
tinydict = {'name': 'john','code':6734, 'dept': 'sales'}
print dict['one'] # Prints value for 'one' key
print dict[2] # Prints value for 2 key
print tinydict # Prints complete dictionary
print tinydict.keys() # Prints all the keys
print tinydict.values() # Prints all the values
This will produce the following result:
This is one
This is two
{'dept': 'sales', 'code': 6734, 'name': 'john'}
['dept', 'code', 'name']
['sales', 6734, 'john']
Dictionaries have no concept of order among elements. It is incorrect to say that the elements are "out of order";
they are simply unordered.
Data Type Conversion:
Sometimes, you may need to perform conversions between the built-in types. To convert between types, you
simply use the type name as a function.
There are several built-in functions to perform conversion from one data type to another. These functions return a
new object representing the converted value.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-60-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Function Description
int(x [,base]) Converts x to an integer. base specifies the base if x is a string.
long(x [,base] ) Converts x to a long integer. base specifies the base if x is a string.
float(x) Converts x to a floating-point number.
complex(real [,imag]) Creates a complex number.
str(x) Converts object x to a string representation.
repr(x) Converts object x to an expression string.
eval(str) Evaluates a string and returns an object.
tuple(s) Converts s to a tuple.
list(s) Converts s to a list.
set(s) Converts s to a set.
dict(d) Creates a dictionary. d must be a sequence of (key,value) tuples.
frozenset(s) Converts s to a frozen set.
chr(x) Converts an integer to a character.
unichr(x) Converts an integer to a Unicode character.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-61-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
print "Line 3 - a and b are true"
else:
print "Line 3 - Either a is not true or b is not true"
if ( a or b ):
print "Line 4 - Either a is true or b is true or both are true"
else:
print "Line 4 - Neither a is true nor b is true"
if not( a and b ):
print "Line 5 - a and b are true"
else:
print "Line 5 - Either a is not true or b is not true"
When you execute the above program, it produces the following result:
Line 1 - a and b are true
Line 2 - Either a is true or b is true or both are true
Line 3 - Either a is not true or b is not true
Line 4 - Either a is true or b is true or both are true
Line 5 - a and b are true
Python Membership Operators:
In addition to the operators discussed previously, Python has membership operators, which test for membership
in a sequence, such as strings, lists or tuples. There are two membership operators explained below:
Operator Description Example
In
Evaluates to true if it finds a variable in the specified sequence and false
otherwise.
x in y, here in results
in a 1 if x is a member
of sequence y.
not in
Evaluates to true if it does not finds a variable in the specified sequence and
false otherwise.
x not in y, here not
in results in a 1 if x is
not a member of
sequence y.
Example:
Try following example to understand all the membership operators available in Python programming language:
#!/usr/bin/python
a = 10
b = 20
list = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ];
if ( a in list ):](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-71-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
statements(s)
If a sequence contains an expression list, it is evaluated first. Then, the first item in the sequence is assigned to
the iterating variable iterating_var. Next, the statements block is executed. Each item in the list is assigned
to iterating_var, and the statement(s) block is executed until the entire sequence is exhausted.
Flow Diagram:
Example:
#!/usr/bin/python
for letter in 'Python': # First Example
print 'Current Letter :', letter
fruits = ['banana', 'apple', 'mango']
for fruit in fruits: # Second Example
print 'Current fruit :', fruit
print "Good bye!"
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:
Current Letter : P
Current Letter : y
Current Letter : t
Current Letter : h
Current Letter : o
Current Letter : n
Current fruit : banana
Current fruit : apple
Current fruit : mango
Good bye!](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-86-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Iterating by Sequence Index:
An alternative way of iterating through each item is by index offset into the sequence itself. Following is a simple
example:
#!/usr/bin/python
fruits = ['banana', 'apple', 'mango']
for index in range(len(fruits)):
print 'Current fruit :', fruits[index]
print "Good bye!"
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:
Current fruit : banana
Current fruit : apple
Current fruit : mango
Good bye!
Here, we took the assistance of the len() built-in function, which provides the total number of elements in the tuple
as well as the range() built-in function to give us the actual sequence to iterate over.
The else Statement Used with Loops
Python supports to have an else statement associated with a loop statement.
If the else statement is used with a for loop, the else statement is executed when the loop has exhausted
iterating the list.
If the else statement is used with a while loop, the else statement is executed when the condition becomes
false.
The following example illustrates the combination of an else statement with a for statement that searches for
prime numbers from 10 through 20.
#!/usr/bin/python
for num in range(10,20): #to iterate between 10 to 20
for i in range(2,num): #to iterate on the factors of the number
if num%i == 0: #to determine the first factor
j=num/i #to calculate the second factor
print '%d equals %d * %d' % (num,i,j)
break #to move to the next number, the #first FOR
else: # else part of the loop
print num, 'is a prime number'
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:
10 equals 2 * 5
11 is a prime number
12 equals 2 * 6
13 is a prime number
14 equals 2 * 7
15 equals 3 * 5
16 equals 2 * 8
17 is a prime number
18 equals 2 * 9
19 is a prime number
nested loops](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-87-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Python Numbers
Number data types store numeric values. They are immutable data types which mean that changing the
value of a number data type results in a newly allocated object.
Number objects are created when you assign a value to them. For example:
var1 = 1
var2 = 10
You can also delete the reference to a number object by using the del statement. The syntax of the del statement
is:
del var1[,var2[,var3[....,varN]]]]
You can delete a single object or multiple objects by using the del statement. For example:
del var
del var_a, var_b
Python supports four different numerical types:
int (signed integers): often called just integers or ints are positive or negative whole numbers with no
decimal point.
long (long integers ): or longs are integers of unlimited size, written like integers and followed by an
uppercase or lowercase L.
float (floating point real values) : or floats represent real numbers and are written with a decimal point
dividing the integer and fractional parts. Floats may also be in scientific notation, with E or e indicating the
power of 10 (2.5e2 = 2.5 x 102
= 250).
complex (complex numbers) : are of the form a + bJ, where a and b are floats and J (or j) represents the
square root of -1 (which is an imaginary number). a is the real part of the number, and b is the imaginary part.
Complex numbers are not used much in Python programming.
Examples:
Here are some examples of numbers:
int Long Float complex
10 51924361L 0.0 3.14j
CHAPTER
8](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-93-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
max(x1, x2,...) The largest of its arguments: the value closest to positive infinity
min(x1, x2,...) The smallest of its arguments: the value closest to negative infinity
modf(x)
The fractional and integer parts of x in a two-item tuple. Both parts have the same sign
as x. The integer part is returned as a float.
pow(x, y) The value of x**y.
round(x [,n])
x rounded to n digits from the decimal point. Python rounds away from zero as a tie-
breaker: round(0.5) is 1.0 and round(-0.5) is -1.0.
sqrt(x) The square root of x for x > 0
These mathematical functions are explained here:
abs(x)
Description
The method abs() returns absolute value of x - the (positive) distance between x and zero.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for abs() method:
abs( x )
Parameters
x -- This is a numeric expression.
Return Value
This method returns absolute value of x.
Example
The following example shows the usage of abs() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
print "abs(-45) : ", abs(-45)
print "abs(100.12) : ", abs(100.12)
print "abs(119L) : ", abs(119L)
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
abs(-45) : 45](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-95-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Description
The method pow() returns returns the value of xy.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for pow() method:
import math
math.pow( x, y )
Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import math module and then we need to call this
function using math static object.
Parameters
x -- This is a numeric expression.
y -- This is also a numeric expression.
Return Value
This method returns value of xy.
Example
The following example shows the usage of pow() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
import math # This will import math module
print "math.pow(100, 2) : ", math.pow(100, 2)
print "math.pow(100, -2) : ", math.pow(100, -2)
print "math.pow(2, 4) : ", math.pow(2, 4)
print "math.pow(3, 0) : ", math.pow(3, 0)
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
math.pow(100, 2) : 10000.0
math.pow(100, -2) : 0.0001
math.pow(2, 4) : 16.0
math.pow(3, 0) : 1.0
round(x [,n])
Description
The method round() returns x rounded to n digits from the decimal point.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for round() method:
round( x [, n] )
Parameters
x -- This is a numeric expression..
n -- This is also a numeric expression.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-104-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
math.sqrt(100) : 10.0
math.sqrt(7) : 2.64575131106
math.sqrt(math.pi) : 1.77245385091
Random Number Functions:
Random numbers are used for games, simulations, testing, security and privacy applications. Python includes the
following functions that are commonly used:
Function Description
choice(seq) A random item from a list, tuple or string.
randrange ([start,] stop [,step]) A randomly selected element from range(start, stop, step)
random() A random float r, such that 0 is less than or equal to r and r is less than 1
seed([x])
Sets the integer starting value used in generating random numbers. Call this
function before calling any other random module function. Returns None.
shuffle(lst) Randomizes the items of a list in place. Returns None.
uniform(x, y) A random float r, such that x is less than or equal to r and r is less than y
The Random Number Functions are explained here:
choice(seq)
Description
The method choice() returns a random item from a list, tuple, or string.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for choice() method:
choice( seq )
Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import random module and then we need to call this
function using random static object.
Parameters
seq -- This could be a list, tuple, or string...
Return Value
This method returns a random item.
Example
The following example shows the usage of choice() method.
#!/usr/bin/python](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-106-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
import random
print "choice([1, 2, 3, 5, 9]) : ", random.choice([1, 2, 3, 5, 9])
print "choice('A String') : ", random.choice('A String')
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
choice([1, 2, 3, 5, 9]) : 2
choice('A String') : n
randrange ([start,] stop [,step])
Description
The method randrange() returns a randomly selected element from range(start, stop, step).
Syntax
Following is the syntax for randrange() method:
randrange ([start,] stop [,step])
Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import random module and then we need to call this
function using random static object.
Parameters
start -- Start point of the range. This would be included in the range. .
stop -- Stop point of the range. This would be excluded from the range..
step -- Steps to be added in a number to decide a random number..
Return Value
This method returns a random item from the given range
Example
The following example shows the usage of randrange() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
import random
# Select an even number in 100 <= number < 1000
print "randrange(100, 1000, 2) : ", random.randrange(100, 1000, 2)
# Select another number in 100 <= number < 1000
print "randrange(100, 1000, 3) : ", random.randrange(100, 1000, 3)
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
randrange(100, 1000, 2) : 976](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-107-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
randrange(100, 1000, 3) : 520
random()
Description
The method random() returns a random float r, such that 0 is less than or equal to r and r is less than 1.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for random() method:
random ( )
Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import random module and then we need to call this
function using random static object.
Parameters
NA
Return Value
This method returns a random float r, such that 0 is less than or equal to r and r is less than 1.
Example
The following example shows the usage of random() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
import random
# First random number
print "random() : ", random.random()
# Second random number
print "random() : ", random.random()
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
random() : 0.281954791393
random() : 0.309090465205
seed([x])
Description
The method seed() sets the integer starting value used in generating random numbers. Call this function before
calling any other random module function.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-108-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Syntax
Following is the syntax for seed() method:
seed ( [x] )
Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import seed module and then we need to call this
function using random static object.
Parameters
x -- This is the seed for the next random number. If omitted,s then it takes system time to generate next
random number.
Return Value
This method does not return any value.
Example
The following example shows the usage of seed() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
import random
random.seed( 10 )
print "Random number with seed 10 : ", random.random()
# It will generate same random number
random.seed( 10 )
print "Random number with seed 10 : ", random.random()
# It will generate same random number
random.seed( 10 )
print "Random number with seed 10 : ", random.random()
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
Random number with seed 10 : 0.57140259469
Random number with seed 10 : 0.57140259469
Random number with seed 10 : 0.57140259469
shuffle(lst)
Description
The method shuffle() randomizes the items of a list in place.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-109-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Syntax
Following is the syntax for shuffle() method:
shuffle (lst )
Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import shuffle module and then we need to call this
function using random static object.
Parameters
lst -- This could be a list or tuple.
Return Value
This method returns reshuffled list.
Example
The following example shows the usage of shuffle() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
import random
list = [20, 16, 10, 5];
random.shuffle(list)
print "Reshuffled list : ", list
random.shuffle(list)
print "Reshuffled list : ", list
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
Reshuffled list : [16, 5, 10, 20]
Reshuffled list : [16, 5, 20, 10]
uniform(x, y)
Description
The method uniform() returns a random float r, such that x is less than or equal to r and r is less than y.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for uniform() method:
uniform(x, y)
Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import uniform module and then we need to call this
function using random static object.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-110-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Python Strings
Strings are amongst the most popular types in Python. We can create them simply by enclosing characters
in quotes. Python treats single quotes the same as double quotes.
Creating strings is as simple as assigning a value to a variable. For example:
var1 = 'Hello World!'
var2 = "Python Programming"
Accessing Values in Strings:
Python does not support a character type; these are treated as strings of length one, thus also considered a
substring.
To access substrings, use the square brackets for slicing along with the index or indices to obtain your substring.
Following is a simple example:
#!/usr/bin/python
var1 = 'Hello World!'
var2 = "Python Programming"
print "var1[0]: ", var1[0]
print "var2[1:5]: ", var2[1:5]
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:
var1[0]: H
var2[1:5]: ytho
Updating Strings:
You can "update" an existing string by (re)assigning a variable to another string. The new value can be related to
its previous value or to a completely different string altogether. Following is a simple example:
#!/usr/bin/python
var1 = 'Hello World!'
CHAPTER
9](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-121-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
print "Updated String :- ", var1[:6] + 'Python'
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:
Updated String :- Hello Python
Escape Characters:
Following table is a list of escape or non-printable characters that can be represented with backslash notation.
Backslash
notation
Hexadecimal
character
Description
a 0x07 Bell or alert
b 0x08 Backspace
cx Control-x
C-x Control-x
e 0x1b Escape
f 0x0c Formfeed
M-C-x Meta-Control-x
n 0x0a Newline
nnn Octal notation, where n is in the range 0.7
r 0x0d Carriage return
s 0x20 Space
t 0x09 Tab
v 0x0b Vertical tab
x Character x
xnn Hexadecimal notation, where n is in the range 0.9, a.f, or A.F
String Special Operators:
Assume string variable a holds 'Hello' and variable b holds 'Python', then:
Operator Description Example
+ Concatenation - Adds values on either side of the operator
a + b will
give](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-122-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
HelloPython
* Repetition - Creates new strings, concatenating multiple copies of the same string
a*2 will give
-HelloHello
[] Slice - Gives the character from the given index
a[1] will
give e
[ : ] Range Slice - Gives the characters from the given range
a[1:4] will
give ell
In Membership - Returns true if a character exists in the given string
H in a will
give 1
not in Membership - Returns true if a character does not exist in the given string
M not in
a will give 1
r/R
Raw String - Suppresses actual meaning of Escape characters. The syntax for raw
strings is exactly the same as for normal strings with the exception of the raw string
operator, the letter "r," which precedes the quotation marks. The "r" can be lowercase
(r) or uppercase (R) and must be placed immediately preceding the first quote mark.
print
r'n' prints
n and print
R'n' prints
n
% Format - Performs String formatting
See at next
section
String Formatting Operator:
One of Python's coolest features is the string format operator %. This operator is unique to strings and makes up
for the pack of having functions from C's printf() family. Following is a simple example:
#!/usr/bin/python
print "My name is %s and weight is %d kg!" % ('Zara', 21)
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:
My name is Zara and weight is 21 kg!
Here is the list of complete set of symbols, which can be used along with %:
Format Symbol Conversion
%c character
%s string conversion via str() prior to formatting
%i signed decimal integer
%d signed decimal integer
%u unsigned decimal integer](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-123-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
%o octal integer
%x hexadecimal integer (lowercase letters)
%X hexadecimal integer (UPPERcase letters)
%e exponential notation (with lowercase 'e')
%E exponential notation (with UPPERcase 'E')
%f floating point real number
%g the shorter of %f and %e
%G the shorter of %f and %E
Other supported symbols and functionality are listed in the following table:
Symbol Functionality
* argument specifies width or precision
- left justification
+ display the sign
<sp> leave a blank space before a positive number
#
add the octal leading zero ( '0' ) or hexadecimal leading '0x' or '0X', depending on
whether 'x' or 'X' were used.
0 pad from left with zeros (instead of spaces)
% '%%' leaves you with a single literal '%'
(var) mapping variable (dictionary arguments)
m.n.
m is the minimum total width and n is the number of digits to display after the
decimal point (if appl.)
Triple Quotes:
Python's triple quotes comes to the rescue by allowing strings to span multiple lines, including verbatim
NEWLINEs, TABs, and any other special characters.
The syntax for triple quotes consists of three consecutive single or double quotes.
#!/usr/bin/python
para_str = """this is a long string that is made up of
several lines and non-printable characters such as
TAB ( t ) and they will show up that way when displayed.
NEWLINEs within the string, whether explicitly given like
this within the brackets [ n ], or just a NEWLINE within](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-124-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
the variable assignment will also show up.
"""
print para_str;
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result. Note how every single special character has
been converted to its printed form, right down to the last NEWLINE at the end of the string between the "up." and
closing triple quotes. Also note that NEWLINEs occur either with an explicit carriage return at the end of a line or
its escape code (n):
this is a long string that is made up of
several lines and non-printable characters such as
TAB ( ) and they will show up that way when displayed.
NEWLINEs within the string, whether explicitly given like
this within the brackets [
], or just a NEWLINE within
the variable assignment will also show up.
Raw String:
Raw strings don't treat the backslash as a special character at all. Every character you put into a raw string stays
the way you wrote it:
#!/usr/bin/python
print 'C:nowhere'
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:
C:nowhere
Now let's make use of raw string. We would put expression in r'expression' as follows:
#!/usr/bin/python
print r'C:nowhere'
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:
C:nowhere
Unicode String:
Normal strings in Python are stored internally as 8-bit ASCII, while Unicode strings are stored as 16-bit Unicode.
This allows for a more varied set of characters, including special characters from most languages in the world. I'll
restrict my treatment of Unicode strings to the following:
#!/usr/bin/python
print u'Hello, world!'
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:
Hello, world!
As you can see, Unicode strings use the prefix u, just as raw strings use the prefix r.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-125-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
16
istitle()
Returns true if string is properly "titlecased" and false otherwise
17
isupper()
Returns true if string has at least one cased character and all cased characters are in uppercase and false
otherwise
18
join(seq)
Merges (concatenates) the string representations of elements in sequence seq into a string, with
separator string
19
len(string)
Returns the length of the string
20
ljust(width[, fillchar])
Returns a space-padded string with the original string left-justified to a total of width columns
21
lower()
Converts all uppercase letters in string to lowercase
22
lstrip()
Removes all leading whitespace in string
23
maketrans()
Returns a translation table to be used in translate function.
24
max(str)
Returns the max alphabetical character from the string str
25
min(str)
Returns the min alphabetical character from the string str
26
replace(old, new [, max])
Replaces all occurrences of old in string with new or at most max occurrences if max given
27
rfind(str, beg=0,end=len(string))
Same as find(), but search backwards in string
28
rindex( str, beg=0, end=len(string))
Same as index(), but search backwards in string
29
rjust(width,[, fillchar])
Returns a space-padded string with the original string right-justified to a total of width columns.
30
rstrip()
Removes all trailing whitespace of string
31
split(str="", num=string.count(str))
Splits string according to delimiter str (space if not provided) and returns list of substrings; split into at
most num substrings if given
32
splitlines( num=string.count('n'))
Splits string at all (or num) NEWLINEs and returns a list of each line with NEWLINEs removed
33
startswith(str, beg=0,end=len(string))
Determines if string or a substring of string (if starting index beg and ending index end are given) starts
with substring str; returns true if so and false otherwise](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-127-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
34
strip([chars])
Performs both lstrip() and rstrip() on string
35
swapcase()
Inverts case for all letters in string
36
title()
Returns "titlecased" version of string, that is, all words begin with uppercase and the rest are lowercase
37
translate(table, deletechars="")
Translates string according to translation table str(256 chars), removing those in the del string
38
upper()
Converts lowercase letters in string to uppercase
39
zfill (width)
Returns original string leftpadded with zeros to a total of width characters; intended for numbers, zfill()
retains any sign given (less one zero)
40
isdecimal()
Returns true if a unicode string contains only decimal characters and false otherwise
The functions are explained below:
capitalize()
Description
The method capitalize() returns a copy of the string with only its first character capitalized. For 8-bit strings, this
method is locale-dependent.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for capitalize() method:
str.capitalize()
Parameters
NA
Return Value
This method returns a copy of the string with only its first character capitalized.
Example
The following example shows the usage of capitalize() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
str = "this is string example....wow!!!";
print "str.capitalize() : ", str.capitalize()
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
str.capitalize() : This is string example....wow!!!](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-128-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
center(width, fillchar)
Description
The method center() returns centered in a string of length width. Padding is done using the specifiedfillchar.
Default filler is a space.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for center() method:
str.center(width[, fillchar])
Parameters
width -- This is the total width of the string.
fillchar -- This is the filler character.
Return Value
This method returns centered in a string of length width.
Example
The following example shows the usage of center() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
str = "this is string example....wow!!!";
print "str.center(40, 'a') : ", str.center(40, 'a')
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
str.center(40, 'a') : aaaathis is string example....wow!!!aaaa
count(str, beg= 0,end=len(string))
Description
The method count() returns the number of occurrences of substring sub in the range [start, end]. Optional
arguments start and end are interpreted as in slice notation.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for count() method:
str.count(sub, start= 0,end=len(string))
Parameters
sub -- This is the substring to be searched.
start -- Search starts from this index. First character starts from 0 index. By default search starts from 0
index.
end -- Search ends from this index. First character starts from 0 index. By default search ends at the last
index.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-129-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Syntax
Following is the syntax for endswith() method:
str.endswith(suffix[, start[, end]])
Parameters
suffix -- This could be a string or could also be a tuple of suffixes to look for.
start -- The slice begins from here.
end -- The slice ends here.
Return Value
This method returns True if the string ends with the specified suffix, otherwise return False.
Example
The following example shows the usage of endswith() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
str = "this is string example....wow!!!";
suffix = "wow!!!";
print str.endswith(suffix);
print str.endswith(suffix,20);
suffix = "is";
print str.endswith(suffix, 2, 4);
print str.endswith(suffix, 2, 6);
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
True
True
True
False
expandtabs(tabsize=8)
Description
The method expandtabs() returns a copy of the string in which tab characters ie. 't' have been expanded using
spaces, optionally using the given tabsize (default 8).
Syntax
Following is the syntax for expandtabs() method:
str.expandtabs(tabsize=8)](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-132-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
a-b-c
len(string)
Description
The method len() returns the length of the string.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for len() method:
len( str )
Parameters
NA
Return Value
This method returns the length of the string.
Example
The following example shows the usage of len() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
str = "this is string example....wow!!!";
print "Length of the string: ", len(str);
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
Length of the string: 32
ljust(width[, fillchar])
Description
The method ljust() returns the string left justified in a string of length width. Padding is done using the
specified fillchar (default is a space). The original string is returned if width is less than len(s).
Syntax
Following is the syntax for ljust() method:
str.ljust(width[, fillchar])
Parameters
width -- This is string length in total after padding.
fillchar -- This is filler character, default is a space.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-141-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Syntax
Following is the syntax for lstrip() method:
str.lstrip([chars])
Parameters
chars -- You can supply what chars have to be trimmed.
Return Value
This method returns a copy of the string in which all chars have been stripped from the beginning of the string
(default whitespace characters).
Example
The following example shows the usage of lstrip() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
str = " this is string example....wow!!! ";
print str.lstrip();
str = "88888888this is string example....wow!!!8888888";
print str.lstrip('8');
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
this is string example....wow!!!
this is string example....wow!!!8888888
maketrans()
Description
The method maketrans() returns a translation table that maps each character in the intab string into the character
at the same position in the outtab string. Then this table is passed to the translate() function.
Note: Both intab and outtab must have the same length.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for maketrans() method:
str.maketrans(intab, outtab]);
Parameters
intab -- This is the string having actual characters.
outtab -- This is the string having corresponding mapping character.
Return Value
This method returns a translate table to be used translate() function.
Example
The following example shows the usage of maketrans() method. Under this, every vowel in a string is replaced by
its vowel position:](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-143-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Syntax
Following is the syntax for min() method:
min(str)
Parameters
str -- This is the string from which min alphabetical character needs to be returned.
Return Value
This method returns the max alphabetical character from the string str.
Example
The following example shows the usage of min() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
str = "this-is-real-string-example....wow!!!";
print "Min character: " + min(str);
str = "this-is-a-string-example....wow!!!";
print "Min character: " + min(str);
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
Min character: !
Min character: !
replace(old, new [, max])
Description
The method replace() returns a copy of the string in which the occurrences of old have been replaced with new,
optionally restricting the number of replacements to max.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for replace() method:
str.replace(old, new[, max])
Parameters
old -- This is old substring to be replaced.
new -- This is new substring, which would replace old substring.
max -- If this optional argument max is given, only the first count occurrences are replaced.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-145-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Return Value
This method returns a copy of the string with all occurrences of substring old replaced by new. If the optional
argument max is given, only the first count occurrences are replaced.
Example
The following example shows the usage of replace() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
str = "this is string example....wow!!! this is really string";
print str.replace("is", "was");
print str.replace("is", "was", 3);
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
thwas was string example....wow!!! thwas was really string
thwas was string example....wow!!! thwas is really string
rfind(str, beg=0,end=len(string))
Description
The method rfind() returns the last index where the substring str is found, or -1 if no such index exists, optionally
restricting the search to string[beg:end].
Syntax
Following is the syntax for rfind() method:
str.rfind(str, beg=0 end=len(string))
Parameters
str -- This specifies the string to be searched.
beg -- This is the starting index, by default its 0.
end -- This is the ending index, by default its equal to the length of the string.
Return Value
This method returns last index if found and -1 otherwise.
Example
The following example shows the usage of rfind() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
str = "this is really a string example....wow!!!";
str = "is";
print str.rfind(str);
print str.rfind(str, 0, 10);
print str.rfind(str, 10, 0);](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-146-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
print str.find(str);
print str.find(str, 0, 10);
print str.find(str, 10, 0);
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
5
5
-1
2
2
-1
rindex( str, beg=0, end=len(string))
Description
The method rindex() returns the last index where the substring str is found, or raises an exception if no such
index exists, optionally restricting the search to string[beg:end].
Syntax
Following is the syntax for rindex() method:
str.rindex(str, beg=0 end=len(string))
Parameters
str -- This specifies the string to be searched.
beg -- This is the starting index, by default its 0
len -- This is ending index, by default its equal to the length of the string.
Return Value
This method returns last index if found otherwise raises an exception if str is not found.
Example
The following example shows the usage of rindex() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
str = "this is string example....wow!!!";
str = "is";
print str.rindex(str);
print str.index(str);
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
5
2
rjust(width,[, fillchar])](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-147-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Description
The method rjust() returns the string right justified in a string of length width. Padding is done using the
specified fillchar (default is a space). The original string is returned if width is less than len(s).
Syntax
Following is the syntax for rjust() method:
str.rjust(width[, fillchar])
Parameters
width -- This is the string length in total after padding.
fillchar -- This is the filler character, default is a space.
Return Value
This method returns the string right justified in a string of length width. Padding is done using the specified fillchar
(default is a space). The original string is returned if width is less than len(s).
Example
The following example shows the usage of rjust() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
str = "this is string example....wow!!!";
print str.rjust(50, '0');
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
000000000000000000this is string example....wow!!!
rstrip()
Description
The method rstrip() returns a copy of the string in which all chars have been stripped from the end of the string
(default whitespace characters).
Syntax
Following is the syntax for rstrip() method:
str.rstrip([chars])
Parameters
chars -- You can supply what chars have to be trimmed.
Return Value
This method returns a copy of the string in which all chars have been stripped from the end of the string (default
whitespace characters).](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-148-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Example
The following example shows the usage of rstrip() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
str = " this is string example....wow!!! ";
print str.rstrip();
str = "88888888this is string example....wow!!!8888888";
print str.rstrip('8');
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
this is string example....wow!!!
88888888this is string example....wow!!!
split(str="", num=string.count(str))
Description
The method split() returns a list of all the words in the string, using str as the separator (splits on all whitespace if
left unspecified), optionally limiting the number of splits to num.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for split() method:
str.split(str="", num=string.count(str)).
Parameters
str -- This is any delimeter, by default it is space.
num -- this is number of lines to be made.
Return Value
This method returns a list of lines.
Example
The following example shows the usage of split() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
str = "Line1-abcdef nLine2-abc nLine4-abcd";
print str.split( );
print str.split(' ', 1 );
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
['Line1-abcdef', 'Line2-abc', 'Line4-abcd']
['Line1-abcdef', 'nLine2-abc nLine4-abcd']
splitlines( num=string.count('n'))
Description
The method splitlines() returns a list with all the lines in string, optionally including the line breaks (if num is
supplied and is true)](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-149-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Syntax
Following is the syntax for splitlines() method:
str.splitlines( num=string.count('n'))
Parameters
num -- This is any number, if present then it would be assumed that line breaks need to be included in the
lines.
Return Value
This method returns true if found matching string otherwise false.
Example
The following example shows the usage of splitlines() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
str = "Line1-a b c d e fnLine2- a b cnnLine4- a b c d";
print str.splitlines( );
print str.splitlines( 0 );
print str.splitlines( 3 );
print str.splitlines( 4 );
print str.splitlines( 5 );
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
['Line1-a b c d e f', 'Line2- a b c', '', 'Line4- a b c d']
['Line1-a b c d e f', 'Line2- a b c', '', 'Line4- a b c d']
['Line1-a b c d e fn', 'Line2- a b cn', 'n', 'Line4- a b c d']
['Line1-a b c d e fn', 'Line2- a b cn', 'n', 'Line4- a b c d']
['Line1-a b c d e fn', 'Line2- a b cn', 'n', 'Line4- a b c d']
startswith(str, beg=0,end=len(string))
Description
The method startswith() checks whether string starts with str, optionally restricting the matching with the given
indices start and end.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for startswith() method:
str.startswith(str, beg=0,end=len(string));
Parameters
str -- This is the string to be checked.
beg -- This is the optional parameter to set start index of the matching boundary.
end -- This is the optional parameter to set start index of the matching boundary.
Return Value
This method returns true if found matching string otherwise false.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-150-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Example
The following example shows the usage of startswith() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
str = "this is string example....wow!!!";
print str.startswith( 'this' );
print str.startswith( 'is', 2, 4 );
print str.startswith( 'this', 2, 4 );
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
True
True
False
strip([chars])
Description
The method strip() returns a copy of the string in which all chars have been stripped from the beginning and the
end of the string (default whitespace characters).
Syntax
Following is the syntax for strip() method:
str.strip([chars]);
Parameters
chars -- The characters to be removed from beginning or end of the string.
Return Value
This method returns a copy of the string in which all chars have been stripped from the beginning and the end of
the string.
Example
The following example shows the usage of strip() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
str = "0000000this is string example....wow!!!0000000";
print str.strip( '0' );
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
this is string example....wow!!!
swapcase()](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-151-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Example
The following example shows the usage of title() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
str = "this is string example....wow!!!";
print str.title();
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
This Is String Example....Wow!!!
translate(table, deletechars="")
Description
The method translate() returns a copy of the string in which all characters have been translated
usingtable (constructed with the maketrans() function in the string module), optionally deleting all characters found
in the string deletechars.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for translate() method:
str.translate(table[, deletechars]);
Parameters
table -- You can use the maketrans() helper function in the string module to create a translation table.
deletechars -- The list of characters to be removed from the source string.
Return Value
This method returns a translated copy of the string.
Example
The following example shows the usage of translate() method. Under this, every vowel in a string is replaced by
its vowel position:
#!/usr/bin/python
from string import maketrans # Required to call maketrans function.
intab = "aeiou"
outtab = "12345"
trantab = maketrans(intab, outtab)
str = "this is string example....wow!!!";
print str.translate(trantab);](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-153-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Python Lists
The most basic data structure in Python is the sequence. Each element of a sequence is assigned a
number - its position or index. The first index is zero, the second index is one, and so forth.
Python has six built-in types of sequences, but the most common ones are lists and tuples, which we would see in
this tutorial.
There are certain things you can do with all sequence types. These operations include indexing, slicing, adding,
multiplying, and checking for membership. In addition, Python has built-in functions for finding the length of a
sequence and for finding its largest and smallest elements.
Python Lists:
The list is a most versatile datatype available in Python which can be written as a list of comma-separated values
(items) between square brackets. Good thing about a list is that items in a list need not all have the same type.
Creating a list is as simple as putting different comma-separated values between squere brackets. For example:
list1 = ['physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000];
list2 = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ];
list3 = ["a", "b", "c", "d"];
Like string indices, list indices start at 0, and lists can be sliced, concatenated and so on.
Accessing Values in Lists:
To access values in lists, use the square brackets for slicing along with the index or indices to obtain value
available at that index. Following is a simple example:
#!/usr/bin/python
list1 = ['physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000];
list2 = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 ];
print "list1[0]: ", list1[0]
print "list2[1:5]: ", list2[1:5]
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:
list1[0]: physics
CHAPTER
10](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-157-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
list2[1:5]: [2, 3, 4, 5]
Updating Lists:
You can update single or multiple elements of lists by giving the slice on the left-hand side of the assignment
operator, and you can add to elements in a list with the append() method. Following is a simple example:
#!/usr/bin/python
list = ['physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000];
print "Value available at index 2 : "
print list[2];
list[2] = 2001;
print "New value available at index 2 : "
print list[2];
Note: append() method is discussed in subsequent section.
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:
Value available at index 2 :
1997
New value available at index 2 :
2001
Delete List Elements:
To remove a list element, you can use either the del statement if you know exactly which element(s) you are
deleting or the remove() method if you do not know. Following is a simple example:
#!/usr/bin/python
list1 = ['physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000];
print list1;
del list1[2];
print "After deleting value at index 2 : "
print list1;
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:
['physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000]
After deleting value at index 2 :
['physics', 'chemistry', 2000]
Note: remove() method is discussed in subsequent section.
Basic List Operations:
Lists respond to the + and * operators much like strings; they mean concatenation and repetition here too, except
that the result is a new list, not a string.
In fact, lists respond to all of the general sequence operations we used on strings in the prior chapter.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-158-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Python Expression Results Description
len([1, 2, 3]) 3 Length
[1, 2, 3] + [4, 5, 6] [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] Concatenation
['Hi!'] * 4 ['Hi!', 'Hi!', 'Hi!', 'Hi!'] Repetition
3 in [1, 2, 3] True Membership
for x in [1, 2, 3]: print x, 1 2 3 Iteration
Indexing, Slicing, and Matrixes:
Because lists are sequences, indexing and slicing work the same way for lists as they do for strings.
Assuming following input:
L = ['spam', 'Spam', 'SPAM!']
Python Expression Results Description
L[2] 'SPAM!' Offsets start at zero
L[-2] 'Spam' Negative: count from the right
L[1:] ['Spam', 'SPAM!'] Slicing fetches sections
Built-in List Functions & Methods:
Python includes the following list functions:
SN Function with Description
1
cmp(list1, list2)
Compares elements of both lists.
2
len(list)
Gives the total length of the list.
3
max(list)
Returns item from the list with max value.
4
min(list)
Returns item from the list with min value.
5
list(seq)
Converts a tuple into list.
The functions are explained below:
cmp(list1, list2)](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-159-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Description
The method cmp() compares elements of two lists.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for cmp() method:
cmp(list1, list2)
Parameters
list1 -- This is the first list to be compared.
list2 -- This is the second list to be compared.
Return Value
If elements are of the same type, perform the compare and return the result. If elements are different types, check
to see if they are numbers.
If numbers, perform numeric coercion if necessary and compare.
If either element is a number, then the other element is "larger" (numbers are "smallest").
Otherwise, types are sorted alphabetically by name.
If we reached the end of one of the lists, the longer list is "larger." If we exhaust both lists and share the same
data, the result is a tie, meaning that 0 is returned.
Example
The following example shows the usage of cmp() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
list1, list2 = [123, 'xyz'], [456, 'abc']
print cmp(list1, list2);
print cmp(list2, list1);
list3 = list2 + [786];
print cmp(list2, list3)
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
-1
1
-1
len(list)
Description
The method len() returns the number of elements in the list.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-160-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Syntax
Following is the syntax for len() method:
len(list)
Parameters
list -- This is a list for which number of elements to be counted.
Return Value
This method returns the number of elements in the list.
Example
The following example shows the usage of len() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
list1, list2 = [123, 'xyz', 'zara'], [456, 'abc']
print "First list length : ", len(list1);
print "Second list length : ", len(list2);
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
First list length : 3
Second list length : 2
max(list)
Description
The method max returns the elements from the list with maximum value.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for max() method:
max(list)
Parameters
list -- This is a list from which max valued element to be returned.
Return Value
This method returns the elements from the list with maximum value.
Example
The following example shows the usage of max() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
list1, list2 = [123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc'], [456, 700, 200]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-161-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
print "Max value element : ", max(list1);
print "Max value element : ", max(list2);
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
Max value element : zara
Max value element : 700
min(list)
Description
The method min() returns the elements from the list with minimum value.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for min() method:
min(list)
Parameters
list -- This is a list from which min valued element to be returned.
Return Value
This method returns the elements from the list with minimum value.
Example
The following example shows the usage of min() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
list1, list2 = [123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc'], [456, 700, 200]
print "min value element : ", min(list1);
print "min value element : ", min(list2);
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
min value element : 123
min value element : 200
list(seq)
Description
The method list() takes sequence types and converts them to lists. This is used to convert a given tuple into list.
Note: Tuple are very similar to lists with only difference that element values of a tuple can not be changed and
tuple elements are put between parentheses instead of square bracket.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for list() method:
list( seq )](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-162-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Parameters
seq -- This is a tuple to be converted into list.
Return Value
This method returns the list.
Example
The following example shows the usage of list() method.
!/usr/bin/python
aTuple = (123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc');
aList = list(aTuple)
print "List elements : ", aList
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
List elements : [123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc']
Python includes the following list methods:
SN Methods with Description
1
list.append(obj)
Appends object obj to list
2
list.count(obj)
Returns count of how many times obj occurs in list
3
list.extend(seq)
Appends the contents of seq to list
4
list.index(obj)
Returns the lowest index in list that obj appears
5
list.insert(index, obj)
Inserts object obj into list at offset index
6
list.pop(obj=list[-1])
Removes and returns last object or obj from list
7
list.remove(obj)
Removes object obj from list
8
list.reverse()
Reverses objects of list in place
9
list.sort([func])
Sorts objects of list, use compare func if given
The methods are explained below:](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-163-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
list.append(obj)
Description
The method append() appends a passed obj into the existing list.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for append() method:
list.append(obj)
Parameters
obj -- This is the object to be appended in the list.
Return Value
This method does not return any value but updates existing list.
Example
The following example shows the usage of append() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
aList = [123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc'];
aList.append( 2009 );
print "Updated List : ", aList;
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
Updated List : [123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc', 2009]
list.count(obj)
Description
The method cmp() compares elements of two lists.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for cmp() method:
cmp(list1, list2)
Parameters
list1 -- This is the first list to be compared.
list2 -- This is the second list to be compared.
Return Value
If elements are of the same type, perform the compare and return the result. If elements are different types, check
to see if they are numbers.
If numbers, perform numeric coercion if necessary and compare.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-164-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
If either element is a number, then the other element is "larger" (numbers are "smallest").
Otherwise, types are sorted alphabetically by name.
If we reached the end of one of the lists, the longer list is "larger." If we exhaust both lists and share the same
data, the result is a tie, meaning that 0 is returned.
Example
The following example shows the usage of cmp() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
list1, list2 = [123, 'xyz'], [456, 'abc']
print cmp(list1, list2);
print cmp(list2, list1);
list3 = list2 + [786];
print cmp(list2, list3)
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
-1
1
-1
list.extend(seq)
Description
The method extend() appends the contents of seq to list.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for extend() method:
list.extend(seq)
Parameters
seq -- This is the list of elements
Return Value
This method does not return any value but add the content to existing list.
Example
The following example shows the usage of extend() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
aList = [123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc', 123];
bList = [2009, 'manni'];
aList.extend(bList)
print "Extended List : ", aList ;](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-165-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
Extended List : [123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc', 123, 2009, 'manni']
list.index(obj)
Description
The method index() returns the lowest index in list that obj appears.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for index() method:
list.index(obj)
Parameters
obj -- This is the object to be find out.
Return Value
This method returns index of the found object otherwise raise an exception indicating that value does not find.
Example
The following example shows the usage of index() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
aList = [123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc'];
print "Index for xyz : ", aList.index( 'xyz' ) ;
print "Index for zara : ", aList.index( 'zara' ) ;
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
Index for xyz : 1
Index for xxx : 2
list.insert(index, obj)
Description
The method insert() inserts object obj into list at offset index.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for insert() method:
list.insert(index, obj)
Parameters
index -- This is the Index where the object obj need to be inserted.
obj -- This is the Object to be inserted into the given list.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-166-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Return Value
This method does not return any value but it inserts the given element at the given index.
Example
The following example shows the usage of insert() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
aList = [123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc']
aList.insert( 3, 2009)
print "Final List : ", aList
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
Final List : [123, 'xyz', 'zara', 2009, 'abc']
list.pop(obj=list[-1])
Description
The method pop() removes and returns last object or obj from the list.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for pop() method:
list.pop(obj=list[-1])
Parameters
obj -- This is an optional parameter, index of the object to be removed from the list.
Return Value
This method returns the removed object from the list.
Example
The following example shows the usage of pop() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
aList = [123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc']
print "A List : ", aList.pop()
print "B List : ", aList.pop(2)
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
A List : abc
B List : zara](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-167-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
list.remove(obj)
Description
The method remove() removes first obj from the list.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for remove() method:
list.remove(obj)
Parameters
obj -- This is the object to be removed from the list.
Return Value
This method does not return any value but removes the given object from the list.
Example
The following example shows the usage of remove() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
aList = [123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc', 'xyz'];
aList.remove('xyz');
print "List : ", aList;
aList.remove('abc');
print "List : ", aList;
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
List : [123, 'zara', 'abc', 'xyz']
List : [123, 'zara', 'xyz']
list.reverse()
Description
The method reverse() reverses objects of list in place.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for reverse() method:
list.reverse()
Parameters
NA](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-168-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Return Value
This method does not return any value but reverse the given object from the list.
Example
The following example shows the usage of reverse() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
aList = [123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc', 'xyz']
aList.reverse()
print "List : ", aList
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
List : ['xyz', 'abc', 'zara', 'xyz', 123]
list.sort([func])
Description
The method sort() sorts objects of list, use compare func if given.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for sort() method:
list.sort([func])
Parameters
func -- This is an optional parameter, if given the it would use that function to sort the objects of the list..
Return Value
This method does not return any value but sort the given object from the list.
Example
The following example shows the usage of sort() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
aList = [123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc', 'xyz']
aList.sort()
print "List : ", aList
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
List : [123, 'abc', 'xyz', 'xyz', 'zara']](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-169-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Python Tuples
Atuple is a sequence of immutable Python objects. Tuples are sequences, just like lists. The only
difference is that tuples can't be changed i.e., tuples are immutable and tuples use parentheses and lists use
square brackets.
Creating a tuple is as simple as putting different comma-separated values and optionally you can put these
comma-separated values between parentheses also. For example:
tup1 = ('physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000);
tup2 = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5 );
tup3 = "a", "b", "c", "d";
The empty tuple is written as two parentheses containing nothing:
tup1 = ();
To write a tuple containing a single value you have to include a comma, even though there is only one value:
tup1 = (50,);
Like string indices, tuple indices start at 0, and tuples can be sliced, concatenated and so on.
Accessing Values in Tuples:
To access values in tuple, use the square brackets for slicing along with the index or indices to obtain value
available at that index. Following is a simple example:
#!/usr/bin/python
tup1 = ('physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000);
tup2 = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 );
print "tup1[0]: ", tup1[0]
print "tup2[1:5]: ", tup2[1:5]
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:
tup1[0]: physics
tup2[1:5]: [2, 3, 4, 5]
CHAPTER
11](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-171-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Updating Tuples:
Tuples are immutable which means you cannot update them or change values of tuple elements. But we able to
take portions of an existing tuples to create a new tuples as follows. Following is a simple example:
#!/usr/bin/python
tup1 = (12, 34.56);
tup2 = ('abc', 'xyz');
# Following action is not valid for tuples
# tup1[0] = 100;
# So let's create a new tuple as follows
tup3 = tup1 + tup2;
print tup3;
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:
(12, 34.56, 'abc', 'xyz')
Delete Tuple Elements:
Removing individual tuple elements is not possible. There is, of course, nothing wrong with putting together
another tuple with the undesired elements discarded.
To explicitly remove an entire tuple, just use the del statement. Following is a simple example:
#!/usr/bin/python
tup = ('physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000);
print tup;
del tup;
print "After deleting tup : "
print tup;
This will produce following result. Note an exception raised, this is because after del tup tuple does not exist any
more:
('physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000)
After deleting tup :
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "test.py", line 9, in <module>
print tup;
NameError: name 'tup' is not defined
Basic Tuples Operations:
Tuples respond to the + and * operators much like strings; they mean concatenation and repetition here too,
except that the result is a new tuple, not a string.
In fact, tuples respond to all of the general sequence operations we used on strings in the prior chapter:
Python Expression Results Description
len((1, 2, 3)) 3 Length](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-172-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
(1, 2, 3) + (4, 5, 6) (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) Concatenation
['Hi!'] * 4 ('Hi!', 'Hi!', 'Hi!', 'Hi!') Repetition
3 in (1, 2, 3) True Membership
for x in (1, 2, 3): print x, 1 2 3 Iteration
Indexing, Slicing, and Matrixes:
Because tuples are sequences, indexing and slicing work the same way for tuples as they do for strings.
Assuming following input:
L = ('spam', 'Spam', 'SPAM!')
Python Expression Results Description
L[2] 'SPAM!' Offsets start at zero
L[-2] 'Spam' Negative: count from the right
L[1:] ['Spam', 'SPAM!'] Slicing fetches sections
No Enclosing Delimiters:
Any set of multiple objects, comma-separated, written without identifying symbols, i.e., brackets for lists,
parentheses for tuples, etc., default to tuples, as indicated in these short examples:
#!/usr/bin/python
print 'abc', -4.24e93, 18+6.6j, 'xyz';
x, y = 1, 2;
print "Value of x , y : ", x,y;
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:
abc -4.24e+93 (18+6.6j) xyz
Value of x , y : 1 2
Built-in Tuple Functions:
Python includes the following tuple functions:
SN Function with Description
1
cmp(tuple1, tuple2)
Compares elements of both tuples.
2
len(tuple)
Gives the total length of the tuple.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-173-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Python Dictionary
Adictionary is mutable and is another container type that can store any number of Python objects,
including other container types. Dictionaries consist of pairs (called items) of keys and their corresponding values.
Python dictionaries are also known as associative arrays or hash tables. The general syntax of a dictionary is as
follows:
dict = {'Alice': '2341', 'Beth': '9102', 'Cecil': '3258'}
You can create dictionary in the following way as well:
dict1 = { 'abc': 456 };
dict2 = { 'abc': 123, 98.6: 37 };
Each key is separated from its value by a colon (:), the items are separated by commas, and the whole thing is
enclosed in curly braces. An empty dictionary without any items is written with just two curly braces, like this: {}.
Keys are unique within a dictionary while values may not be. The values of a dictionary can be of any type, but
the keys must be of an immutable data type such as strings, numbers, or tuples.
Accessing Values in Dictionary:
To access dictionary elements, you can use the familiar square brackets along with the key to obtain its value.
Following is a simple example:
#!/usr/bin/python
dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7, 'Class': 'First'};
print "dict['Name']: ", dict['Name'];
print "dict['Age']: ", dict['Age'];
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:
dict['Name']: Zara
dict['Age']: 7
If we attempt to access a data item with a key, which is not part of the dictionary, we get an error as follows:
CHAPTER
12](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-178-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
#!/usr/bin/python
dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7, 'Class': 'First'};
print "dict['Alice']: ", dict['Alice'];
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:
dict['Alice']:
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "test.py", line 4, in <module>
print "dict['Alice']: ", dict['Alice'];
KeyError: 'Alice'
Updating Dictionary:
You can update a dictionary by adding a new entry or item (i.e., a key-value pair), modifying an existing entry, or
deleting an existing entry as shown below in the simple example:
#!/usr/bin/python
dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7, 'Class': 'First'};
dict['Age'] = 8; # update existing entry
dict['School'] = "DPS School"; # Add new entry
print "dict['Age']: ", dict['Age'];
print "dict['School']: ", dict['School'];
When the above code is executed, it produces following result:
dict['Age']: 8
dict['School']: DPS School
Delete Dictionary Elements:
You can either remove individual dictionary elements or clear the entire contents of a dictionary. You can also
delete entire dictionary in a single operation.
To explicitly remove an entire dictionary, just use the del statement. Following is a simple example:
#!/usr/bin/python
dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7, 'Class': 'First'};
del dict['Name']; # remove entry with key 'Name'
dict.clear(); # remove all entries in dict
del dict ; # delete entire dictionary
print "dict['Age']: ", dict['Age'];
print "dict['School']: ", dict['School'];
This will produce the following result. Note an exception raised, this is because after del dict dictionary does not
exist any more:](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-179-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
dict['Age']:
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "test.py", line 8, in <module>
print "dict['Age']: ", dict['Age'];
TypeError: 'type' object is unsubscriptable
Note: del() method is discussed in subsequent section.
Properties of Dictionary Keys:
Dictionary values have no restrictions. They can be any arbitrary Python object, either standard objects or user-
defined objects. However, same is not true for the keys.
There are two important points to remember about dictionary keys:
(a) More than one entry per key not allowed. Which means no duplicate key is allowed. When duplicate keys
encountered during assignment, the last assignment wins. Following is a simple example:
#!/usr/bin/python
dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7, 'Name': 'Manni'};
print "dict['Name']: ", dict['Name'];
When the above code is executed, it produces following result:
dict['Name']: Manni
(b) Keys must be immutable. Which means you can use strings, numbers or tuples as dictionary keys but
something like ['key'] is not allowed. Following is a simple example:
#!/usr/bin/python
dict = {['Name']: 'Zara', 'Age': 7};
print "dict['Name']: ", dict['Name'];
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "test.py", line 3, in <module>
dict = {['Name']: 'Zara', 'Age': 7};
TypeError: list objects are unhashable
Built-in Dictionary Functions & Methods:
Python includes the following dictionary functions:
SN Function with Description
1
cmp(dict1, dict2)
Compares elements of both dict.
2
len(dict)
Gives the total length of the dictionary. This would be equal to the number of items in the dictionary.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-180-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
7
dict.keys()
Returns list of dictionary dict's keys
8
dict.setdefault(key, default=None)
Similar to get(), but will set dict[key]=default if key is not already in dict
9
dict.update(dict2)
Adds dictionary dict2's key-values pairs to dict
10
dict.values()
Returns list of dictionary dict's values
The methods are explained below individually:
dict.clear()
Description
The method clear() removes all items from the dictionary.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for clear() method:
dict.clear()
Parameters
NA
Return Value
This method does not return any value.
Example
The following example shows the usage of clear() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7};
print "Start Len : %d" % len(dict)
dict.clear()
print "End Len : %d" % len(dict)
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
Start Len : 2
End Len : 0
dict.copy()
Description
The method copy() returns a shallow copy of the dictionary.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-184-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Syntax
Following is the syntax for copy() method:
dict.copy()
Parameters
NA
Return Value
This method returns a shallow copy of the dictionary.
Example
The following example shows the usage of copy() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
dict1 = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7};
dict2 = dict1.copy()
print "New Dictionary : %s" % str(dict2)
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
New Dictionary : {'Age': 7, 'Name': 'Zara'}
dict.fromkeys()
Description
The method fromkeys() creates a new dictionary with keys from seq and values set to value.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for fromkeys() method:
dict.fromkeys(seq[, value]))
Parameters
seq -- This is the list of values which would be used for dictionary keys preparation.
value -- This is optional, if provided then value would be set to this value
Return Value
This method returns the list.
Example
The following example shows the usage of fromkeys() method.
#!/usr/bin/python](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-185-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
Value : [('Age', 7), ('Name', 'Zara')]
dict.keys()
Description
The method keys() returns a list of all the available keys in the dictionary.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for keys() method:
dict.keys()
Parameters
NA
Return Value
This method returns a list of all the available keys in the dictionary.
Example
The following example shows the usage of keys() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7}
print "Value : %s" % dict.keys()
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
Value : ['Age', 'Name']
dict.setdefault(key, default=None)
Description
The method setdefault() is similar to get(), but will set dict[key]=default if key is not already in dict.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for setdefault() method:
dict.setdefault(key, default=None)
Parameters
key -- This is the key to be searched.
default -- This is the Value to be returned in case key is not found.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-188-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
dict.values()
Description
The method values() returns a list of all the values available in a given dictionary.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for values() method:
dict.values()
Parameters
NA
Return Value
This method returns a list of all the values available in a given dictionary.
Example
The following example shows the usage of values() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7}
print "Value : %s" % dict.values()
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
Value : [7, 'Zara']](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-190-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
localtime = time.asctime( time.localtime(time.time()) )
print "Local current time :", localtime
This would produce the following result:
Local current time : Tue Jan 13 10:17:09 2009
Getting calendar for a month -:
The calendar module gives a wide range of methods to play with yearly and monthly calendars. Here, we print a
calendar for a given month ( Jan 2008 ):
#!/usr/bin/python
import calendar
cal = calendar.month(2008, 1)
print "Here is the calendar:"
print cal;
This would produce the following result:
Here is the calendar:
January 2008
Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su
1 2 3 4 5 6
7 8 9 10 11 12 13
14 15 16 17 18 19 20
21 22 23 24 25 26 27
28 29 30 31
The time Module:
There is a popular time module available in Python which provides functions for working with times and for
converting between representations. Here is the list of all available methods:
SN Function with Description
1
time.altzone()
The offset of the local DST timezone, in seconds west of UTC, if one is defined. This is negative if the local
DST timezone is east of UTC (as in Western Europe, including the UK). Only use this if daylight is nonzero.
2
time.asctime([tupletime])
Accepts a time-tuple and returns a readable 24-character string such as 'Tue Dec 11 18:07:14 2008'.
3
time.clock( )
Returns the current CPU time as a floating-point number of seconds. To measure computational costs of
different approaches, the value of time.clock is more useful than that of time.time().
4
time.ctime([secs])
Like asctime(localtime(secs)) and without arguments is like asctime( )
5
time.gmtime([secs])
Accepts an instant expressed in seconds since the epoch and returns a time-tuple t with the UTC time. Note :
t.tm_isdst is always 0](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-193-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
6
time.localtime([secs])
Accepts an instant expressed in seconds since the epoch and returns a time-tuple t with the local time
(t.tm_isdst is 0 or 1, depending on whether DST applies to instant secs by local rules).
7
time.mktime(tupletime)
Accepts an instant expressed as a time-tuple in local time and returns a floating-point value with the instant
expressed in seconds since the epoch.
8
time.sleep(secs)
Suspends the calling thread for secs seconds.
9
time.strftime(fmt[,tupletime])
Accepts an instant expressed as a time-tuple in local time and returns a string representing the instant as
specified by string fmt.
10
time.strptime(str,fmt='%a %b %d %H:%M:%S %Y')
Parses str according to format string fmt and returns the instant in time-tuple format.
11
time.time( )
Returns the current time instant, a floating-point number of seconds since the epoch.
12
time.tzset()
Resets the time conversion rules used by the library routines. The environment variable TZ specifies how this
is done.
The methods are explained here individually:
time.altzone()
Description
The method altzone() is the attribute of the time module. This returns the offset of the local DST timezone, in
seconds west of UTC, if one is defined. This is negative if the local DST timezone is east of UTC (as in Western
Europe, including the UK). Only use this if daylight is nonzero.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for altzone() method:
time.altzone
Parameters
NA
Return Value
This method returns the offset of the local DST timezone, in seconds west of UTC, if one is defined.
Example
The following example shows the usage of altzone() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
import time
print "time.altzone %d " % time.altzone](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-194-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
time.altzone() 25200
time.asctime([tupletime])
Description
The method asctime() converts a tuple or struct_time representing a time as returned by gmtime() or localtime()
to a 24-character string of the following form: 'Tue Feb 17 23:21:05 2009'.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for asctime() method:
time.asctime([t]))
Parameters
t -- This is a tuple of 9 elements or struct_time representing a time as returned by gmtime() or localtime()
function.
Return Value
This method returns 24-character string of the following form: 'Tue Feb 17 23:21:05 2009'.
Example
The following example shows the usage of asctime() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
import time
t = time.localtime()
print "time.asctime(t): %s " % time.asctime(t)
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result on my machine:
time.asctime(t): Tue Feb 17 09:42:58 2009
time.clock( )
Description
The method clock() returns the current processor time as a floating point number expressed in seconds on Unix.
The precision depends on that of the C function of the same name, but in any case, this is the function to use for
benchmarking Python or timing algorithms.
On Windows, this function returns wall-clock seconds elapsed since the first call to this function, as a floating
point number, based on the Win32 function QueryPerformanceCounter.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for clock() method:
time.clock()](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-195-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Parameters
NA
Return Value
This method returns the current processor time as a floating point number expressed in seconds onUnix and
in Windows it returns wall-clock seconds elapsed since the first call to this function, as a floating point number.
Example
The following example shows the usage of clock() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
import time
def procedure():
time.sleep(2.5)
# measure process time
t0 = time.clock()
procedure()
print time.clock() - t0, "seconds process time"
# measure wall time
t0 = time.time()
procedure()
print time.time() - t0, "seconds wall time"
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
0.0 seconds process time
2.50023603439 seconds wall time
Note: Not all systems can measure the true process time. On such systems (including Windows), clock usually
measures the wall time since the program was started.
time.ctime([secs])
Description
The method ctime() converts a time expressed in seconds since the epoch to a string representing local time. If
secs is not provided or None, the current time as returned by time() is used. This function is equivalent to
asctime(localtime(secs)). Locale information is not used by ctime().
Syntax
Following is the syntax for ctime() method:
time.ctime([ sec ])
Parameters
sec -- These are the number of seconds to be converted into string representation.
Return Value
This method does not return any value.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-196-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Example
The following example shows the usage of ctime() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
import time
print "time.ctime() : %s" % time.ctime()
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
time.ctime() : Tue Feb 17 10:00:18 2009
time.gmtime([secs])
Description
The method gmtime() converts a time expressed in seconds since the epoch to a struct_time in UTC in which the
dst flag is always zero. If secs is not provided or None, the current time as returned by time() is used.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for gmtime() method:
time.gmtime([ sec ])
Parameters
sec -- These are the number of seconds to be converted into structure struct_time representation.
Return Value
This method does not return any value.
Example
The following example shows the usage of gmtime() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
import time
print "time.gmtime() : %s" % time.gmtime()
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
time.gmtime() : time.struct_time(tm_year=2013, tm_mon=4, tm_mday=28, tm_hour=12,
tm_min=29, tm_sec=48, tm_wday=6, tm_yday=118, tm_isdst=0)
time.localtime([secs])
Description
The method localtime() is similar to gmtime() but it converts number of seconds to local time. If secs is not
provided or None, the current time as returned by time() is used. The dst flag is set to 1 when DST applies to the
given time.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-197-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Syntax
Following is the syntax for localtime() method:
time.localtime([ sec ])
Parameters
sec -- These are the number of seconds to be converted into structure struct_time representation.
Return Value
This method does not return any value.
Example
The following example shows the usage of localtime() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
import time
print "time.localtime() : %s" % time.localtime()
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
time.localtime() : time.struct_time(tm_year=2013, tm_mon=4, tm_mday=28, tm_hour=5,
tm_min=28, tm_sec=41, tm_wday=6, tm_yday=118, tm_isdst=0)
time.mktime(tupletime)
Description
The method mktime() is the inverse function of localtime(). Its argument is the struct_time or full 9-tuple and it
returns a floating point number, for compatibility with time().
If the input value cannot be represented as a valid time, either OverflowError or ValueError will be raised.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for mktime() method:
time.mktime(t)
Parameters
t -- This is the struct_time or full 9-tuple.
Return Value
This method returns a floating point number, for compatibility with time().
Example
The following example shows the usage of mktime() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
import time
t = (2009, 2, 17, 17, 3, 38, 1, 48, 0)](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-198-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
secs = time.mktime( t )
print "time.mktime(t) : %f" % secs
print "asctime(localtime(secs)): %s" % time.asctime(time.localtime(secs))
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
time.mktime(t) : 1234915418.000000
asctime(localtime(secs)): Tue Feb 17 17:03:38 2009
time.sleep(secs)
Description
The method sleep() suspends execution for the given number of seconds. The argument may be a floating point
number to indicate a more precise sleep time.
The actual suspension time may be less than that requested because any caught signal will terminate the sleep()
following execution of that signal's catching routine.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for sleep() method:
time.sleep(t)
Parameters
t -- This is the number of seconds execution to be suspended.
Return Value
This method does not return any value.
Example
The following example shows the usage of sleep() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
import time
print "Start : %s" % time.ctime()
time.sleep( 5 )
print "End : %s" % time.ctime()
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
Start : Tue Feb 17 10:19:18 2009
End : Tue Feb 17 10:19:23 2009
time.strftime(fmt[,tupletime])
Description
The method strftime() converts a tuple or struct_time representing a time as returned by gmtime() or localtime()
to a string as specified by the format argument.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-199-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
If t is not provided, the current time as returned by localtime() is used. format must be a string. An exception
ValueError is raised if any field in t is outside of the allowed range.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for strftime() method:
time.strftime(format[, t])
Parameters
t -- This is the time in number of seconds to be formatted.
format -- This is the directive which would be used to format given time.
The following directives can be embedded in the format string:
Directive
%a - abbreviated weekday name
%A - full weekday name
%b - abbreviated month name
%B - full month name
%c - preferred date and time representation
%C - century number (the year divided by 100, range 00 to 99)
%d - day of the month (01 to 31)
%D - same as %m/%d/%y
%e - day of the month (1 to 31)
%g - like %G, but without the century
%G - 4-digit year corresponding to the ISO week number (see %V).
%h - same as %b
%H - hour, using a 24-hour clock (00 to 23)
%I - hour, using a 12-hour clock (01 to 12)
%j - day of the year (001 to 366)
%m - month (01 to 12)
%M - minute
%n - newline character
%p - either am or pm according to the given time value
%r - time in a.m. and p.m. notation
%R - time in 24 hour notation
%S - second
%t - tab character
%T - current time, equal to %H:%M:%S
%u - weekday as a number (1 to 7), Monday=1. Warning: In Sun Solaris Sunday=1
%U - week number of the current year, starting with the first Sunday as the first day of the first week
%V - The ISO 8601 week number of the current year (01 to 53), where week 1 is the first week that has at
least 4 days in the current year, and with Monday as the first day of the week
%W - week number of the current year, starting with the first Monday as the first day of the first week
%w - day of the week as a decimal, Sunday=0
%x - preferred date representation without the time
%X - preferred time representation without the date
%y - year without a century (range 00 to 99)
%Y - year including the century
%Z or %z - time zone or name or abbreviation
%% - a literal % character](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-200-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Return Value
This method does not return any value.
Example
The following example shows the usage of strftime() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
import time
t = (2009, 2, 17, 17, 3, 38, 1, 48, 0)
t = time.mktime(t)
print time.strftime("%b %d %Y %H:%M:%S", time.gmtime(t))
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
Feb 18 2009 00:03:38
time.strptime(str,fmt='%a %b %d %H:%M:%S %Y')
Description
The method strptime() parses a string representing a time according to a format. The return value is a
struct_time as returned by gmtime() or localtime().
The format parameter uses the same directives as those used by strftime(); it defaults to "%a %b %d %H:%M:%S
%Y" which matches the formatting returned by ctime().
If string cannot be parsed according to format, or if it has excess data after parsing, ValueError is raised.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for strptime() method:
time.strptime(string[, format])
Parameters
string -- This is the time in string format which would be parsed based on the given format.
format -- This is the directive which would be used to parse the given string.
The following directives can be embedded in the format string:
Directive
%a - abbreviated weekday name
%A - full weekday name
%b - abbreviated month name
%B - full month name
%c - preferred date and time representation
%C - century number (the year divided by 100, range 00 to 99)
%d - day of the month (01 to 31)
%D - same as %m/%d/%y
%e - day of the month (1 to 31)
%g - like %G, but without the century](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-201-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Syntax
Following is the syntax for time() method:
time.time()
Parameters
NA
Return Value
This method returns the time as a floating point number expressed in seconds since the epoch, in UTC.
Example
The following example shows the usage of time() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
import time
print "time.time(): %f " % time.time()
print time.localtime( time.time() )
print time.asctime( time.localtime(time.time()) )
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
time.time(): 1234892919.655932
time.struct_time(tm_year=2009, tm_mon=2, tm_mday=17, tm_hour=10, tm_min=48,
tm_sec=39, tm_wday=1, tm_yday=48, tm_isdst=0)
Tue Feb 17 10:48:39 2009
time.tzset()
Description
The method tzset() resets the time conversion rules used by the library routines. The environment variable TZ
specifies how this is done.
The standard format of the TZ environment variable is (whitespace added for clarity):
std offset [dst [offset [,start[/time], end[/time]]]]
std and dst: Three or more alphanumerics giving the timezone abbreviations. These will be propagated into
time.tzname.
offset: The offset has the form: .hh[:mm[:ss]]. This indicates the value added the local time to arrive at UTC. If
preceded by a '-', the timezone is east of the Prime Meridian; otherwise, it is west. If no offset follows dst,
summer time is assumed to be one hour ahead of standard time.
start[/time], end[/time]: Indicates when to change to and back from DST. The format of the start and end
dates are one of the following:
Jn: The Julian day n (1 <= n <= 365). Leap days are not counted, so in all years February 28 is day 59
and March 1 is day 60.
n: The zero-based Julian day (0 <= n <= 365). Leap days are counted, and it is possible to refer to
February 29.
Mm.n.d: The d'th day (0 <= d <= 6) or week n of month m of the year (1 <= n <= 5, 1 <= m <= 12, where
week 5 means 'the last d day in month m' which may occur in either the fourth or the fifth week). Week 1
is the first week in which the d'th day occurs. Day zero is Sunday.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-203-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
time: This has the same format as offset except that no leading sign ('-' or '+') is allowed. The default, if
time is not given, is 02:00:00.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for tzset() method:
time.tzset()
Parameters
NA
Return Value
This method does not return any value.
Example
The following example shows the usage of tzset() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
import time
import os
os.environ['TZ'] = 'EST+05EDT,M4.1.0,M10.5.0'
time.tzset()
print time.strftime('%X %x %Z')
os.environ['TZ'] = 'AEST-10AEDT-11,M10.5.0,M3.5.0'
time.tzset()
print time.strftime('%X %x %Z')
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
13:00:40 02/17/09 EST
05:00:40 02/18/09 AEDT
There are following two important attributes available with time module:
SN Attribute with Description
1
time.timezone
Attribute time.timezone is the offset in seconds of the local time zone (without DST) from UTC (>0 in the
Americas; <=0 in most of Europe, Asia, Africa).
2
time.tzname
Attribute time.tzname is a pair of locale-dependent strings, which are the names of the local time zone without
and with DST, respectively.
The calendar Module
The calendar module supplies calendar-related functions, including functions to print a text calendar for a given
month or year.
By default, calendar takes Monday as the first day of the week and Sunday as the last one. To change this, call
calendar.setfirstweekday() function.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-204-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Python Function
Afunction is a block of organized, reusable code that is used to perform a single, related action.
Functions provide better modularity for your application and a high degree of code reusing.
As you already know, Python gives you many built-in functions like print(), etc., but you can also create your own
functions. These functions are called user-defined functions.
Defining a Function
You can define functions to provide the required functionality. Here are simple rules to define a function in Python.
Function blocks begin with the keyword def followed by the function name and parentheses ( ( ) ).
Any input parameters or arguments should be placed within these parentheses. You can also define
parameters inside these parentheses.
The first statement of a function can be an optional statement - the documentation string of the function
or docstring.
The code block within every function starts with a colon (:) and is indented.
The statement return [expression] exits a function, optionally passing back an expression to the caller. A
return statement with no arguments is the same as return None.
Syntax:
def functionname( parameters ):
"function_docstring"
function_suite
return [expression]
By default, parameters have a positional behavior and you need to inform them in the same order that they were
defined.
Example:
Here is the simplest form of a Python function. This function takes a string as input parameter and prints it on
standard screen.
def printme( str ):
CHAPTER
14](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-206-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
"This prints a passed string into this function"
print str
return
Calling a Function
Defining a function only gives it a name, specifies the parameters that are to be included in the function and
structures the blocks of code.
Once the basic structure of a function is finalized, you can execute it by calling it from another function or directly
from the Python prompt. Following is the example to call printme() function:
#!/usr/bin/python
# Function definition is here
def printme( str ):
"This prints a passed string into this function"
print str;
return;
# Now you can call printme function
printme("I'm first call to user defined function!");
printme("Again second call to the same function");
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:
I'm first call to user defined function!
Again second call to the same function
Pass by reference vs value
All parameters (arguments) in the Python language are passed by reference. It means if you change what a
parameter refers to within a function, the change also reflects back in the calling function. For example:
#!/usr/bin/python
# Function definition is here
def changeme( mylist ):
"This changes a passed list into this function"
mylist.append([1,2,3,4]);
print "Values inside the function: ", mylist
return
# Now you can call changeme function
mylist = [10,20,30];
changeme( mylist );
print "Values outside the function: ", mylist
Here, we are maintaining reference of the passed object and appending values in the same object. So, this would
produce the following result:
Values inside the function: [10, 20, 30, [1, 2, 3, 4]]
Values outside the function: [10, 20, 30, [1, 2, 3, 4]]
There is one more example where argument is being passed by reference and the reference is being overwritten
inside the called function](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-207-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
#!/usr/bin/python
# Function definition is here
def changeme( mylist ):
"This changes a passed list into this function"
mylist = [1,2,3,4]; # This would assign new reference in mylist
print "Values inside the function: ", mylist
return
# Now you can call changeme function
mylist = [10,20,30];
changeme( mylist );
print "Values outside the function: ", mylist
The parameter mylist is local to the function changeme. Changing mylist within the function does not affect mylist.
The function accomplishes nothing and finally this would produce the following result:
Values inside the function: [1, 2, 3, 4]
Values outside the function: [10, 20, 30]
Function Arguments:
You can call a function by using the following types of formal arguments:
Required arguments
Keyword arguments
Default arguments
Variable-length arguments
Required arguments:
Required arguments are the arguments passed to a function in correct positional order. Here, the number of
arguments in the function call should match exactly with the function definition.
To call the function printme(), you definitely need to pass one argument, otherwise it would give a syntax error as
follows:
#!/usr/bin/python
# Function definition is here
def printme( str ):
"This prints a passed string into this function"
print str;
return;
# Now you can call printme function
printme();
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "test.py", line 11, in <module>
printme();](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-208-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
return;
# Now you can call printinfo function
printinfo( age=50, name="miki" );
printinfo( name="miki" );
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:
Name: miki
Age 50
Name: miki
Age 35
Variable-length arguments:
You may need to process a function for more arguments than you specified while defining the function. These
arguments are called variable-length arguments and are not named in the function definition, unlike required and
default arguments.
The general syntax for a function with non-keyword variable arguments is this:
def functionname([formal_args,] *var_args_tuple ):
"function_docstring"
function_suite
return [expression]
An asterisk (*) is placed before the variable name that will hold the values of all nonkeyword variable arguments.
This tuple remains empty if no additional arguments are specified during the function call. Following is a simple
example:
#!/usr/bin/python
# Function definition is here
def printinfo( arg1, *vartuple ):
"This prints a variable passed arguments"
print "Output is: "
print arg1
for var in vartuple:
print var
return;
# Now you can call printinfo function
printinfo( 10 );
printinfo( 70, 60, 50 );
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:
Output is:
10
Output is:
70
60
50
The Anonymous Functions:
You can use the lambda keyword to create small anonymous functions. These functions are called anonymous
because they are not declared in the standard manner by using the def keyword.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-210-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Lambda forms can take any number of arguments but return just one value in the form of an expression.
They cannot contain commands or multiple expressions.
An anonymous function cannot be a direct call to print because lambda requires an expression.
Lambda functions have their own local namespace and cannot access variables other than those in their
parameter list and those in the global namespace.
Although it appears that lambda's are a one-line version of a function, they are not equivalent to
inline statements in C or C++, whose purpose is by passing function stack allocation during invocation for
performance reasons.
Syntax:
The syntax of lambda functions contains only a single statement, which is as follows:
lambda [arg1 [,arg2,.....argn]]:expression
Following is the example to show how lambda form of function works:
#!/usr/bin/python
# Function definition is here
sum = lambda arg1, arg2: arg1 + arg2;
# Now you can call sum as a function
print "Value of total : ", sum( 10, 20 )
print "Value of total : ", sum( 20, 20 )
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:
Value of total : 30
Value of total : 40
The return Statement:
The statement return [expression] exits a function, optionally passing back an expression to the caller. A return
statement with no arguments is the same as return None.
All the above examples are not returning any value, but if you like you can return a value from a function as
follows:
#!/usr/bin/python
# Function definition is here
def sum( arg1, arg2 ):
# Add both the parameters and return them."
total = arg1 + arg2
print "Inside the function : ", total
return total;
# Now you can call sum function
total = sum( 10, 20 );
print "Outside the function : ", total
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-211-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Python Modules
Amodule allows you to logically organize your Python code. Grouping related code into a module makes
the code easier to understand and use. A module is a Python object with arbitrarily named attributes that you can
bind and reference.
Simply, a module is a file consisting of Python code. A module can define functions, classes and variables. A
module can also include runnable code.
Example:
The Python code for a module named aname normally resides in a file named aname.py. Here's an example of a
simple module, hello.py
def print_func( par ):
print "Hello : ", par
return
The import Statement:
You can use any Python source file as a module by executing an import statement in some other Python source
file. The import has the following syntax:
import module1[, module2[,... moduleN]
When the interpreter encounters an import statement, it imports the module if the module is present in the search
path. A search path is a list of directories that the interpreter searches before importing a module. For example, to
import the module hello.py, you need to put the following command at the top of the script:
#!/usr/bin/python
# Import module hello
import hello
# Now you can call defined function that module as follows
hello.print_func("Zara")
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:
Hello : Zara
CHAPTER
15](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-213-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
A module is loaded only once, regardless of the number of times it is imported. This prevents the module
execution from happening over and over again if multiple imports occur.
The from...import Statement
Python's from statement lets you import specific attributes from a module into the current namespace.
The from...import has the following syntax:
from modname import name1[, name2[, ... nameN]]
For example, to import the function fibonacci from the module fib, use the following statement:
from fib import fibonacci
This statement does not import the entire module fib into the current namespace; it just introduces the item
fibonacci from the module fib into the global symbol table of the importing module.
The from...import * Statement:
It is also possible to import all names from a module into the current namespace by using the following import
statement:
from modname import *
This provides an easy way to import all the items from a module into the current namespace; however, this
statement should be used sparingly.
Locating Modules:
When you import a module, the Python interpreter searches for the module in the following sequences:
The current directory.
If the module isn't found, Python then searches each directory in the shell variable PYTHONPATH.
If all else fails, Python checks the default path. On UNIX, this default path is normally /usr/local/lib/python/.
The module search path is stored in the system module sys as the sys.path variable. The sys.path variable
contains the current directory, PYTHONPATH, and the installation-dependent default.
The PYTHONPATH Variable:
The PYTHONPATH is an environment variable, consisting of a list of directories. The syntax of PYTHONPATH is
the same as that of the shell variable PATH.
Here is a typical PYTHONPATH from a Windows system:
set PYTHONPATH=c:python20lib;
And here is a typical PYTHONPATH from a UNIX system:
set PYTHONPATH=/usr/local/lib/python](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-214-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
'sqrt', 'tan', 'tanh']
Here, the special string variable __name__ is the module's name, and __file__ is the filename from which the
module was loaded.
The globals() and locals() Functions:
The globals() and locals() functions can be used to return the names in the global and local namespaces
depending on the location from where they are called.
If locals() is called from within a function, it will return all the names that can be accessed locally from that
function.
If globals() is called from within a function, it will return all the names that can be accessed globally from that
function.
The return type of both these functions is dictionary. Therefore, names can be extracted using the keys() function.
The reload() Function:
When the module is imported into a script, the code in the top-level portion of a module is executed only once.
Therefore, if you want to reexecute the top-level code in a module, you can use the reload() function. The reload()
function imports a previously imported module again. The syntax of the reload() function is this:
reload(module_name)
Here, module_name is the name of the module you want to reload and not the string containing the module
name. For example, to reload hello module, do the following:
reload(hello)
Packages in Python:
A package is a hierarchical file directory structure that defines a single Python application environment that
consists of modules and subpackages and sub-subpackages, and so on.
Consider a file Pots.py available in Phone directory. This file has following line of source code:
#!/usr/bin/python
def Pots():
print "I'm Pots Phone"
Similar way, we have another two files having different functions with the same name as above:
Phone/Isdn.py file having function Isdn()
Phone/G3.py file having function G3()
Now, create one more file __init__.py in Phone directory:
Phone/__init__.py
To make all of your functions available when you've imported Phone, you need to put explicit import statements in
__init__.py as follows:](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-216-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Python Files I/O
This chapter will cover all the basic I/O functions available in Python. For more functions, please refer to
standard Python documentation.
Printing to the Screen:
The simplest way to produce output is using the print statement where you can pass zero or more expressions
separated by commas. This function converts the expressions you pass into a string and writes the result to
standard output as follows:
#!/usr/bin/python
print "Python is really a great language,", "isn't it?";
This would produce the following result on your standard screen:
Python is really a great language, isn't it?
Reading Keyboard Input:
Python provides two built-in functions to read a line of text from standard input, which by default comes from the
keyboard. These functions are:
raw_input
input
The raw_input Function:
The raw_input([prompt]) function reads one line from standard input and returns it as a string (removing the
trailing newline).
#!/usr/bin/python
str = raw_input("Enter your input: ");
print "Received input is : ", str
This would prompt you to enter any string and it would display same string on the screen. When I typed "Hello
Python!", its output is like this:
Enter your input: Hello Python
CHAPTER
16](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-218-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Received input is : Hello Python
The input Function:
The input([prompt]) function is equivalent to raw_input, except that it assumes the input is a valid Python
expression and returns the evaluated result to you.
#!/usr/bin/python
str = input("Enter your input: ");
print "Received input is : ", str
This would produce the following result against the entered input:
Enter your input: [x*5 for x in range(2,10,2)]
Recieved input is : [10, 20, 30, 40]
Opening and Closing Files:
Until now, you have been reading and writing to the standard input and output. Now, we will see how to play with
actual data files.
Python provides basic functions and methods necessary to manipulate files by default. You can do your most of
the file manipulation using a file object.
The open Function:
Before you can read or write a file, you have to open it using Python's built-in open() function. This function
creates a file object, which would be utilized to call other support methods associated with it.
SYNTAX:
file object = open(file_name [, access_mode][, buffering])
Here is paramters' detail:
file_name: The file_name argument is a string value that contains the name of the file that you want to
access.
access_mode: The access_mode determines the mode in which the file has to be opened, i.e., read, write,
append, etc. A complete list of possible values is given below in the table. This is optional parameter and the
default file access mode is read (r).
buffering: If the buffering value is set to 0, no buffering will take place. If the buffering value is 1, line
buffering will be performed while accessing a file. If you specify the buffering value as an integer greater than
1, then buffering action will be performed with the indicated buffer size. If negative, the buffer size is the
system default(default behavior).
Here is a list of the different modes of opening a file:
Modes Description
R
Opens a file for reading only. The file pointer is placed at the beginning of the file. This is the
default mode.
Rb
Opens a file for reading only in binary format. The file pointer is placed at the beginning of the
file. This is the default mode.
r+ Opens a file for both reading and writing. The file pointer will be at the beginning of the file.
rb+
Opens a file for both reading and writing in binary format. The file pointer will be at the
beginning of the file.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-219-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
The above method would create foo.txt file and would write given content in that file and finally it would close that
file. If you would open this file, it would have following content:
Python is a great language.
Yeah its great!!
The read() Method:
The read() method reads a string from an open file. It is important to note that Python strings can have binary data
and not just text.
SYNTAX:
fileObject.read([count]);
Here, passed parameter is the number of bytes to be read from the opened file. This method starts reading from
the beginning of the file and if count is missing, then it tries to read as much as possible, maybe until the end of
file.
EXAMPLE:
Let's take a file foo.txt, which we have created above.
#!/usr/bin/python
# Open a file
fo = open("foo.txt", "r+")
str = fo.read(10);
print "Read String is : ", str
# Close opened file
fo.close()
This would produce the following result:
Read String is : Python is
File Positions:
The tell() method tells you the current position within the file; in other words, the next read or write will occur at
that many bytes from the beginning of the file.
The seek(offset[, from]) method changes the current file position. The offset argument indicates the number of
bytes to be moved. The from argument specifies the reference position from where the bytes are to be moved.
If from is set to 0, it means use the beginning of the file as the reference position and 1 means use the current
position as the reference position and if it is set to 2 then the end of the file would be taken as the reference
position.
EXAMPLE:
Let's take a file foo.txt, which we have created above.
#!/usr/bin/python
# Open a file
fo = open("foo.txt", "r+")
str = fo.read(10);
print "Read String is : ", str](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-222-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
#!/usr/bin/python
import os
# This would give location of the current directory
os.getcwd()
The rmdir() Method:
The rmdir() method deletes the directory, which is passed as an argument in the method.
Before removing a directory, all the contents in it should be removed.
SYNTAX:
os.rmdir('dirname')
EXAMPLE:
Following is the example to remove "/tmp/test" directory. It is required to give fully qualified name of the directory,
otherwise it would search for that directory in the current directory.
#!/usr/bin/python
import os
# This would remove "/tmp/test" directory.
os.rmdir( "/tmp/test" )
File & Directory Related Methods:
There are three important sources, which provide a wide range of utility methods to handle and manipulate files &
directories on Windows and Unix operating systems. They are as follows:
File Object Methods: The file object provides functions to manipulate files.
OS Object Methods: This provides methods to process files as well as directories.
File Object Methods
A file object is created using open function and here is a list of functions, which can be called on this object:
SN Methods with Description
1
file.close()
Closes the file. A closed file cannot be read or written any more.
2
file.flush()
Flushes the internal buffer, like stdio's fflush. This may be a no-op on some file-like objects.
3
file.fileno()
Returns the integer file descriptor that is used by the underlying implementation to request I/O
operations from the operating system.
4
file.isatty()
Returns True if the file is connected to a tty(-like) device, else False.
5
file.next()
Returns the next line from the file each time it is being called.
6 file.read([size])](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-225-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Reads at most size bytes from the file (less if the read hits EOF before obtaining size bytes).
7
file.readline([size])
Reads one entire line from the file. A trailing newline character is kept in the string.
8
file.readlines([sizehint])
Reads until EOF using readline() and return a list containing the lines. If the optional sizehint
argument is present, instead of reading up to EOF, whole lines totalling approximately sizehint
bytes (possibly after rounding up to an internal buffer size) are read.
9
file.seek(offset[, whence])
Sets the file's current position.
10
file.tell()
Returns the file's current position
11
file.truncate([size])
Truncates the file's size. If the optional size argument is present, the file is truncated to (at most)
that size.
12
file.write(str)
Writes a string to the file. There is no return value.
13
file.writelines(sequence)
Writes a sequence of strings to the file. The sequence can be any iterable object producing
strings, typically a list of strings.
file.close()
Description
The method close() closes the opened file. A closed file cannot be read or written any more. Any operation, which
requires that the file be opened will raise a ValueError after the file has been closed. Calling close() more than
once is allowed.
Python automatically closes a file when the reference object of a file is reassigned to another file. It is a good
practice to use the close() method to close a file.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for close() method:
fileObject.close();
Parameters
NA
Return Value
This method does not return any value.
Example
The following example shows the usage of close() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
# Open a file](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-226-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
#!/usr/bin/python
# Open a file
fo = open("foo.txt", "r")
print "Name of the file: ", fo.name
# Assuming file has following 5 lines
# This is 1st line
# This is 2nd line
# This is 3rd line
# This is 4th line
# This is 5th line
for index in range(5):
line = fo.next()
print "Line No %d - %s" % (index, line)
# Close opened file
fo.close()
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
Name of the file: foo.txt
Line No 0 - This is 1st line
Line No 1 - This is 2nd line
Line No 2 - This is 3rd line
Line No 3 - This is 4th line
Line No 4 - This is 5th line
file.read([size])
Description
The method read() reads at most size bytes from the file. If the read hits EOF before obtaining size bytes, then it
reads only available bytes.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for read() method:
fileObject.read( size );
Parameters
size -- This is the number of bytes to be read from the file.
Return Value
This method returns the bytes read in string.
Example
The following example shows the usage of read() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
# Open a file
fo = open("foo.txt", "r")](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-230-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
print "Name of the file: ", fo.name
# Assuming file has following 5 lines
# This is 1st line
# This is 2nd line
# This is 3rd line
# This is 4th line
# This is 5th line
line = fo.read(10)
print "Read Line: %s" % (line)
# Close opened file
fo.close()
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
Name of the file: foo.txt
Read Line: This is 1s
file.readline([size])
Description
The method readline() reads one entire line from the file. A trailing newline character is kept in the string. If
the size argument is present and non-negative, it is a maximum byte count including the trailing newline and an
incomplete line may be returned.
An empty string is returned only when EOF is encountered immediately.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for readline() method:
fileObject.readline( size );
Parameters
size -- This is the number of bytes to be read from the file.
Return Value
This method returns the line read from the file.
Example
The following example shows the usage of readline() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
# Open a file
fo = open("foo.txt", "r")
print "Name of the file: ", fo.name
# Assuming file has following 5 lines
# This is 1st line
# This is 2nd line
# This is 3rd line](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-231-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
# This is 4th line
# This is 5th line
line = fo.readline()
print "Read Line: %s" % (line)
line = fo.readline(5)
print "Read Line: %s" % (line)
# Close opened file
fo.close()
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
Name of the file: foo.txt
Read Line: This is 1st line
Read Line: This
file.readlines([sizehint])
Description
The method readlines() reads until EOF using readline() and returns a list containing the lines. If the
optional sizehint argument is present, instead of reading up to EOF, whole lines totalling approximately
sizehint bytes (possibly after rounding up to an internal buffer size) are read.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for readlines() method:
fileObject.readlines( sizehint );
Parameters
sizehint -- This is the number of bytes to be read from the file.
Return Value
This method returns a list containing the lines.
Example
The following example shows the usage of readlines() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
# Open a file
fo = open("foo.txt", "r")
print "Name of the file: ", fo.name
# Assuming file has following 5 lines
# This is 1st line
# This is 2nd line
# This is 3rd line
# This is 4th line
# This is 5th line](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-232-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
line = fo.readlines()
print "Read Line: %s" % (line)
line = fo.readlines(2)
print "Read Line: %s" % (line)
# Close opened file
fo.close()
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
Name of the file: foo.txt
Read Line: ['This is 1st linen', 'This is 2nd linen',
'This is 3rd linen', 'This is 4th linen',
'This is 5th linen']
Read Line: []
file.seek(offset[, whence])
Description
The method seek() sets the file's current position at the offset. The whence argument is optional and defaults to
0, which means absolute file positioning, other values are 1 which means seek relative to the current position and
2 means seek relative to the file's end.
There is no return value. Note that if the file is opened for appending using either 'a' or 'a+', any seek() operations
will be undone at the next write.
If the file is only opened for writing in append mode using 'a', this method is essentially a no-op, but it remains
useful for files opened in append mode with reading enabled (mode 'a+').
If the file is opened in text mode using 't', only offsets returned by tell() are legal. Use of other offsets causes
undefined behavior.
Note that not all file objects are seekable.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for seek() method:
fileObject.seek(offset[, whence])
Parameters
offset -- This is the position of the read/write pointer within the file.
whence -- This is optional and defaults to 0 which means absolute file positioning, other values are 1 which
means seek relative to the current position and 2 means seek relative to the file's end.
Return Value
This method does not return any value.
Example
The following example shows the usage of seek() method.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-233-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
fo = open("foo.txt", "r")
print "Name of the file: ", fo.name
# Assuming file has following 5 lines
# This is 1st line
# This is 2nd line
# This is 3rd line
# This is 4th line
# This is 5th line
line = fo.readline()
print "Read Line: %s" % (line)
# Get the current position of the file.
pos = fo.tell()
print "Current Position: %d" % (pos)
# Close opened file
fo.close()
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
Name of the file: foo.txt
Read Line: This is 1st line
Current Position: 17
file.truncate([size])
Description
The method truncate() truncates the file's size. If the optional size argument is present, the file is truncated to (at
most) that size..
The size defaults to the current position. The current file position is not changed. Note that if a specified
size exceeds the file's current size, the result is platform-dependent.
Note: This method would not work in case file is opened in read-only mode.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for truncate() method:
fileObject.truncate( [ size ])
Parameters
size -- If this optional argument is present, the file is truncated to (at most) that size.
Return Value
This method does not return any value.
Example
The following example shows the usage of truncate() method.
#!/usr/bin/python](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-235-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Return Value
This method does not return any value.
Example
The following example shows the usage of writelines() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
# Open a file
fo = open("foo.txt", "rw+")
print "Name of the file: ", fo.name
# Assuming file has following 5 lines
# This is 1st line
# This is 2nd line
# This is 3rd line
# This is 4th line
# This is 5th line
seq = ["This is 6th linen", "This is 7th line"]
# Write sequence of lines at the end of the file.
fo.seek(0, 2)
line = fo.writelines( seq )
# Now read complete file from beginning.
fo.seek(0,0)
for index in range(7):
line = fo.next()
print "Line No %d - %s" % (index, line)
# Close opened file
fo.close()
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
Name of the file: foo.txt
Line No 0 - This is 1st line
Line No 1 - This is 2nd line
Line No 2 - This is 3rd line
Line No 3 - This is 4th line
Line No 4 - This is 5th line
Line No 5 - This is 6th line
Line No 6 - This is 7th line](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-238-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
OS Object Methods
The os module provides a big range of useful methods to manipulate files and directories. Most of the useful
methods are listed here:
SN Methods with Description
1
os.access(path, mode)
Use the real uid/gid to test for access to path.
2
os.chdir(path)
Change the current working directory to path
3
os.chflags(path, flags)
Set the flags of path to the numeric flags.
4
os.chmod(path, mode)
Change the mode of path to the numeric mode.
5
os.chown(path, uid, gid)
Change the owner and group id of path to the numeric uid and gid.
6
os.chroot(path)
Change the root directory of the current process to path.
7
os.close(fd)
Close file descriptor fd.
8
os.closerange(fd_low, fd_high)
Close all file descriptors from fd_low (inclusive) to fd_high (exclusive), ignoring errors.
9
os.dup(fd)
Return a duplicate of file descriptor fd.
10
os.dup2(fd, fd2)
Duplicate file descriptor fd to fd2, closing the latter first if necessary.
11
os.fchdir(fd)
Change the current working directory to the directory represented by the file descriptor fd.
12
os.fchmod(fd, mode)
Change the mode of the file given by fd to the numeric mode.
13
os.fchown(fd, uid, gid)
Change the owner and group id of the file given by fd to the numeric uid and gid.
14
os.fdatasync(fd)
Force write of file with filedescriptor fd to disk.
15
os.fdopen(fd[, mode[, bufsize]])
Return an open file object connected to the file descriptor fd.
16
os.fpathconf(fd, name)
Return system configuration information relevant to an open file. name specifies the configuration
value to retrieve.
17
os.fstat(fd)
Return status for file descriptor fd, like stat().
18
os.fstatvfs(fd)
Return information about the filesystem containing the file associated with file descriptor fd, like
statvfs().](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-239-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
19
os.fsync(fd)
Force write of file with filedescriptor fd to disk.
20
os.ftruncate(fd, length)
Truncate the file corresponding to file descriptor fd, so that it is at most length bytes in size.
21
os.getcwd()
Return a string representing the current working directory.
22
os.getcwdu()
Return a Unicode object representing the current working directory.
23
os.isatty(fd)
Return True if the file descriptor fd is open and connected to a tty(-like) device, else False.
24
os.lchflags(path, flags)
Set the flags of path to the numeric flags, like chflags(), but do not follow symbolic links.
25
os.lchmod(path, mode)
Change the mode of path to the numeric mode.
26
os.lchown(path, uid, gid)
Change the owner and group id of path to the numeric uid and gid. This function will not follow
symbolic links.
27
os.link(src, dst)
Create a hard link pointing to src named dst.
28
os.listdir(path)
Return a list containing the names of the entries in the directory given by path.
29
os.lseek(fd, pos, how)
Set the current position of file descriptor fd to position pos, modified by how.
30
os.lstat(path)
Like stat(), but do not follow symbolic links.
31
os.major(device)
Extract the device major number from a raw device number.
32
os.makedev(major, minor)
Compose a raw device number from the major and minor device numbers.
33
os.makedirs(path[, mode])
Recursive directory creation function.
34
os.minor(device)
Extract the device minor number from a raw device number .
35
os.mkdir(path[, mode])
Create a directory named path with numeric mode mode.
36
os.mkfifo(path[, mode])
Create a FIFO (a named pipe) named path with numeric mode mode. The default mode is 0666
(octal).
37
os.mknod(filename[, mode=0600, device])
Create a filesystem node (file, device special file or named pipe) named filename.
38
os.open(file, flags[, mode])
Open the file file and set various flags according to flags and possibly its mode according to mode.
39
os.openpty()
Open a new pseudo-terminal pair. Return a pair of file descriptors (master, slave) for the pty and](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-240-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
the tty, respectively.
40
os.pathconf(path, name)
Return system configuration information relevant to a named file.
41
os.pipe()
Create a pipe. Return a pair of file descriptors (r, w) usable for reading and writing, respectively.
42
os.popen(command[, mode[, bufsize]])
Open a pipe to or from command.
43
os.read(fd, n)
Read at most n bytes from file descriptor fd. Return a string containing the bytes read. If the end of
the file referred to by fd has been reached, an empty string is returned.
44
os.readlink(path)
Return a string representing the path to which the symbolic link points.
45
os.remove(path)
Remove the file path.
46
os.removedirs(path)
Remove directories recursively.
47
os.rename(src, dst)
Rename the file or directory src to dst.
48
os.renames(old, new)
Recursive directory or file renaming function.
49
os.rmdir(path)
Remove the directory path
50
os.stat(path)
Perform a stat system call on the given path.
51
os.stat_float_times([newvalue])
Determine whether stat_result represents time stamps as float objects.
52
os.statvfs(path)
Perform a statvfs system call on the given path.
53
os.symlink(src, dst)
Create a symbolic link pointing to src named dst.
54
os.tcgetpgrp(fd)
Return the process group associated with the terminal given by fd (an open file descriptor as
returned by open()).
55
os.tcsetpgrp(fd, pg)
Set the process group associated with the terminal given by fd (an open file descriptor as returned
by open()) to pg.
56
os.tempnam([dir[, prefix]])
Return a unique path name that is reasonable for creating a temporary file.
57
os.tmpfile()
Return a new file object opened in update mode (w+b).
58
os.tmpnam()
Return a unique path name that is reasonable for creating a temporary file.
59
os.ttyname(fd)
Return a string which specifies the terminal device associated with file descriptor fd. If fd is not](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-241-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
associated with a terminal device, an exception is raised.
60
os.unlink(path)
Remove the file path.
61
os.utime(path, times)
Set the access and modified times of the file specified by path.
62
os.walk(top[, topdown=True[, onerror=None[, followlinks=False]]])
Generate the file names in a directory tree by walking the tree either top-down or bottom-up.
63
os.write(fd, str)
Write the string str to file descriptor fd. Return the number of bytes actually written.
os.access(path, mode)
Description
The method access() uses the real uid/gid to test for access to path. Most operations will use the effective
uid/gid, therefore this routine can be used in a suid/sgid environment to test if the invoking user has the specified
access to path.It returns True if access is allowed, False if not.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for access() method:
os.access(path, mode);
Parameters
path -- This is the path which would be tested for existence or any access.
mode -- This should be F_OK to test the existence of path, or it can be the inclusive OR of one or more of
R_OK, W_OK, and X_OK to test permissions.
os.F_OK: Value to pass as the mode parameter of access() to test the existence of path.
os.R_OK: Value to include in the mode parameter of access() to test the readability of path.
os.W_OK Value to include in the mode parameter of access() to test the writability of path.
os.X_OK Value to include in the mode parameter of access() to determine if path can be executed.
Return Value
This method returns True if access is allowed, False if not.
Example
The following example shows the usage of access() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
import os, sys
# Assuming /tmp/foo.txt exists and has read/write permissions.
ret = os.access("/tmp/foo.txt", os.F_OK)
print "F_OK - return value %s"% ret](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-242-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
#!/usr/bin/python
import os, sys
# Open a file
fd = os.open( "foo.txt", os.O_RDWR|os.O_CREAT )
# Write one string
os.write(fd, "This is test")
# Now you can use fdatasync() method.
# Infact here you would not be able to see its effect.
os.fdatasync(fd)
# Now read this file from the beginning.
os.lseek(fd, 0, 0)
str = os.read(fd, 100)
print "Read String is : ", str
# Close opened file
os.close( fd )
print "Closed the file successfully!!"
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
Read String is : This is test
Closed the file successfully!!
os.fdopen(fd[, mode[, bufsize]])
Description
The method fdopen() returns an open file object connected to the file descriptor fd. Then you can perform all the
defined functions on file object.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for fdopen() method
os.fdopen(fd, [, mode[, bufsize]]);
Parameters
fd -- This is the file descriptor for which a file object is to be returned.
mode -- This optional argument is a string indicating how the file is to be opened. The most commonly-used
values of mode are 'r' for reading, 'w' for writing (truncating the file if it already exists), and 'a' for appending.
bufsize -- This optional argument specifies the file's desired buffer size: 0 means unbuffered, 1 means line
buffered, any other positive value means use a buffer of (approximately) that size.
Return Value
This method returns an open file object connected to the file descriptor.
Example
The following example shows the usage of fdopen() method.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-255-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Parameters
major -- This is Major device number.
minor -- This is Minor device number.
Return Value
This method returns the device number.
Example
The following example shows the usage of makedev() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
import os, sys
path = "/var/www/html/foo.txt"
# Now get the touple
info = os.lstat(path)
# Get major and minor device number
major_dnum = os.major(info.st_dev)
minor_dnum = os.minor(info.st_dev)
print "Major Device Number :", major_dnum
print "Minor Device Number :", minor_dnum
# Make a device number
dev_num = os.makedev(major_dnum, minor_dnum)
print "Device Number :", dev_num
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
Major Device Number : 0
Minor Device Number : 103
Device Number : 103
os.makedirs(path[, mode])
Description
The method makedirs() is recursive directory creation function. Like mkdir(), but makes all intermediate-level
directories needed to contain the leaf directory.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for makedirs() method:
os.makedirs(path[, mode])
Parameters
path -- This is the path, which needs to be created recursively.
mode -- This is the Mode of the directories to be given.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-273-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
minor_dnum = os.minor(info.st_dev)
print "Major Device Number :", major_dnum
print "Minor Device Number :", minor_dnum
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
Major Device Number : 0
Minor Device Number : 103
os.mkdir(path[, mode])
Description
The method mkdir() create a directory named path with numeric mode mode. The default mode is 0777 (octal).
On some systems, mode is ignored. Where it is used, the current umask value is first masked out.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for mkdir() method:
os.mkdir(path[, mode])
Parameters
path -- This is the path, which needs to be created.
mode -- This is the mode of the directories to be given.
Return Value
This method does not return any value.
Example
The following example shows the usage of mkdir() method.
#!/usr/bin/python
import os, sys
# Path to be created
path = "/tmp/home/monthly/daily/hourly"
os.mkdir( path, 0755 );
print "Path is created"
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
Path is created](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-275-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
os.mkfifo(path[, mode])
Description
The method mkfifo() creates a FIFO named path with numeric mode. The default mode is 0666 (octal).The
current umask value is first masked out.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for mkfifo() method:
os.mkfifo(path[, mode])
Parameters
path -- This is the path, which needs to be created.
mode -- This is the mode of the named path to be given.
Return Value
This method does not return any value.
Example
The following example shows the usage of mkfifo() method.
# !/usr/bin/python
import os, sys
# Path to be created
path = "/tmp/hourly"
os.mkfifo( path, 0644 )
print "Path is created"
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
Path is created
os.mknod(filename[, mode=0600, device])
Description
The method mknod() creates a filesystem node (file, device special file or named pipe) named
filename.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for mknod() method:
os.mknod(filename[, mode=0600[, device=0]])](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-276-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Parameters
filename -- This is the filesystem node to be created.
mode -- The mode specifies both the permissions to use and the type of node to be created
combined (bitwise OR) with one of the values stat.S_IFREG, stat.S_IFCHR, stat.S_IFBLK, and
stat.S_IFIFO. They can be ORed base don requirement.
device -- This is the device special file created and its optional to provide.
Return Value
This method does not return any value.
Example
The following example shows the usage of mknod() method.
# !/usr/bin/python
import os
import stat
filename = '/tmp/tmpfile'
mode = 0600|stat.S_IRUSR
# filesystem node specified with different modes
os.mknod(filename, mode)
Let us compile and run the above program, this will create a simple file in /tmp directory with a name
tmpfile:
-rw-------. 1 root root 0 Apr 30 02:38 tmpfile
os.open(file, flags[, mode])
Description
The method open() opens the file file and set various flags according to flags and possibly its mode according to
mode.The default mode is 0777 (octal), and the current umask value is first masked out.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for open() method:
os.open(file, flags[, mode]);
Parameters
file -- File name to be opened.
flags -- The following constants are options for the flags. They can be combined using the bitwise OR
operator |. Some of them are not available on all platforms.
os.O_RDONLY: open for reading only
os.O_WRONLY: open for writing only
os.O_RDWR : open for reading and writing](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-277-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
if processid:
# This is the parent process
# Closes file descriptor w
os.close(w)
r = os.fdopen(r)
print "Parent reading"
str = r.read()
print "text =", str
sys.exit(0)
else:
# This is the child process
os.close(r)
w = os.fdopen(w, 'w')
print "Child writing"
w.write("Text written by child...")
w.close()
print "Child closing"
sys.exit(0)
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
The child will write text to a pipe and
the parent will read the text written by child...
Parent reading
Child writing
Child closing
text = Text written by child...
os.popen(command[, mode[, bufsize]])
Description
The method popen() opens a pipe to or from command.The return value is an open file object connected to the
pipe, which can be read or written depending on whether mode is 'r' (default) or 'w'.The bufsize argument has the
same meaning as in open() function.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for popen() method:
os.popen(command[, mode[, bufsize]])
Parameters
command -- This is command used.
mode -- This is the Mode can be 'r'(default) or 'w'.
bufsize -- If the buffering value is set to 0, no buffering will take place. If the buffering value is 1, line buffering
will be performed while accessing a file. If you specify the buffering value as an integer greater than 1, then
buffering action will be performed with the indicated buffer size. If negative, the buffer size is the system
default(default behavior).
Return Value
This method returns an open file object connected to the pipe.
Example
The following example shows the usage of popen() method.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-281-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Parameters
path -- This is the path, which is to be removed.
Return Value
This method does not return any value.
Example
The following example shows the usage of remove() method.
# !/usr/bin/python
import os, sys
# listing directories
print "The dir is: %s" %os.listdir(os.getcwd())
# removing
os.remove("aa.txt")
# listing directories after removing path
print "The dir after removal of path : %s" %os.listdir(os.getcwd())
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
The dir is:
[ 'a1.txt','aa.txt','resume.doc','a3.py','tutorialsdir','amrood.admin' ]
The dir after removal of path :
[ 'a1.txt','resume.doc','a3.py','tutorialsdir','amrood.admin' ]
os.removedirs(path)
Description
The method removedirs() removes dirs recursively. If the leaf directory is succesfully removed, removedirs tries
to successively remove every parent directory displayed in path.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for removedirs() method:
os.removedirs(path)
Parameters
path -- This is the path of the directory, which needs to be removed.
Return Value
This method does not return any value.
Example
The following example shows the usage of removedirs() method.
# !/usr/bin/python](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-284-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
import os, sys
# listing directories
print "The dir is: %s" %os.listdir(os.getcwd())
# removing
os.removedirs("/tutorialsdir")
# listing directories after removing directory
print "The dir after removal is:" %os.listdir(os.getcwd())
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
The dir is:
[ 'a1.txt','resume.doc','a3.py','tutorialsdir','amrood.admin' ]
The dir after removal is:
[ 'a1.txt','resume.doc','a3.py','amrood.admin' ]
os.rename(src, dst)
Description
The method rename() renames the file or directory src to dst.If dst is a file or directory(already
present),OSError will be raised.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for rename() method:
os.rename(src, dst)
Parameters
src -- This is the actual name of the file or directory.
dst -- This is the new name of the file or directory.
Return Value
This method does not return any value.
Example
The following example shows the usage of rename() method.
# !/usr/bin/python
import os, sys
# listing directories
print "The dir is: %s"%os.listdir(os.getcwd())
# renaming directory ''tutorialsdir"
os.rename("tutorialsdir","tutorialsdirectory")
print "Successfully renamed."
# listing directories after renaming "tutorialsdir"
print "the dir is: %s" %os.listdir(os.getcwd())](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-285-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
The dir is:
[ 'a1.txt','resume.doc','a3.py','tutorialsdir','amrood.admin' ]
Successfully renamed.
The dir is:
[ 'a1.txt','resume.doc','a3.py','tutorialsdirectory','amrood.admin' ]
os.renames(old, new)
Description
The method renames() is recursive directory or file renaming function. It does the same functioning as
os.rename(), but it also moves a file to a directory, or a whole tree of directories, that do not exist.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for renames() method:
os.renames(old, new)
Parameters
old -- This is the actual name of the file or directory to be renamed.
new -- This is the new name of the file or directory.It can even include a file to a directory, or a whole tree of
directories, that do not exist.
Return Value
This method does not return any value.
Example
The following example shows the usage of renames() method.
# !/usr/bin/python
import os, sys
print "Current directory is: %s" %os.getcwd()
# listing directories
print "The dir is: %s"%os.listdir(os.getcwd())
# renaming file "aa1.txt"
os.renames("aa1.txt","newdir/aanew.txt")
print "Successfully renamed."
# listing directories after renaming and moving "aa1.txt"
print "The dir is: %s" %os.listdir(os.getcwd())
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
Current directory is: /tmp
The dir is:
[ 'a1.txt','resume.doc','a3.py','aa1.txt','Administrator','amrood.admin' ]
Successfully renamed.
The dir is:](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-286-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
[ 'a1.txt','resume.doc','a3.py','Administrator','amrood.admin' ]
The file aa1.txt is not visible here, as it is been moved to newdir and renamed as aanew.txt. The
directory newdir and its contents are shown below:
[ 'aanew.txt' ]
os.rmdir(path)
Description
The method rmdir() removes the directory path. It works only when the directory is empty, else OSErroris raised.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for rmdir() method:
os.rmdir(path)
Parameters
path -- This is the path of the directory, which needs to be removed.
Return Value
This method does not return any value.
Example
The following example shows the usage of rmdir() method.
# !/usr/bin/python
import os, sys
# listing directories
print "the dir is: %s" %os.listdir(os.getcwd())
# removing path
os.rmdir("mydir")
# listing directories after removing directory path
print "the dir is:" %os.listdir(os.getcwd())
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
the dir is:
[ 'a1.txt','resume.doc','a3.py','mydir','Administrator','amrood.admin' ]
os.rmdir("mydir")
OSError: [Errno 90] Directory not empty: 'mydir'
The error is coming as 'mydir' directory is not empty. If 'mydir' is an empty directory, then this would produce
following result:
the dir is:
[ 'a1.txt','resume.doc','a3.py','mydir','Administrator','amrood.admin' ]
the dir is:](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-287-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
[ 'a1.txt','resume.doc','a3.py','Administrator','amrood.admin' ]
os.stat(path)
Description
The method stat() performs a stat system call on the given path.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for stat() method:
os.stat(path)
Parameters
path -- This is the path, whose stat information is required.
Return Value
Here is the list of members of stat structure:
st_mode: protection bits.
st_ino: inode number.
st_dev: device.
st_nlink: number of hard links.
st_uid: user id of owner.
st_gid: group id of owner.
st_size: size of file, in bytes.
st_atime: time of most recent access.
st_mtime: time of most recent content modification.
st_ctime: time of most recent metadata change.
Example
The following example shows the usage of stat() method.
# !/usr/bin/python
import os, sys
# showing stat information of file "a2.py"
statinfo = os.stat('a2.py')
print statinfo
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
posix.stat_result(st_mode=33188, st_ino=3940649674337682L, st_dev=277923425L, st
_nlink=1, st_uid=400, st_gid=401, st_size=335L, st_atime=1330498089, st_mtime=13
30498089, st_ctime=1330498089)
os.stat_float_times([newvalue])](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-288-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Description
The method stat_float_times() determines whether stat_result represents time stamps as float objects.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for stat_float_times() method:
os.stat_float_times([newvalue])
Parameters
newvalue -- If newvalue is True, future calls to stat() return floats, if it is False, future calls return ints. If
newvalue is not mentioned, it returns the current settings.
Return Value
This method returns true or false.
Example
The following example shows the usage of stat_float_times() method.
# !/usr/bin/python
import os, sys
# stat information
statinfo = os.stat('a2.py')
print statinfo
statinfo = os.stat_float_times()
print statinfo
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
posix.stat_result(st_mode=33188, st_ino=3940649674337682L, st_dev=277923425L,
st_nlink=1, st_uid=400, st_gid=401, st_size=335L, st_atime=1330498089, st_mtime=13
30498089, st_ctime=1330498089)
True
os.statvfs(path)
Description
The method statvfs() performs a statvfs system call on the given path.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for statvfs() method:
os.statvfs(path)](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-289-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
# Setting the process group
os.tcsetpgrp(fd,2672)
print "done"
os.close(fd)
print "Closed the file successfully!!"
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
Current working dir is :/tmp
the process group associated is:
2672
done
Closed the file successfully!!
os.tempnam([dir[, prefix]])
Description
The method tempnam() returns a unique path name that is reasonable for creating a temporary file.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for tempnam() method:
os.tempnam(dir, prefix)
Parameters
dir -- This is the dir where the temporary filename will be created.
prefix -- This is the prefix of the generated temporary filename.
Return Value
This method returns a unique path.
Example
The following example shows the usage of tempnam() method.
# !/usr/bin/python
import os, sys
# prefix is tuts1 of the generated file
tmpfn = os.tempnam('/tmp/tutorialsdir,'tuts1')
print "This is the unique path:"
print tmpfn
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
This is the unique path:
/tmp/tutorialsdir/tuts1IbAco8](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-293-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
The dir is:
[ 'a1.txt','aa.txt','resume.doc','a3.py','tutorialsdir','amrood.admin' ]
The dir after removal of path :
[ 'a1.txt','resume.doc','a3.py','tutorialsdir','amrood.admin' ]
os.utime(path, times)
Description
The method utime() sets the access and modified times of the file specified by path.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for utime() method:
os.utime(path, times)
Parameters
path -- This is the path of the file.
times -- This is the file access and modified time. If times is none, then the file access and modified times are
set to the current time. The parameter times consists of row in the form of (atime, mtime) i.e., (accesstime,
modifiedtime).
Return Value
This method does not return any value.
Example
The following example shows the usage of utime() method.
# !/usr/bin/python
import os, sys
# Showing stat information of file
stinfo = os.stat('a2.py')
print stinfo
# Using os.stat to recieve atime and mtime of file
print "access time of a2.py: %s" %stinfo.st_atime
print "modified time of a2.py: %s" %stinfo.st_mtime
# Modifying atime and mtime
os.utime("a2.py",(1330712280, 1330712292))
print "done!!"
Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
posix.stat_result(st_mode=33188, st_ino=3940649674337682L, st_dev=277923425L, st
_nlink=1, st_uid=400, st_gid=401, st_size=335L, st_atime=1330498070, st_mtime=13
30498074, st_ctime=1330498065)
access time of a2.py: 1330498070
modified time of a2.py: 1330498074
done!!](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-297-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
os.walk(top[, topdown=True[, onerror=None[,
followlinks=False]]])
Description
The method walk() generates the file names in a directory tree by walking the tree either top-down or bottom-up.
Syntax
Following is the syntax for walk() method:
os.walk(top[, topdown=True[, onerror=None[, followlinks=False]]])
Parameters
top -- Each directory rooted at directory, yields 3-tuples, i.e., (dirpath, dirnames, filenames)
topdown -- If optional argument topdown is True or not specified, directories are scanned from top-down. If
topdown is set to False, directories are scanned from bottom-up.
onerror -- This can show error to continue with the walk, or raise the exception to abort the walk.
followlinks -- This visits directories pointed to by symlinks, if set to true.
Return Value
This method does not return any value.
Example
The following example shows the usage of walk() method.
# !/usr/bin/python
import os
for root, dirs, files in os.walk(".", topdown=False):
for name in files:
print(os.path.join(root, name))
for name in dirs:
print(os.path.join(root, name))
Let us compile and run the above program, this will scan all the directories and subdirectories bottom-to-up
./tmp/test.py
./.bash_logout
./amrood.tar.gz
./.emacs
./httpd.conf
./www.tar.gz
./mysql.tar.gz
./test.py
./.bashrc
./.bash_history
./.bash_profile
./tmp
If you will change the value of topdown to True, then it will give you the following result:
./.bash_logout
./amrood.tar.gz
./.emacs](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-298-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
NameError Raised when an identifier is not found in the local or global namespace.
UnboundLocalError
Raised when trying to access a local variable in a function or method but no value has
been assigned to it.
EnvironmentError Base class for all exceptions that occur outside the Python environment.
IOError
Raised when an input/ output operation fails, such as the print statement or the open()
function when trying to open a file that does not exist.
OSError Raised for operating systemrelated errors.
SyntaxError Raised when there is an error in Python syntax.
IndentationError Raised when indentation is not specified properly.
SystemError
Raised when the interpreter finds an internal problem, but when this error is encountered
the Python interpreter does not exit.
SystemExit
Raised when Python interpreter is quit by using the sys.exit() function. If not handled in
the code, causes the interpreter to exit.
TypeError
Raised when an operation or function is attempted that is invalid for the specified data
type.
ValueError
Raised when the built-in function for a data type has the valid type of arguments, but the
arguments have invalid values specified.
RuntimeError Raised when a generated error does not fall into any category.
NotImplementedError
Raised when an abstract method that needs to be implemented in an inherited class is
not actually implemented.
Assertions:
An assertion is a sanity-check that you can turn on or turn off when you are done with your testing of the program.
The easiest way to think of an assertion is to liken it to a raise-if statement (or to be more accurate, a raise-if-not
statement). An expression is tested, and if the result comes up false, an exception is raised.
Assertions are carried out by the assert statement, the newest keyword to Python, introduced in version 1.5.
Programmers often place assertions at the start of a function to check for valid input, and after a function call to
check for valid output.
The assert Statement:
When it encounters an assert statement, Python evaluates the accompanying expression, which is hopefully true.
If the expression is false, Python raises an AssertionError exception.
The syntax for assert is:
assert Expression[, Arguments]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-302-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
You do your operations here;
......................
except:
If there is any exception, then execute this block.
......................
else:
If there is no exception then execute this block.
This kind of a try-except statement catches all the exceptions that occur. Using this kind of try-except statement
is not considered a good programming practice though, because it catches all exceptions but does not make the
programmer identify the root cause of the problem that may occur.
The except clause with multiple exceptions:
You can also use the same except statement to handle multiple exceptions as follows:
try:
You do your operations here;
......................
except(Exception1[, Exception2[,...ExceptionN]]]):
If there is any exception from the given exception list,
then execute this block.
......................
else:
If there is no exception then execute this block.
The try-finally clause:
You can use a finally: block along with a try: block. The finally block is a place to put any code that must
execute, whether the try-block raised an exception or not. The syntax of the try-finally statement is this:
try:
You do your operations here;
......................
Due to any exception, this may be skipped.
finally:
This would always be executed.
......................
Note that you can provide except clause(s), or a finally clause, but not both. You can not use else clause as well
along with a finally clause.
EXAMPLE:
#!/usr/bin/python
try:
fh = open("testfile", "w")
fh.write("This is my test file for exception handling!!")
finally:
print "Error: can't find file or read data"
If you do not have permission to open the file in writing mode, then this will produce the following result:
Error: can't find file or read data
Same example can be written more cleanly as follows:](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-305-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Raising an exceptions:
You can raise exceptions in several ways by using the raise statement. The general syntax for the raise
statement.
SYNTAX:
raise [Exception [, args [, traceback]]]
Here, Exception is the type of exception (for example, NameError) and argument is a value for the exception
argument. The argument is optional; if not supplied, the exception argument is None.
The final argument, traceback, is also optional (and rarely used in practice), and if present, is the traceback object
used for the exception.
EXAMPLE:
An exception can be a string, a class or an object. Most of the exceptions that the Python core raises are classes,
with an argument that is an instance of the class. Defining new exceptions is quite easy and can be done as
follows:
def functionName( level ):
if level < 1:
raise "Invalid level!", level
# The code below to this would not be executed
# if we raise the exception
Note: In order to catch an exception, an "except" clause must refer to the same exception thrown either class
object or simple string. For example, to capture above exception, we must write our except clause as follows:
try:
Business Logic here...
except "Invalid level!":
Exception handling here...
else:
Rest of the code here...
User-Defined Exceptions:
Python also allows you to create your own exceptions by deriving classes from the standard built-in exceptions.
Here is an example related to RuntimeError. Here, a class is created that is subclassed from RuntimeError. This
is useful when you need to display more specific information when an exception is caught.
In the try block, the user-defined exception is raised and caught in the except block. The variable e is used to
create an instance of the class Networkerror.
class Networkerror(RuntimeError):
def __init__(self, arg):
self.args = arg
So once you defined above class, you can raise your exception as follows:
try:
raise Networkerror("Bad hostname")
except Networkerror,e:
print e.args](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-307-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
'Common base class for all employees'
empCount = 0
def __init__(self, name, salary):
self.name = name
self.salary = salary
Employee.empCount += 1
def displayCount(self):
print "Total Employee %d" % Employee.empCount
def displayEmployee(self):
print "Name : ", self.name, ", Salary: ", self.salary
"This would create first object of Employee class"
emp1 = Employee("Zara", 2000)
"This would create second object of Employee class"
emp2 = Employee("Manni", 5000)
emp1.displayEmployee()
emp2.displayEmployee()
print "Total Employee %d" % Employee.empCount
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:
Name : Zara ,Salary: 2000
Name : Manni ,Salary: 5000
Total Employee 2
You can add, remove or modify attributes of classes and objects at any time:
emp1.age = 7 # Add an 'age' attribute.
emp1.age = 8 # Modify 'age' attribute.
del emp1.age # Delete 'age' attribute.
Instead of using the normal statements to access attributes, you can use following functions:
The getattr(obj, name[, default]) : to access the attribute of object.
The hasattr(obj,name) : to check if an attribute exists or not.
The setattr(obj,name,value) : to set an attribute. If attribute does not exist, then it would be created.
The delattr(obj, name) : to delete an attribute.
hasattr(emp1, 'age') # Returns true if 'age' attribute exists
getattr(emp1, 'age') # Returns value of 'age' attribute
setattr(emp1, 'age', 8) # Set attribute 'age' at 8
delattr(empl, 'age') # Delete attribute 'age'
Built-In Class Attributes:
Every Python class keeps following built-in attributes and they can be accessed using dot operator like any other
attribute:
__dict__ : Dictionary containing the class's namespace.
__doc__ : Class documentation string or None if undefined.
__name__: Class name.
__module__: Module name in which the class is defined. This attribute is "__main__" in interactive mode.
__bases__ : A possibly empty tuple containing the base classes, in the order of their occurrence in the base
class list.
For the above class let's try to access all these attributes:](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-310-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
print "Employee.__doc__:", Employee.__doc__
print "Employee.__name__:", Employee.__name__
print "Employee.__module__:", Employee.__module__
print "Employee.__bases__:", Employee.__bases__
print "Employee.__dict__:", Employee.__dict__
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:
Employee.__doc__: Common base class for all employees
Employee.__name__: Employee
Employee.__module__: __main__
Employee.__bases__: ()
Employee.__dict__: {'__module__': '__main__', 'displayCount':
<function displayCount at 0xb7c84994>, 'empCount': 2,
'displayEmployee': <function displayEmployee at 0xb7c8441c>,
'__doc__': 'Common base class for all employees',
'__init__': <function __init__ at 0xb7c846bc>}
Destroying Objects (Garbage Collection):
Python deletes unneeded objects (built-in types or class instances) automatically to free memory space. The
process by which Python periodically reclaims blocks of memory that no longer are in use is termed garbage
collection.
Python's garbage collector runs during program execution and is triggered when an object's reference count
reaches zero. An object's reference count changes as the number of aliases that point to it changes.
An object's reference count increases when it's assigned a new name or placed in a container (list, tuple or
dictionary). The object's reference count decreases when it's deleted with del, its reference is reassigned, or its
reference goes out of scope. When an object's reference count reaches zero, Python collects it automatically.
a = 40 # Create object <40>
b = a # Increase ref. count of <40>
c = [b] # Increase ref. count of <40>
del a # Decrease ref. count of <40>
b = 100 # Decrease ref. count of <40>
c[0] = -1 # Decrease ref. count of <40>
You normally won't notice when the garbage collector destroys an orphaned instance and reclaims its space. But
a class can implement the special method __del__(), called a destructor, that is invoked when the instance is
about to be destroyed. This method might be used to clean up any nonmemory resources used by an instance.
EXAMPLE:
This __del__() destructor prints the class name of an instance that is about to be destroyed:
#!/usr/bin/python
class Point:
def __init( self, x=0, y=0):
self.x = x
self.y = y
def __del__(self):
class_name = self.__class__.__name__
print class_name, "destroyed"
pt1 = Point()
pt2 = pt1](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-311-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
pt3 = pt1
print id(pt1), id(pt2), id(pt3) # prints the ids of the obejcts
del pt1
del pt2
del pt3
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:
3083401324 3083401324 3083401324
Point destroyed
Note: Ideally, you should define your classes in separate file, then you should import them in your main program
file using import statement. Kindly check Python - Modules chapter for more details on importing modules
and classes.
Class Inheritance:
Instead of starting from scratch, you can create a class by deriving it from a preexisting class by listing the parent
class in parentheses after the new class name.
The child class inherits the attributes of its parent class, and you can use those attributes as if they were defined
in the child class. A child class can also override data members and methods from the parent.
SYNTAX:
Derived classes are declared much like their parent class; however, a list of base classes to inherit from are given
after the class name:
class SubClassName (ParentClass1[, ParentClass2, ...]):
'Optional class documentation string'
class_suite
EXAMPLE:
#!/usr/bin/python
class Parent: # define parent class
parentAttr = 100
def __init__(self):
print "Calling parent constructor"
def parentMethod(self):
print 'Calling parent method'
def setAttr(self, attr):
Parent.parentAttr = attr
def getAttr(self):
print "Parent attribute :", Parent.parentAttr
class Child(Parent): # define child class
def __init__(self):
print "Calling child constructor"
def childMethod(self):
print 'Calling child method'
c = Child() # instance of child](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-312-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
SN Method, Description & Sample Call
1
__init__ ( self [,args...] )
Constructor (with any optional arguments)
Sample Call : obj = className(args)
2
__del__( self )
Destructor, deletes an object
Sample Call : dell obj
3
__repr__( self )
Evaluatable string representation
Sample Call : repr(obj)
4
__str__( self )
Printable string representation
Sample Call : str(obj)
5
__cmp__ ( self, x )
Object comparison
Sample Call : cmp(obj, x)
Overloading Operators:
Suppose you've created a Vector class to represent two-dimensional vectors, what happens when you use the
plus operator to add them? Most likely Python will yell at you.
You could, however, define the __add__ method in your class to perform vector addition and then the plus
operator would behave as per expectation:
EXAMPLE:
#!/usr/bin/python
class Vector:
def __init__(self, a, b):
self.a = a
self.b = b
def __str__(self):
return 'Vector (%d, %d)' % (self.a, self.b)
def __add__(self,other):
return Vector(self.a + other.a, self.b + other.b)
v1 = Vector(2,10)
v2 = Vector(5,-2)
print v1 + v2
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:
Vector(7,8)
Data Hiding:
An object's attributes may or may not be visible outside the class definition. For these cases, you can name
attributes with a double underscore prefix, and those attributes will not be directly visible to outsiders.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-314-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
EXAMPLE:
Following is the example:
#!/usr/bin/python
import re
phone = "2004-959-559 #This is Phone Number"
# Delete Python-style comments
num = re.sub(r'#.*$', "", phone)
print "Phone Num : ", num
# Remove anything other than digits
num = re.sub(r'D', "", phone)
print "Phone Num : ", num
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:
Phone Num : 2004-959-559
Phone Num : 2004959559
Regular-expression Modifiers - Option Flags
Regular expression literals may include an optional modifier to control various aspects of matching. The modifiers
are specified as an optional flag. You can provide multiple modifiers using exclusive OR (|), as shown previously
and may be represented by one of these:
Modifier Description
re.I Performs case-insensitive matching.
re.L
Interprets words according to the current locale. This interpretation affects the
alphabetic group (w and W), as well as word boundary behavior (b and B).
re.M
Makes $ match the end of a line (not just the end of the string) and makes ^ match the
start of any line (not just the start of the string).
re.S Makes a period (dot) match any character, including a newline.
re.U
Interprets letters according to the Unicode character set. This flag affects the behavior
of w, W, b, B.
re.X
Permits "cuter" regular expression syntax. It ignores whitespace (except inside a set []
or when escaped by a backslash) and treats unescaped # as a comment marker.
Regular-expression patterns:
Except for control characters, (+ ? . * ^ $ ( ) [ ] { } | ), all characters match themselves. You can escape a control
character by preceding it with a backslash.
Following table lists the regular expression syntax that is available in Python:
Pattern Description
^ Matches beginning of line.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-319-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
$ Matches end of line.
.
Matches any single character except newline. Using m option allows it to match newline
as well.
[...] Matches any single character in brackets.
[^...] Matches any single character not in brackets
re* Matches 0 or more occurrences of preceding expression.
re+ Matches 1 or more occurrence of preceding expression.
re? Matches 0 or 1 occurrence of preceding expression.
re{ n} Matches exactly n number of occurrences of preceding expression.
re{ n,} Matches n or more occurrences of preceding expression.
re{ n, m} Matches at least n and at most m occurrences of preceding expression.
a| b Matches either a or b.
(re) Groups regular expressions and remembers matched text.
(?imx)
Temporarily toggles on i, m, or x options within a regular expression. If in parentheses,
only that area is affected.
(?-imx)
Temporarily toggles off i, m, or x options within a regular expression. If in parentheses,
only that area is affected.
(?: re) Groups regular expressions without remembering matched text.
(?imx: re) Temporarily toggles on i, m, or x options within parentheses.
(?-imx: re) Temporarily toggles off i, m, or x options within parentheses.
(?#...) Comment.
(?= re) Specifies position using a pattern. Doesn't have a range.
(?! re) Specifies position using pattern negation. Doesn't have a range.
(?> re) Matches independent pattern without backtracking.
w Matches word characters.
W Matches nonword characters.
s Matches whitespace. Equivalent to [tnrf].
S Matches nonwhitespace.
d Matches digits. Equivalent to [0-9].
D Matches nondigits.
A Matches beginning of string.
Z Matches end of string. If a newline exists, it matches just before newline.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-320-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
z Matches end of string.
G Matches point where last match finished.
b
Matches word boundaries when outside brackets. Matches backspace (0x08) when
inside brackets.
B Matches nonword boundaries.
n, t, etc. Matches newlines, carriage returns, tabs, etc.
1...9 Matches nth grouped subexpression.
10
Matches nth grouped subexpression if it matched already. Otherwise refers to the octal
representation of a character code.
Regular-expressionExamples
Literal characters:
Example Description
python Match "python".
Character classes:
Example Description
[Pp]ython Match "Python" or "python"
rub[ye] Match "ruby" or "rube"
[aeiou] Match any one lowercase vowel
[0-9] Match any digit; same as [0123456789]
[a-z] Match any lowercase ASCII letter
[A-Z] Match any uppercase ASCII letter
[a-zA-Z0-9] Match any of the above
[^aeiou] Match anything other than a lowercase vowel
[^0-9] Match anything other than a digit
Special Character Classes:
Example Description
. Match any character except newline
d Match a digit: [0-9]
D Match a nondigit: [^0-9]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-321-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
s Match a whitespace character: [ trnf]
S Match nonwhitespace: [^ trnf]
w Match a single word character: [A-Za-z0-9_]
W Match a nonword character: [^A-Za-z0-9_]
Repetition Cases:
Example Description
ruby? Match "rub" or "ruby": the y is optional
ruby* Match "rub" plus 0 or more ys
ruby+ Match "rub" plus 1 or more ys
d{3} Match exactly 3 digits
d{3,} Match 3 or more digits
d{3,5} Match 3, 4, or 5 digits
Nongreedy repetition:
This matches the smallest number of repetitions:
Example Description
<.*> Greedy repetition: matches "<python>perl>"
<.*?> Nongreedy: matches "<python>" in "<python>perl>"
Grouping with parentheses:
Example Description
Dd+ No group: + repeats d
(Dd)+ Grouped: + repeats Dd pair
([Pp]ython(, )?)+ Match "Python", "Python, python, python", etc.
Backreferences:
This matches a previously matched group again:
Example Description
([Pp])ython&1ails Match python&pails or Python&Pails
(['"])[^1]*1
Single or double-quoted string. 1 matches whatever the 1st group matched . 2 matches
whatever the 2nd group matched, etc.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-322-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
originating the request. Its name of the web browser.
PATH_INFO The path for the CGI script.
QUERY_STRING The URL-encoded information that is sent with GET method request.
REMOTE_ADDR
The IP address of the remote host making the request. This can be useful for
logging or for authentication purpose.
REMOTE_HOST
The fully qualified name of the host making the request. If this information is not
available then REMOTE_ADDR can be used to get IR address.
REQUEST_METHOD
The method used to make the request. The most common methods are GET and
POST.
SCRIPT_FILENAME The full path to the CGI script.
SCRIPT_NAME The name of the CGI script.
SERVER_NAME The server's hostname or IP Address
SERVER_SOFTWARE The name and version of the software the server is running.
Here is small CGI program to list out all the CGI variables. Click this link to see the result Get Environment
#!/usr/bin/python
import os
print "Content-type: text/htmlrnrn";
print "<font size=+1>Environment</font><br>";
for param in os.environ.keys():
print "<b>%20s</b>: %s<br>" % (param, os.environ[param])
GET and POST Methods
You must have come across many situations when you need to pass some information from your browser to web
server and ultimately to your CGI Program. Most frequently, browser uses two methods two pass this information
to web server. These methods are GET Method and POST Method.
Passing Information using GET method:
The GET method sends the encoded user information appended to the page request. The page and the encoded
information are separated by the ? character as follows:
http://www.test.com/cgi-bin/hello.py?key1=value1&key2=value2
The GET method is the default method to pass information from browser to web server and it produces a long
string that appears in your browser's Location:box. Never use GET method if you have password or other
sensitive information to pass to the server. The GET method has size limtation: only 1024 characters can be sent
in a request string. The GET method sends information using QUERY_STRING header and will be accessible in
your CGI Program through QUERY_STRING environment variable.
You can pass information by simply concatenating key and value pairs along with any URL or you can use HTML
<FORM> tags to pass information using GET method.
Simple URL Example : Get Method
Here is a simple URL, which will pass two values to hello_get.py program using GET method.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-327-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
How It Works?
Your server sends some data to the visitor's browser in the form of a cookie. The browser may
accept the cookie. If it does, it is stored as a plain text record on the visitor's hard drive. Now,
when the visitor arrives at another page on your site, the cookie is available for retrieval. Once
retrieved, your server knows/remembers what was stored.
Cookies are a plain text data record of 5 variable-length fields:
Expires : The date the cookie will expire. If this is blank, the cookie will expire when the visitor quits the
browser.
Domain : The domain name of your site.
Path : The path to the directory or web page that sets the cookie. This may be blank if you want to retrieve
the cookie from any directory or page.
Secure : If this field contains the word "secure", then the cookie may only be retrieved with a secure server. If
this field is blank, no such restriction exists.
Name=Value : Cookies are set and retrieved in the form of key and value pairs.
Setting up Cookies
It is very easy to send cookies to browser. These cookies will be sent along with HTTP Header before to Content-
type field. Assuming you want to set UserID and Password as cookies. So cookies setting will be done as follows:
#!/usr/bin/python
print "Set-Cookie:UserID=XYZ;rn"
print "Set-Cookie:Password=XYZ123;rn"
print "Set-Cookie:Expires=Tuesday, 31-Dec-2007 23:12:40 GMT";rn"
print "Set-Cookie:Domain=www.tutorialspoint.com;rn"
print "Set-Cookie:Path=/perl;n"
print "Content-type:text/htmlrnrn"
...........Rest of the HTML Content....
From this example, you must have understood how to set cookies. We use Set-Cookie HTTP header to set
cookies.
Here, it is optional to set cookies attributes like Expires, Domain and Path. It is notable that cookies are set before
sending magic line "Content-type:text/htmlrnrn.
Retrieving Cookies
It is very easy to retrieve all the set cookies. Cookies are stored in CGI environment variable HTTP_COOKIE and
they will have following form:
key1=value1;key2=value2;key3=value3....
Here is an example of how to retrieve cookies.
#!/usr/bin/python
# Import modules for CGI handling
from os import environ
import cgi, cgitb
if environ.has_key('HTTP_COOKIE'):
for cookie in map(strip, split(environ['HTTP_COOKIE'], ';')):
(key, value ) = split(cookie, '=');
if key == "UserID":](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-333-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
user_id = value
if key == "Password":
password = value
print "User ID = %s" % user_id
print "Password = %s" % password
This will produce the following result for the cookies set by above script:
User ID = XYZ
Password = XYZ123
File Upload Example:
To upload a file, the HTML form must have the enctype attribute set to multipart/form-data. The input tag with
the file type will create a "Browse" button.
<html>
<body>
<form enctype="multipart/form-data"
action="save_file.py" method="post">
<p>File: <input type="file" name="filename" /></p>
<p><input type="submit" value="Upload" /></p>
</form>
</body>
</html>
The result of this code is the following form:
File:
Upload
Above example has been disabled intentionally to save people uploading file on our server, but you can try above
code with your server.
Here is the script save_file.py to handle file upload:
#!/usr/bin/python
import cgi, os
import cgitb; cgitb.enable()
form = cgi.FieldStorage()
# Get filename here.
fileitem = form['filename']
# Test if the file was uploaded
if fileitem.filename:
# strip leading path from file name to avoid
# directory traversal attacks
fn = os.path.basename(fileitem.filename)
open('/tmp/' + fn, 'wb').write(fileitem.file.read())
message = 'The file "' + fn + '" was uploaded successfully'](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-334-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
db.commit()
except:
# Rollback in case there is any error
db.rollback()
# disconnect from server
db.close()
EXAMPLE:
Following code segment is another form of execution where you can pass parameters directly:
..................................
user_id = "test123"
password = "password"
con.execute('insert into Login values("%s", "%s")' %
(user_id, password))
..................................
READ Operation:
READ Operation on any databasse means to fetch some useful information from the database.
Once our database connection is established, we are ready to make a query into this database. We can use
either fetchone() method to fetch single record or fetchall() method to fetech multiple values from a database
table.
fetchone(): This method fetches the next row of a query result set. A result set is an object that is returned
when a cursor object is used to query a table.
fetchall(): This method fetches all the rows in a result set. If some rows have already been extracted from
the result set, the fetchall() method retrieves the remaining rows from the result set.
rowcount: This is a read-only attribute and returns the number of rows that were affected by an execute()
method.
EXAMPLE:
Following is the procedure to query all the records from EMPLOYEE table having salary more than 1000:
#!/usr/bin/python
import MySQLdb
# Open database connection
db = MySQLdb.connect("localhost","testuser","test123","TESTDB" )
# prepare a cursor object using cursor() method
cursor = db.cursor()
# Prepare SQL query to INSERT a record into the database.
sql = "SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE INCOME > '%d'" % (1000)
try:
# Execute the SQL command
cursor.execute(sql)
# Fetch all the rows in a list of lists.
results = cursor.fetchall()
for row in results:
fname = row[0]
lname = row[1]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-340-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
age = row[2]
sex = row[3]
income = row[4]
# Now print fetched result
print "fname=%s,lname=%s,age=%d,sex=%s,income=%d" %
(fname, lname, age, sex, income )
except:
print "Error: unable to fecth data"
# disconnect from server
db.close()
This will produce the following result:
fname=Mac, lname=Mohan, age=20, sex=M, income=2000
Update Operation:
UPDATE Operation on any databasse means to update one or more records, which are already available in the
database. Following is the procedure to update all the records having SEX as 'M'. Here, we will increase AGE of
all the males by one year.
EXAMPLE:
#!/usr/bin/python
import MySQLdb
# Open database connection
db = MySQLdb.connect("localhost","testuser","test123","TESTDB" )
# prepare a cursor object using cursor() method
cursor = db.cursor()
# Prepare SQL query to UPDATE required records
sql = "UPDATE EMPLOYEE SET AGE = AGE + 1
WHERE SEX = '%c'" % ('M')
try:
# Execute the SQL command
cursor.execute(sql)
# Commit your changes in the database
db.commit()
except:
# Rollback in case there is any error
db.rollback()
# disconnect from server
db.close()
DELETE Operation:
DELETE operation is required when you want to delete some records from your database. Following is the
procedure to delete all the records from EMPLOYEE where AGE is more than 20:
EXAMPLE:
#!/usr/bin/python](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-341-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Python Sending Email
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol(SMTP) is a protocol, which handles sending e-mail and routing e-mail
between mail servers.
Python provides smtplib module, which defines an SMTP client session object that can be used to send mail to
any Internet machine with an SMTP or ESMTP listener daemon.
Here is a simple syntax to create one SMTP object, which can later be used to send an e-mail:
import smtplib
smtpObj = smtplib.SMTP( [host [, port [, local_hostname]]] )
Here is the detail of the parameters:
host: This is the host running your SMTP server. You can specify IP address of the host or a domain name
like tutorialspoint.com. This is optional argument.
port: If you are providing host argument, then you need to specify a port, where SMTP server is listening.
Usually this port would be 25.
local_hostname: If your SMTP server is running on your local machine, then you can specify justlocalhost as
of this option.
An SMTP object has an instance method called sendmail, which will typically be used to do the work of mailing a
message. It takes three parameters:
The sender - A string with the address of the sender.
The receivers - A list of strings, one for each recipient.
The message - A message as a string formatted as specified in the various RFCs.
Example:
Here is a simple way to send one e-mail using Python script. Try it once:
#!/usr/bin/python
import smtplib
sender = 'from@fromdomain.com'
receivers = ['to@todomain.com']
message = """From: From Person <from@fromdomain.com>
To: To Person <to@todomain.com>
CHAPTER
23](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-348-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Python Multithreading
Running several threads is similar to running several different programs concurrently, but with the
following benefits:
Multiple threads within a process share the same data space with the main thread and can therefore share
information or communicate with each other more easily than if they were separate processes.
Threads sometimes called light-weight processes and they do not require much memory overhead; they care
cheaper than processes.
A thread has a beginning, an execution sequence, and a conclusion. It has an instruction pointer that keeps track
of where within its context it is currently running.
It can be pre-empted (interrupted)
It can temporarily be put on hold (also known as sleeping) while other threads are running - this is called
yielding.
Starting a New Thread:
To spawn another thread, you need to call following method available in thread module:
thread.start_new_thread ( function, args[, kwargs] )
This method call enables a fast and efficient way to create new threads in both Linux and Windows.
The method call returns immediately and the child thread starts and calls function with the passed list of agrs.
When function returns, the thread terminates.
Here, args is a tuple of arguments; use an empty tuple to call function without passing any arguments. kwargs is
an optional dictionary of keyword arguments.
EXAMPLE:
#!/usr/bin/python
import thread
import time
# Define a function for the thread
def print_time( threadName, delay):
CHAPTER
24](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-352-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
count = 0
while count < 5:
time.sleep(delay)
count += 1
print "%s: %s" % ( threadName, time.ctime(time.time()) )
# Create two threads as follows
try:
thread.start_new_thread( print_time, ("Thread-1", 2, ) )
thread.start_new_thread( print_time, ("Thread-2", 4, ) )
except:
print "Error: unable to start thread"
while 1:
pass
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:
Thread-1: Thu Jan 22 15:42:17 2009
Thread-1: Thu Jan 22 15:42:19 2009
Thread-2: Thu Jan 22 15:42:19 2009
Thread-1: Thu Jan 22 15:42:21 2009
Thread-2: Thu Jan 22 15:42:23 2009
Thread-1: Thu Jan 22 15:42:23 2009
Thread-1: Thu Jan 22 15:42:25 2009
Thread-2: Thu Jan 22 15:42:27 2009
Thread-2: Thu Jan 22 15:42:31 2009
Thread-2: Thu Jan 22 15:42:35 2009
Although it is very effective for low-level threading, but the thread module is very limited compared to the newer
threading module.
The Threading Module:
The newer threading module included with Python 2.4 provides much more powerful, high-level support for
threads than the thread module discussed in the previous section.
The threading module exposes all the methods of the thread module and provides some additional methods:
threading.activeCount(): Returns the number of thread objects that are active.
threading.currentThread(): Returns the number of thread objects in the caller's thread control.
threading.enumerate(): Returns a list of all thread objects that are currently active.
In addition to the methods, the threading module has the Thread class that implements threading.
The methods provided by the Thread class are as follows:
run(): The run() method is the entry point for a thread.
start(): The start() method starts a thread by calling the run method.
join([time]): The join() waits for threads to terminate.
isAlive(): The isAlive() method checks whether a thread is still executing.
getName(): The getName() method returns the name of a thread.
setName(): The setName() method sets the name of a thread.
Creating Thread using Threading Module:
To implement a new thread using the threading module, you have to do the following:
Define a new subclass of the Thread class.
Override the __init__(self [,args]) method to add additional arguments.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-353-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Then, override the run(self [,args]) method to implement what the thread should do when started.
Once you have created the new Thread subclass, you can create an instance of it and then start a new thread by
invoking the start(), which will in turn call run() method.
EXAMPLE:
#!/usr/bin/python
import threading
import time
exitFlag = 0
class myThread (threading.Thread):
def __init__(self, threadID, name, counter):
threading.Thread.__init__(self)
self.threadID = threadID
self.name = name
self.counter = counter
def run(self):
print "Starting " + self.name
print_time(self.name, self.counter, 5)
print "Exiting " + self.name
def print_time(threadName, delay, counter):
while counter:
if exitFlag:
thread.exit()
time.sleep(delay)
print "%s: %s" % (threadName, time.ctime(time.time()))
counter -= 1
# Create new threads
thread1 = myThread(1, "Thread-1", 1)
thread2 = myThread(2, "Thread-2", 2)
# Start new Threads
thread1.start()
thread2.start()
print "Exiting Main Thread"
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:
Starting Thread-1
Starting Thread-2
Exiting Main Thread
Thread-1: Thu Mar 21 09:10:03 2013
Thread-1: Thu Mar 21 09:10:04 2013
Thread-2: Thu Mar 21 09:10:04 2013
Thread-1: Thu Mar 21 09:10:05 2013
Thread-1: Thu Mar 21 09:10:06 2013
Thread-2: Thu Mar 21 09:10:06 2013
Thread-1: Thu Mar 21 09:10:07 2013
Exiting Thread-1
Thread-2: Thu Mar 21 09:10:08 2013
Thread-2: Thu Mar 21 09:10:10 2013
Thread-2: Thu Mar 21 09:10:12 2013
Exiting Thread-2](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-354-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Synchronizing Threads:
The threading module provided with Python includes a simple-to-implement locking mechanism that will allow you
to synchronize threads. A new lock is created by calling the Lock() method, which returns the new lock.
The acquire(blocking) method of the new lock object would be used to force threads to run synchronously. The
optional blocking parameter enables you to control whether the thread will wait to acquire the lock.
If blocking is set to 0, the thread will return immediately with a 0 value if the lock cannot be acquired and with a 1
if the lock was acquired. If blocking is set to 1, the thread will block and wait for the lock to be released.
The release() method of the the new lock object would be used to release the lock when it is no longer required.
EXAMPLE:
#!/usr/bin/python
import threading
import time
class myThread (threading.Thread):
def __init__(self, threadID, name, counter):
threading.Thread.__init__(self)
self.threadID = threadID
self.name = name
self.counter = counter
def run(self):
print "Starting " + self.name
# Get lock to synchronize threads
threadLock.acquire()
print_time(self.name, self.counter, 3)
# Free lock to release next thread
threadLock.release()
def print_time(threadName, delay, counter):
while counter:
time.sleep(delay)
print "%s: %s" % (threadName, time.ctime(time.time()))
counter -= 1
threadLock = threading.Lock()
threads = []
# Create new threads
thread1 = myThread(1, "Thread-1", 1)
thread2 = myThread(2, "Thread-2", 2)
# Start new Threads
thread1.start()
thread2.start()
# Add threads to thread list
threads.append(thread1)
threads.append(thread2)
# Wait for all threads to complete
for t in threads:
t.join()
print "Exiting Main Thread"
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:
Starting Thread-1
Starting Thread-2](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-355-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Thread-1: Thu Mar 21 09:11:28 2013
Thread-1: Thu Mar 21 09:11:29 2013
Thread-1: Thu Mar 21 09:11:30 2013
Thread-2: Thu Mar 21 09:11:32 2013
Thread-2: Thu Mar 21 09:11:34 2013
Thread-2: Thu Mar 21 09:11:36 2013
Exiting Main Thread
Multithreaded Priority Queue:
The Queue module allows you to create a new queue object that can hold a specific number of items. There are
following methods to control the Queue:
get(): The get() removes and returns an item from the queue.
put(): The put adds item to a queue.
qsize() : The qsize() returns the number of items that are currently in the queue.
empty(): The empty( ) returns True if queue is empty; otherwise, False.
full(): the full() returns True if queue is full; otherwise, False.
EXAMPLE:
#!/usr/bin/python
import Queue
import threading
import time
exitFlag = 0
class myThread (threading.Thread):
def __init__(self, threadID, name, q):
threading.Thread.__init__(self)
self.threadID = threadID
self.name = name
self.q = q
def run(self):
print "Starting " + self.name
process_data(self.name, self.q)
print "Exiting " + self.name
def process_data(threadName, q):
while not exitFlag:
queueLock.acquire()
if not workQueue.empty():
data = q.get()
queueLock.release()
print "%s processing %s" % (threadName, data)
else:
queueLock.release()
time.sleep(1)
threadList = ["Thread-1", "Thread-2", "Thread-3"]
nameList = ["One", "Two", "Three", "Four", "Five"]
queueLock = threading.Lock()
workQueue = Queue.Queue(10)
threads = []
threadID = 1
# Create new threads
for tName in threadList:
thread = myThread(threadID, tName, workQueue)](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-356-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
<description>Talk about a US-Japan war</description>
</movie>
<movie title="Transformers">
<type>Anime, Science Fiction</type>
<format>DVD</format>
<year>1989</year>
<rating>R</rating>
<stars>8</stars>
<description>A schientific fiction</description>
</movie>
<movie title="Trigun">
<type>Anime, Action</type>
<format>DVD</format>
<episodes>4</episodes>
<rating>PG</rating>
<stars>10</stars>
<description>Vash the Stampede!</description>
</movie>
<movie title="Ishtar">
<type>Comedy</type>
<format>VHS</format>
<rating>PG</rating>
<stars>2</stars>
<description>Viewable boredom</description>
</movie>
</collection>
Parsing XML with SAX APIs:
SAX is a standard interface for event-driven XML parsing. Parsing XML with SAX generally requires you to create
your own ContentHandler by subclassing xml.sax.ContentHandler.
Your ContentHandler handles the particular tags and attributes of your flavor(s) of XML. A ContentHandler object
provides methods to handle various parsing events. Its owning parser calls ContentHandler methods as it parses
the XML file.
The methods startDocument and endDocument are called at the start and the end of the XML file. The
method characters(text) is passed character data of the XML file via the parameter text.
The ContentHandler is called at the start and end of each element. If the parser is not in namespace mode, the
methods startElement(tag, attributes) and endElement(tag) are called; otherwise, the corresponding
methods startElementNS and endElementNS are called. Here, tag is the element tag, and attributes is an
Attributes object.
Here are other important methods to understand before proceeding:
The make_parser Method:
Following method creates a new parser object and returns it. The parser object created will be of the first parser
type the system finds.
xml.sax.make_parser( [parser_list] )
Here is the detail of the parameters:
parser_list: The optional argument consisting of a list of parsers to use which must all implement the
make_parser method.
The parse Method:
Following method creates a SAX parser and uses it to parse a document.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-359-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
xml.sax.parse( xmlfile, contenthandler[, errorhandler])
Here is the detail of the parameters:
xmlfile: This is the name of the XML file to read from.
contenthandler: This must be a ContentHandler object.
errorhandler: If specified, errorhandler must be a SAX ErrorHandler object.
The parseString Method:
There is one more method to create a SAX parser and to parse the specified XML string.
xml.sax.parseString(xmlstring, contenthandler[, errorhandler])
Here is the detail of the parameters:
xmlstring: This is the name of the XML string to read from.
contenthandler: This must be a ContentHandler object.
errorhandler: If specified, errorhandler must be a SAX ErrorHandler object.
EXAMPLE:
#!/usr/bin/python
import xml.sax
class MovieHandler( xml.sax.ContentHandler ):
def __init__(self):
self.CurrentData = ""
self.type = ""
self.format = ""
self.year = ""
self.rating = ""
self.stars = ""
self.description = ""
# Call when an element starts
def startElement(self, tag, attributes):
self.CurrentData = tag
if tag == "movie":
print "*****Movie*****"
title = attributes["title"]
print "Title:", title
# Call when an elements ends
def endElement(self, tag):
if self.CurrentData == "type":
print "Type:", self.type
elif self.CurrentData == "format":
print "Format:", self.format
elif self.CurrentData == "year":
print "Year:", self.year
elif self.CurrentData == "rating":
print "Rating:", self.rating
elif self.CurrentData == "stars":
print "Stars:", self.stars
elif self.CurrentData == "description":
print "Description:", self.description](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-360-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Description: Viewable boredom
For a complete detail on SAX API documentation, please refer to standard Python SAX APIs.
Parsing XML with DOM APIs:
The Document Object Model or "DOM," is a cross-language API from the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) for
accessing and modifying XML documents.
The DOM is extremely useful for random-access applications. SAX only allows you a view of one bit of the
document at a time. If you are looking at one SAX element, you have no access to another.
Here is the easiest way to quickly load an XML document and to create a minidom object using the xml.dom
module. The minidom object provides a simple parser method that will quickly create a DOM tree from the XML
file.
The sample phrase calls the parse( file [,parser] ) function of the minidom object to parse the XML file designated
by file into a DOM tree object.
#!/usr/bin/python
from xml.dom.minidom import parse
import xml.dom.minidom
# Open XML document using minidom parser
DOMTree = xml.dom.minidom.parse("movies.xml")
collection = DOMTree.documentElement
if collection.hasAttribute("shelf"):
print "Root element : %s" % collection.getAttribute("shelf")
# Get all the movies in the collection
movies = collection.getElementsByTagName("movie")
# Print detail of each movie.
for movie in movies:
print "*****Movie*****"
if movie.hasAttribute("title"):
print "Title: %s" % movie.getAttribute("title")
type = movie.getElementsByTagName('type')[0]
print "Type: %s" % type.childNodes[0].data
format = movie.getElementsByTagName('format')[0]
print "Format: %s" % format.childNodes[0].data
rating = movie.getElementsByTagName('rating')[0]
print "Rating: %s" % rating.childNodes[0].data
description = movie.getElementsByTagName('description')[0]
print "Description: %s" % description.childNodes[0].data
This would produce the following result:
Root element : New Arrivals
*****Movie*****
Title: Enemy Behind
Type: War, Thriller
Format: DVD
Rating: PG
Description: Talk about a US-Japan war
*****Movie*****
Title: Transformers](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-362-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
xscrollcommand
If you want to allow the user to scroll the listbox horizontally, you can link your
listbox widget to a horizontal scrollbar.
yscrollcommand
If you want to allow the user to scroll the listbox vertically, you can link your listbox
widget to a vertical scrollbar.
Methods:
Methods on listbox objects include:
Option Description
activate ( index ) Selects the line specifies by the given index.
curselection()
Returns a tuple containing the line numbers of the selected element or elements,
counting from 0. If nothing is selected, returns an empty tuple.
delete ( first, last=None )
Deletes the lines whose indices are in the range [first, last]. If the second
argument is omitted, the single line with index first is deleted.
get ( first, last=None )
Returns a tuple containing the text of the lines with indices from first to last,
inclusive. If the second argument is omitted, returns the text of the line closest to
first.
index ( i )
If possible, positions the visible part of the listbox so that the line containing index
i is at the top of the widget.
insert ( index, *elements )
Insert one or more new lines into the listbox before the line specified by index.
Use END as the first argument if you want to add new lines to the end of the
listbox.
nearest ( y )
Return the index of the visible line closest to the y-coordinate y relative to the
listbox widget.
see ( index ) Adjust the position of the listbox so that the line referred to by index is visible.
size() Returns the number of lines in the listbox.
xview()
To make the listbox horizontally scrollable, set the command option of the
associated horizontal scrollbar to this method.
xview_moveto ( fraction )
Scroll the listbox so that the leftmost fraction of the width of its longest line is
outside the left side of the listbox. Fraction is in the range [0,1].
xview_scroll ( number, what )
Scrolls the listbox horizontally. For the what argument, use either UNITS to scroll
by characters, or PAGES to scroll by pages, that is, by the width of the listbox.
The number argument tells how many to scroll.
yview()
To make the listbox vertically scrollable, set the command option of the
associated vertical scrollbar to this method.
yview_moveto ( fraction )
Scroll the listbox so that the top fraction of the width of its longest line is outside
the left side of the listbox. Fraction is in the range [0,1].
yview_scroll ( number, what )
Scrolls the listbox vertically. For the what argument, use either UNITS to scroll by
lines, or PAGES to scroll by pages, that is, by the height of the listbox. The
number argument tells how many to scroll.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-379-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
wraplength
Normally, lines are not wrapped. You can set this option to a number of characters and all
lines will be broken into pieces no longer than that number.
Example:
Try the following example yourself:
from Tkinter import *
import tkMessageBox
import Tkinter
top = Tk()
mb= Menubutton ( top, text="condiments", relief=RAISED )
mb.grid()
mb.menu = Menu ( mb, tearoff = 0 )
mb["menu"] = mb.menu
mayoVar = IntVar()
ketchVar = IntVar()
mb.menu.add_checkbutton ( label="mayo",
variable=mayoVar )
mb.menu.add_checkbutton ( label="ketchup",
variable=ketchVar )
mb.pack()
top.mainloop()
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:
Menu
The goal of this widget is to allow us to create all kinds of menus that can be used by our applications. The core
functionality provides ways to create three menu types: pop-up, toplevel and pull-down.
It is also possible to use other extended widgets to implement new types of menus, such as the
OptionMenu widget, which implements a special type that generates a pop-up list of items within a selection.
Syntax:
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget:
w = Menu ( master, option, ... )](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-382-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
add_cascade(options) Creates a new hierarchical menu by associating a given menu to a parent menu
add_separator() Adds a separator line to the menu.
add( type, options ) Adds a specific type of menu item to the menu.
delete( startindex [, endindex ]) Deletes the menu items ranging from startindex to endindex.
entryconfig( index, options )
Allows you to modify a menu item, which is identified by the index, and change its
options.
index(item) Returns the index number of the given menu item label.
insert_separator ( index ) Insert a new separator at the position specified by index.
invoke ( index )
Calls the command callback associated with the choice at position index. If a
checkbutton, its state is toggled between set and cleared; if a radiobutton, that
choice is set.
type ( index )
Returns the type of the choice specified by index: either "cascade",
"checkbutton", "command", "radiobutton", "separator", or "tearoff".
Example:
Try the following example yourself:
from Tkinter import *
def donothing():
filewin = Toplevel(root)
button = Button(filewin, text="Do nothing button")
button.pack()
root = Tk()
menubar = Menu(root)
filemenu = Menu(menubar, tearoff=0)
filemenu.add_command(label="New", command=donothing)
filemenu.add_command(label="Open", command=donothing)
filemenu.add_command(label="Save", command=donothing)
filemenu.add_command(label="Save as...", command=donothing)
filemenu.add_command(label="Close", command=donothing)
filemenu.add_separator()
filemenu.add_command(label="Exit", command=root.quit)
menubar.add_cascade(label="File", menu=filemenu)
editmenu = Menu(menubar, tearoff=0)
editmenu.add_command(label="Undo", command=donothing)
editmenu.add_separator()
editmenu.add_command(label="Cut", command=donothing)
editmenu.add_command(label="Copy", command=donothing)
editmenu.add_command(label="Paste", command=donothing)
editmenu.add_command(label="Delete", command=donothing)
editmenu.add_command(label="Select All", command=donothing)
menubar.add_cascade(label="Edit", menu=editmenu)
helpmenu = Menu(menubar, tearoff=0)
helpmenu.add_command(label="Help Index", command=donothing)
helpmenu.add_command(label="About...", command=donothing)](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-384-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Methods & Description
delete(startindex [,endindex])
This method deletes a specific character or a range of text.
get(startindex [,endindex])
This method returns a specific character or a range of text.
index(index)
Returns the absolute value of an index based on the given index.
insert(index [,string]...)
This method inserts strings at the specified index location.
see(index)
This method returns true if the text located at the index position is visible.
Text widgets support three distinct helper structures: Marks, Tabs, and Indexes:
Marks are used to bookmark positions between two characters within a given text. We have the following
methods available when handling marks:
Methods & Description
index(mark)
Returns the line and column location of a specific mark.
mark_gravity(mark [,gravity])
Returns the gravity of the given mark. If the second argument is provided, the gravity is set for the given mark.
mark_names()
Returns all marks from the Text widget.
mark_set(mark, index)
Informs a new position to the given mark.
mark_unset(mark)
Removes the given mark from the Text widget.
Tags are used to associate names to regions of text which makes easy the task of modifying the display settings
of specific text areas. Tags are also used to bind event callbacks to specific ranges of text.
Following are the available methods for handling tabs:
Methods & Description
tag_add(tagname, startindex[,endindex] ...)
This method tags either the position defined by startindex, or a range delimited by the positions startindex and
endindex.
tag_config
You can use this method to configure the tag properties, which include, justify(center, left, or right), tabs(this
property has the same functionality of the Text widget tabs's property), and underline(used to underline the
tagged text).
tag_delete(tagname)
This method is used to delete and remove a given tag.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-396-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
tag_remove(tagname [,startindex[.endindex]] ...)
After applying this method, the given tag is removed from the provided area without deleting the actual tag
definition.
Example:
Try the following example yourself:
from Tkinter import *
def onclick():
pass
root = Tk()
text = Text(root)
text.insert(INSERT, "Hello.....")
text.insert(END, "Bye Bye.....")
text.pack()
text.tag_add("here", "1.0", "1.4")
text.tag_add("start", "1.8", "1.13")
text.tag_config("here", background="yellow", foreground="blue")
text.tag_config("start", background="black", foreground="green")
root.mainloop()
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:
Toplevel
Toplevel widgets work as windows that are directly managed by the window manager. They do not necessarily
have a parent widget on top of them.
Your application can use any number of top-level windows.
Syntax:
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget:
w = Toplevel ( option, ... )
Parameters:
options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget. These options can be used as key-
value pairs separated by commas.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-397-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Option Description
bg The background color of the window.
bd Border width in pixels; default is 0.
cursor The cursor that appears when the mouse is in this window.
class_
Normally, text selected within a text widget is exported to be the selection in the window
manager. Set exportselection=0 if you don't want that behavior.
font The default font for text inserted into the widget.
Fg
The color used for text (and bitmaps) within the widget. You can change the color for tagged
regions; this option is just the default.
Height Window height.
Relief
Normally, a top-level window will have no 3-d borders around it. To get a shaded border, set
the bd option larger that its default value of zero, and set the relief option to one of the
constants.
Width The desired width of the window.
Methods:
Toplevel objects have these methods:
Methods & Description
deiconify()
Displays the window, after using either the iconify or the withdraw methods.
frame()
Returns a system-specific window identifier.
group(window)
Adds the window to the window group administered by the given window.
iconify()
Turns the window into an icon, without destroying it.
protocol(name, function)
Registers a function as a callback which will be called for the given protocol.
iconify()
Turns the window into an icon, without destroying it.
state()
Returns the current state of the window. Possible values are normal, iconic, withdrawn and icon.
transient([master])
Turns the window into a temporary(transient) window for the given master or to the window's parent, when no
argument is given.
withdraw()
Removes the window from the screen, without destroying it.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-398-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
Values A tuple containing valid values for this widget. Overrides from/to/increment.
Vcmd Same as validatecommand.
Width Widget width, in character units. Default is 20.
Wrap If true, the up and down buttons will wrap around.
xscrollcommand
Used to connect a spinbox field to a horizontal scrollbar. This option should be set to the
set method of the corresponding scrollbar.
Methods:
Spinbox objects have these methods:
Methods & Description
delete(startindex [,endindex])
This method deletes a specific character or a range of text.
get(startindex [,endindex])
This method returns a specific character or a range of text.
identify(x, y)
Identifies the widget element at the given location.
index(index)
Returns the absolute value of an index based on the given index.
insert(index [,string]...)
This method inserts strings at the specified index location.
invoke(element)
Invokes a spinbox button.
Example:
Try the following example yourself:
from Tkinter import *
master = Tk()
w = Spinbox(master, from_=0, to=10)
w.pack()
mainloop()
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-401-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
showhandle No default value
width No default value.
Methods:
PanedWindow objects have these methods:
Methods & Description
add(child, options)
Adds a child window to the paned window.
get(startindex [,endindex])
This method returns a specific character or a range of text.
config(options)
Modifies one or more widget options. If no options are given, the method returns a dictionary containing all current
option values.
Example:
Try the following example yourself. Here's how to create a 3-pane widget:
from Tkinter import *
m1 = PanedWindow()
m1.pack(fill=BOTH, expand=1)
left = Label(m1, text="left pane")
m1.add(left)
m2 = PanedWindow(m1, orient=VERTICAL)
m1.add(m2)
top = Label(m2, text="top pane")
m2.add(top)
bottom = Label(m2, text="bottom pane")
m2.add(bottom)
mainloop()
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-403-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
left = Label(labelframe, text="Inside the LabelFrame")
left.pack()
root.mainloop()
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:
tkMessageBox
The tkMessageBox module is used to display message boxes in your applications. This module provides a
number of functions that you can use to display an appropriate message.
Some of these functions are showinfo, showwarning, showerror, askquestion, askokcancel, askyesno and
askretryignore.
Syntax:
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget:
tkMessageBox.FunctionName(title, message [, options])
Parameters:
FunctionName: This is the name of the appropriate message box function.
title: This is the text to be displayed in the title bar of a message box.
message: This is the text to be displayed as a message.
options: options are alternative choices that you may use to tailor a standard message box. Some of the
options that you can use are default and parent. The default option is used to specify the default button, such
as ABORT, RETRY, or IGNORE in the message box. The parent option is used to specify the window on top
of which the message box is to be displayed.
You could use one of the following functions with dialogue box:
showinfo()
showwarning()
showerror ()
askquestion()
askokcancel()](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-405-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
This table needs to be terminated with a sentinel that consists of NULL and 0 values for the appropriate members.
EXAMPLE:
For the above-defined function, we would have following method mapping table:
static PyMethodDef module_methods[] = {
{ "func", (PyCFunction)module_func, METH_NOARGS, NULL },
{ NULL, NULL, 0, NULL }
};
The initialization function:
The last part of your extension module is the initialization function. This function is called by the Python interpreter
when the module is loaded. It's required that the function be named initModule, whereModule is the name of the
module.
The initialization function needs to be exported from the library you'll be building. The Python headers define
PyMODINIT_FUNC to include the appropriate incantations for that to happen for the particular environment in
which we're compiling. All you have to do is use it when defining the function.
Your C initialization function generally has the following overall structure:
PyMODINIT_FUNC initModule() {
Py_InitModule3(func, module_methods, "docstring...");
}
Here is the description of Py_InitModule3 function:
func: This is the function to be exported.
module_methods: This is the mapping table name defined above.
docstring: This is the comment you want to give in your extension.
Putting this all together looks like the following:
#include <Python.h>
static PyObject *module_func(PyObject *self, PyObject *args) {
/* Do your stuff here. */
Py_RETURN_NONE;
}
static PyMethodDef module_methods[] = {
{ "func", (PyCFunction)module_func, METH_NOARGS, NULL },
{ NULL, NULL, 0, NULL }
};
PyMODINIT_FUNC initModule() {
Py_InitModule3(func, module_methods, "docstring...");
}
EXAMPLE:
A simple example that makes use of all the above concepts:
#include <Python.h>
static PyObject* helloworld(PyObject* self)
{
return Py_BuildValue("s", "Hello, Python extensions!!");](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-418-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
}
static char helloworld_docs[] =
"helloworld( ): Any message you want to put here!!n";
static PyMethodDef helloworld_funcs[] = {
{"helloworld", (PyCFunction)helloworld,
METH_NOARGS, helloworld_docs},
{NULL}
};
void inithelloworld(void)
{
Py_InitModule3("helloworld", helloworld_funcs,
"Extension module example!");
}
Here the Py_BuildValue function is used to build a Python value. Save above code in hello.c file. We would see
how to compile and install this module to be called from Python script.
Building and Installing Extensions:
The distutils package makes it very easy to distribute Python modules, both pure Python and extension modules,
in a standard way. Modules are distributed in source form and built and installed via a setup script usually
called setup.py as follows.
For the above module, you would have to prepare following setup.py script:
from distutils.core import setup, Extension
setup(name='helloworld', version='1.0',
ext_modules=[Extension('helloworld', ['hello.c'])])
Now, use the following command, which would perform all needed compilation and linking steps, with the right
compiler and linker commands and flags, and copies the resulting dynamic library into an appropriate directory:
$ python setup.py install
On Unix-based systems, you'll most likely need to run this command as root in order to have permissions to write
to the site-packages directory. This usually isn't a problem on Windows
Import Extensions:
Once you installed your extension, you would be able to import and call that extension in your Python script as
follows:
#!/usr/bin/python
import helloworld
print helloworld.helloworld()
This would produce the following result:
Hello, Python extensions!!
Passing Function Parameters:
Because you'll most likely want to define functions that do accept arguments, you can use one of the other
signatures for your C functions. For example, following function, that accepts some number of parameters, would
be defined like this:](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-419-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
static PyObject *module_func(PyObject *self, PyObject *args) {
/* Parse args and do something interesting here. */
Py_RETURN_NONE;
}
The method table containing an entry for the new function would look like this:
static PyMethodDef module_methods[] = {
{ "func", (PyCFunction)module_func, METH_NOARGS, NULL },
{ "func", module_func, METH_VARARGS, NULL },
{ NULL, NULL, 0, NULL }
};
You can use API PyArg_ParseTuple function to extract the arguments from the one PyObject pointer passed into
your C function.
The first argument to PyArg_ParseTuple is the args argument. This is the object you'll be parsing. The second
argument is a format string describing the arguments as you expect them to appear. Each argument is
represented by one or more characters in the format string as follows.
static PyObject *module_func(PyObject *self, PyObject *args) {
int i;
double d;
char *s;
if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "ids", &i, &d, &s)) {
return NULL;
}
/* Do something interesting here. */
Py_RETURN_NONE;
}
Compiling the new version of your module and importing it will enable you to invoke the new function with any
number of arguments of any type:
module.func(1, s="three", d=2.0)
module.func(i=1, d=2.0, s="three")
module.func(s="three", d=2.0, i=1)
You can probably come up with even more variations.
The PyArg_ParseTuple Function:
Here is the standard signature for PyArg_ParseTuple function:
int PyArg_ParseTuple(PyObject* tuple,char* format,...)
This function returns 0 for errors, and a value not equal to 0 for success. tuple is the PyObject* that was the C
function's second argument. Here format is a C string that describes mandatory and optional arguments.
Here is a list of format codes for PyArg_ParseTuple function:
Code C type Meaning
c Char A Python string of length 1 becomes a C char.
d Double A Python float becomes a C double.
f Float A Python float becomes a C float.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-420-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
return NULL;
}
return Py_BuildValue("ii", a + b, a - b);
}
This is what it would look like if implemented in Python:
def add_subtract(a, b):
return (a + b, a - b)
The Py_BuildValue Function:
Here is the standard signature for Py_BuildValue function:
PyObject* Py_BuildValue(char* format,...)
Here format is a C string that describes the Python object to build. The following arguments ofPy_BuildValue are
C values from which the result is built. The PyObject* result is a new reference.
Following table lists the commonly used code strings, of which zero or more are joined into string format.
Code C type Meaning
c char A C char becomes a Python string of length 1.
d double A C double becomes a Python float.
f float A C float becomes a Python float.
i Int A C int becomes a Python int.
l long A C long becomes a Python int.
N PyObject* Passes a Python object and steals a reference.
O PyObject* Passes a Python object and INCREFs it as normal.
O& convert+void* Arbitrary conversion
s char* C 0-terminated char* to Python string, or NULL to None.
s# char*+int C char* and length to Python string, or NULL to None.
u Py_UNICODE* C-wide, null-terminated string to Python Unicode, or NULL to None.
u# Py_UNICODE*+int C-wide string and length to Python Unicode, or NULL to None.
w# char*+int Read/write single-segment buffer to C address and length.
z char* Like s, also accepts None (sets C char* to NULL).
z# char*+int Like s#, also accepts None (sets C char* to NULL).
(...) as per ... Builds Python tuple from C values.
[...] as per ... Builds Python list from C values.
{...} as per ... Builds Python dictionary from C values, alternating keys and values.
Code {...} builds dictionaries from an even number of C values, alternately keys and values. For example,
Py_BuildValue("{issi}",23,"zig","zag",42) returns a dictionary like Python's {23:'zig','zag':42}.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-422-320.jpg)
![TUTORIALS POINT
Simply Easy Learning
10 22 LOAD_CONST 3 ('vara + varb = %d')
25 LOAD_FAST 2 (sum)
28 BINARY_MODULO
29 PRINT_ITEM
30 PRINT_NEWLINE
31 LOAD_CONST 0 (None)
34 RETURN_VALUE
The pdb Module
The pdb module is the standard Python debugger. It is based on the bdb debugger framework.
You can run the debugger from the command line (type n [or next] to go to the next line and help to get a list of
available commands):
EXAMPLE:
Before you try to run pdb.py, set your path properly to Python lib directory. So let us try with above example
sum.py:
$pdb.py sum.py
> /test/sum.py(3)<module>()
-> import dis
(Pdb) n
> /test/sum.py(5)<module>()
-> def sum():
(Pdb) n
>/test/sum.py(14)<module>()
-> dis.dis(sum)
(Pdb) n
6 0 LOAD_CONST 1 (10)
3 STORE_FAST 0 (vara)
7 6 LOAD_CONST 2 (20)
9 STORE_FAST 1 (varb)
9 12 LOAD_FAST 0 (vara)
15 LOAD_FAST 1 (varb)
18 BINARY_ADD
19 STORE_FAST 2 (sum)
10 22 LOAD_CONST 3 ('vara + varb = %d')
25 LOAD_FAST 2 (sum)
28 BINARY_MODULO
29 PRINT_ITEM
30 PRINT_NEWLINE
31 LOAD_CONST 0 (None)
34 RETURN_VALUE
--Return--
> /test/sum.py(14)<module>()->None
-v dis.dis(sum)
(Pdb) n
--Return--
> <string>(1)<module>()->None
(Pdb)
The profile Module:
The profile module is the standard Python profiler. You can run the profiler from the command line:](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/pythontutorial-220619121937-c6e7cf93/85/python_tutorial-pdf-424-320.jpg)
python_tutorial.pdf
- 2. i PYTHON TUTORIAL Simply Easy Learning by tutorialspoint.com tutorialspoint.com
- 3. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning ABOUT THE TUTORIAL Python Tutorial Python is a general-purpose, interpreted, interactive, object-oriented and high-level programming language. Python was created by Guido van Rossum in the late eighties and early nineties. Like Perl, Python source code is also now available under the GNU General Public License (GPL). Audience This tutorial has been designed for software programmers with a need to understand the Python programming language starting from scratch. This tutorial will give you enough understanding on Python programming language from where you can take yourself to a higher level of expertise. Prerequisites Before proceeding with this tutorial you should have a basic understanding of Computer Programming terminologies. A basic understanding of any of the programming languages will help you in understanding the Python programming concepts and move fast on the learning track. Copyright & Disclaimer Notice All the content and graphics on this tutorial are the property of tutorialspoint.com. Any content from tutorialspoint.com or this tutorial may not be redistributed or reproduced in any way, shape, or form without the written permission of tutorialspoint.com. Failure to do so is a violation of copyright laws. This tutorial may contain inaccuracies or errors and tutorialspoint provides no guarantee regarding the accuracy of the site or its contents including this tutorial. If you discover that the tutorialspoint.com site or this tutorial content contains some errors, please contact us at [email protected]
- 4. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Table of Content Python Tutorial......................................................................... 2 Audience.................................................................................. 2 Prerequisites............................................................................ 2 Copyright & Disclaimer Notice.................................................. 2 Python Overview.................................................................... 40 History of Python:.....................................................................................40 Python Features:......................................................................................40 Python Environment............................................................... 42 Getting Python: ........................................................................................43 Install Python:...........................................................................................43 Unix & Linux Installation:..........................................................................43 Windows Installation:................................................................................43 Macintosh Installation:..............................................................................44 Setting up PATH: .....................................................................................44 Setting path at Unix/Linux: .......................................................................44 Setting path at Windows:..........................................................................44 Python Environment Variables:................................................................44 Running Python:.......................................................................................45 (1) Interactive Interpreter:.........................................................................45 (2) Script from the Command-line: ...........................................................46 (3) Integrated Development Environment.................................................46 Python Basic Syntax .............................................................. 47 First Python Program: ..............................................................................47 INTERACTIVE MODE PROGRAMMING:................................................47 SCRIPT MODE PROGRAMMING: ..........................................................47 Python Identifiers: ....................................................................................48 Reserved Words: .....................................................................................48 Lines and Indentation:..............................................................................49 Multi-Line Statements:..............................................................................50 Quotation in Python:.................................................................................50 Comments in Python:...............................................................................50 Using Blank Lines: ...................................................................................51 Waiting for the User:.................................................................................51 Multiple Statements on a Single Line: ......................................................51 Multiple Statement Groups as Suites: ......................................................51 Command-Line Arguments: .....................................................................51 Accessing Command-Line Arguments: ....................................................52
- 5. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Example: ..................................................................................................52 Parsing Command-Line Arguments: ...................................... 52 getopt.getopt method: ..............................................................................52 exception getopt.GetoptError: ..................................................................53 Example ...................................................................................................53 Python Variable Types........................................................... 55 Assigning Values to Variables:.................................................................55 Multiple Assignment: ................................................................................55 Standard Data Types: ..............................................................................56 Python Numbers: .....................................................................................56 Examples: ................................................................................................57 Python Strings:.........................................................................................57 Python Lists:.............................................................................................58 Python Tuples: .........................................................................................58 Python Dictionary: ....................................................................................59 Data Type Conversion:.............................................................................59 Python Basic Operators ......................................................... 62 Python Arithmetic Operators: ...................................................................62 Example: ..................................................................................................63 Python Comparison Operators:................................................................64 Example: ..................................................................................................64 Python Assignment Operators: ................................................................66 Example: ..................................................................................................66 Python Bitwise Operators:........................................................................67 Example: ..................................................................................................68 Python Logical Operators:........................................................................69 Example: ..................................................................................................69 Python Membership Operators: ...............................................................70 Example: ..................................................................................................70 Python Identity Operators:........................................................................71 Example: ..................................................................................................71 Python Operators Precedence.................................................................72 Example: ..................................................................................................73 Python Decision Making......................................................... 75 If statements.............................................................................................76 Syntax: .....................................................................................................76 Flow Diagram:..........................................................................................76 Example: ..................................................................................................76 if...else statements ...................................................................................77
- 6. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Syntax: .....................................................................................................77 Flow Diagram:..........................................................................................77 Example: ..................................................................................................78 The elif Statement....................................................................................78 Example: ..................................................................................................78 nested if statements .................................................................................79 Syntax: .....................................................................................................79 Example: ..................................................................................................79 Single Statement Suites:..........................................................................80 Python Loops......................................................................... 81 while loop .................................................................................................82 Syntax: .....................................................................................................82 Flow Diagram:..........................................................................................82 Example: ..................................................................................................83 The Infinite Loop: .....................................................................................83 The else Statement Used with Loops.......................................................84 Single Statement Suites:..........................................................................84 Syntax: .....................................................................................................84 Flow Diagram:..........................................................................................85 Example: ..................................................................................................85 Iterating by Sequence Index:....................................................................86 The else Statement Used with Loops.......................................................86 Syntax: .....................................................................................................87 Example: ..................................................................................................87 Loop Control Statements:.........................................................................88 Syntax: .....................................................................................................88 Flow Diagram:..........................................................................................89 Example: ..................................................................................................89 Syntax: .....................................................................................................90 Flow Diagram:..........................................................................................90 Example: ..................................................................................................90 Syntax: .....................................................................................................91 Example: ..................................................................................................91 Python Numbers .................................................................... 92 Examples: ................................................................................................92 Number Type Conversion: .......................................................................93 Mathematical Functions: ..........................................................................93 Syntax ......................................................................................................96 Parameters...............................................................................................96
- 7. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Return Value ............................................................................................96 Example ...................................................................................................97 Description ...............................................................................................97 Syntax ......................................................................................................97 Parameters...............................................................................................97 Return Value ............................................................................................97 Example ...................................................................................................97 Description ...............................................................................................98 Syntax ......................................................................................................98 Parameters...............................................................................................98 Return Value ............................................................................................98 Example ...................................................................................................98 Description ...............................................................................................99 Syntax ......................................................................................................99 Parameters...............................................................................................99 Return Value ............................................................................................99 Example ...................................................................................................99 Description ...............................................................................................99 Syntax ......................................................................................................99 Parameters.............................................................................................100 Return Value ..........................................................................................100 Example .................................................................................................100 Description .............................................................................................100 Syntax ....................................................................................................100 Parameters.............................................................................................100 Return Value ..........................................................................................100 Example .................................................................................................100 Description .............................................................................................101 Syntax ....................................................................................................101 Parameters.............................................................................................101 Return Value ..........................................................................................101 Example .................................................................................................101 Description .............................................................................................102 Syntax ....................................................................................................102 Parameters.............................................................................................102 Return Value ..........................................................................................102 Example .................................................................................................102 Description .............................................................................................103 Syntax ....................................................................................................103
- 8. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Parameters.............................................................................................103 Return Value ..........................................................................................103 Example .................................................................................................103 Description .............................................................................................103 Syntax ....................................................................................................103 Parameters.............................................................................................103 Return Value ..........................................................................................104 Example .................................................................................................104 Description .............................................................................................104 Syntax ....................................................................................................104 Parameters.............................................................................................104 Return Value ..........................................................................................104 Example .................................................................................................104 Random Number Functions: ..................................................................105 Description .............................................................................................105 Syntax ....................................................................................................105 Parameters.............................................................................................105 Return Value ..........................................................................................105 Example .................................................................................................105 Description .............................................................................................106 Syntax ....................................................................................................106 Parameters.............................................................................................106 Return Value ..........................................................................................106 Example .................................................................................................106 Description .............................................................................................107 Syntax ....................................................................................................107 Parameters.............................................................................................107 Return Value ..........................................................................................107 Example .................................................................................................107 Description .............................................................................................107 Syntax ....................................................................................................108 Parameters.............................................................................................108 Return Value ..........................................................................................108 Example .................................................................................................108 Description .............................................................................................108 Syntax ....................................................................................................109 Parameters.............................................................................................109 Return Value ..........................................................................................109 Example .................................................................................................109
- 9. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Description .............................................................................................109 Syntax ....................................................................................................109 Parameters.............................................................................................110 Return Value ..........................................................................................110 Example .................................................................................................110 Trigonometric Functions:........................................................................110 Description .............................................................................................111 Syntax ....................................................................................................111 Parameters.............................................................................................111 Return Value ..........................................................................................111 Example .................................................................................................111 Description .............................................................................................111 Syntax ....................................................................................................111 Parameters.............................................................................................111 Return Value ..........................................................................................112 Example .................................................................................................112 Description .............................................................................................112 Syntax ....................................................................................................112 Parameters.............................................................................................112 Return Value ..........................................................................................112 Example .................................................................................................112 Description .............................................................................................113 Syntax ....................................................................................................113 Parameters.............................................................................................113 Return Value ..........................................................................................113 Example .................................................................................................113 Description .............................................................................................114 Syntax ....................................................................................................114 Parameters.............................................................................................114 Return Value ..........................................................................................114 Example .................................................................................................114 Description .............................................................................................114 Syntax ....................................................................................................114 Parameters.............................................................................................115 Return Value ..........................................................................................115 Example .................................................................................................115 Description .............................................................................................115 Syntax ....................................................................................................115 Parameters.............................................................................................115
- 10. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Return Value ..........................................................................................115 Example .................................................................................................115 Description .............................................................................................116 Syntax ....................................................................................................116 Parameters.............................................................................................116 Return Value ..........................................................................................116 Example .................................................................................................116 Description .............................................................................................117 Syntax ....................................................................................................117 Parameters.............................................................................................117 Return Value ..........................................................................................117 Example .................................................................................................117 Description .............................................................................................118 Syntax ....................................................................................................118 Parameters.............................................................................................118 Return Value ..........................................................................................118 Example .................................................................................................118 Mathematical Constants:........................................................................119 Python Strings...................................................................... 120 Accessing Values in Strings: ..................................................................120 Updating Strings:....................................................................................120 Escape Characters:................................................................................121 String Special Operators: .......................................................................121 String Formatting Operator:....................................................................122 Triple Quotes:.........................................................................................123 Raw String:.............................................................................................124 Unicode String:.......................................................................................124 Built-in String Methods: ..........................................................................125 Description .............................................................................................127 Syntax ....................................................................................................127 Parameters.............................................................................................127 Return Value ..........................................................................................127 Example .................................................................................................127 Description .............................................................................................128 Syntax ....................................................................................................128 Parameters.............................................................................................128 Return Value ..........................................................................................128 Example .................................................................................................128 Description .............................................................................................128
- 11. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Syntax ....................................................................................................128 Parameters.............................................................................................128 Return Value ..........................................................................................129 Example .................................................................................................129 Description .............................................................................................129 Syntax ....................................................................................................129 Parameters.............................................................................................129 Return Value ..........................................................................................129 Example .................................................................................................129 Description .............................................................................................130 Syntax ....................................................................................................130 Parameters.............................................................................................130 Return Value ..........................................................................................130 Example .................................................................................................130 Description .............................................................................................130 Syntax ....................................................................................................131 Parameters.............................................................................................131 Return Value ..........................................................................................131 Example .................................................................................................131 Description .............................................................................................131 Syntax ....................................................................................................131 Parameters.............................................................................................132 Return Value ..........................................................................................132 Example .................................................................................................132 Description .............................................................................................132 Syntax ....................................................................................................132 Parameters.............................................................................................132 Return Value ..........................................................................................132 Example .................................................................................................132 Description .............................................................................................133 Syntax ....................................................................................................133 Parameters.............................................................................................133 Return Value ..........................................................................................133 Example .................................................................................................133 Description .............................................................................................134 Syntax ....................................................................................................134 Parameters.............................................................................................134 Return Value ..........................................................................................134 Example .................................................................................................134
- 12. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Description .............................................................................................134 Syntax ....................................................................................................134 Parameters.............................................................................................134 Return Value ..........................................................................................134 Example .................................................................................................135 Description .............................................................................................135 Syntax ....................................................................................................135 Parameters.............................................................................................135 Return Value ..........................................................................................135 Example .................................................................................................135 Description .............................................................................................136 Syntax ....................................................................................................136 Parameters.............................................................................................136 Return Value ..........................................................................................136 Example .................................................................................................136 Description .............................................................................................136 Syntax ....................................................................................................136 Parameters.............................................................................................136 Return Value ..........................................................................................136 Example .................................................................................................137 Description .............................................................................................137 Syntax ....................................................................................................137 Parameters.............................................................................................137 Return Value ..........................................................................................137 Example .................................................................................................137 Description .............................................................................................138 Syntax ....................................................................................................138 Parameters.............................................................................................138 Return Value ..........................................................................................138 Example .................................................................................................138 Description .............................................................................................138 Syntax ....................................................................................................138 Parameters.............................................................................................139 Return Value ..........................................................................................139 Example .................................................................................................139 Description .............................................................................................139 Syntax ....................................................................................................139 Parameters.............................................................................................139 Return Value ..........................................................................................139
- 13. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Example .................................................................................................139 Description .............................................................................................140 Syntax ....................................................................................................140 Parameters.............................................................................................140 Return Value ..........................................................................................140 Example .................................................................................................140 Description .............................................................................................140 Syntax ....................................................................................................140 Parameters.............................................................................................140 Return Value ..........................................................................................141 Example .................................................................................................141 Description .............................................................................................141 Syntax ....................................................................................................141 Parameters.............................................................................................141 Return Value ..........................................................................................141 Example .................................................................................................141 Description .............................................................................................141 Syntax ....................................................................................................142 Parameters.............................................................................................142 Return Value ..........................................................................................142 Example .................................................................................................142 Description .............................................................................................142 Syntax ....................................................................................................142 Parameters.............................................................................................142 Return Value ..........................................................................................142 Example .................................................................................................142 Description .............................................................................................143 Syntax ....................................................................................................143 Parameters.............................................................................................143 Return Value ..........................................................................................143 Example .................................................................................................143 Description .............................................................................................143 Syntax ....................................................................................................144 Parameters.............................................................................................144 Return Value ..........................................................................................144 Example .................................................................................................144 Description .............................................................................................144 Syntax ....................................................................................................144 Parameters.............................................................................................144
- 14. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Return Value ..........................................................................................145 Example .................................................................................................145 Description .............................................................................................145 Syntax ....................................................................................................145 Parameters.............................................................................................145 Return Value ..........................................................................................145 Example .................................................................................................145 Description .............................................................................................146 Syntax ....................................................................................................146 Parameters.............................................................................................146 Return Value ..........................................................................................146 Example .................................................................................................146 Description .............................................................................................147 Syntax ....................................................................................................147 Parameters.............................................................................................147 Return Value ..........................................................................................147 Example .................................................................................................147 Description .............................................................................................147 Syntax ....................................................................................................147 Parameters.............................................................................................147 Return Value ..........................................................................................147 Example .................................................................................................148 Description .............................................................................................148 Syntax ....................................................................................................148 Parameters.............................................................................................148 Return Value ..........................................................................................148 Example .................................................................................................148 Description .............................................................................................148 Syntax ....................................................................................................149 Parameters.............................................................................................149 Return Value ..........................................................................................149 Example .................................................................................................149 Description .............................................................................................149 Syntax ....................................................................................................149 Parameters.............................................................................................149 Return Value ..........................................................................................149 Example .................................................................................................150 Description .............................................................................................150 Syntax ....................................................................................................150
- 15. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Parameters.............................................................................................150 Return Value ..........................................................................................150 Example .................................................................................................150 Description .............................................................................................151 Syntax ....................................................................................................151 Parameters.............................................................................................151 Return Value ..........................................................................................151 Example .................................................................................................151 Description .............................................................................................151 Syntax ....................................................................................................151 Parameters.............................................................................................151 Return Value ..........................................................................................151 Example .................................................................................................152 Description .............................................................................................152 Syntax ....................................................................................................152 Parameters.............................................................................................152 Return Value ..........................................................................................152 Example .................................................................................................152 Description .............................................................................................153 Syntax ....................................................................................................153 Parameters.............................................................................................153 Return Value ..........................................................................................153 Example .................................................................................................153 Description .............................................................................................154 Syntax ....................................................................................................154 Parameters.............................................................................................154 Return Value ..........................................................................................154 Example .................................................................................................154 Syntax ....................................................................................................154 Parameters.............................................................................................155 Return Value ..........................................................................................155 Example .................................................................................................155 Python Lists ......................................................................... 156 Python Lists:...........................................................................................156 Accessing Values in Lists:......................................................................156 Updating Lists: .......................................................................................157 Delete List Elements: .............................................................................157 Basic List Operations: ............................................................................157 Indexing, Slicing, and Matrixes:..............................................................158
- 16. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Built-in List Functions & Methods: ..........................................................158 Description .............................................................................................159 Syntax ....................................................................................................159 Parameters.............................................................................................159 Return Value ..........................................................................................159 Example .................................................................................................159 Description .............................................................................................159 Syntax ....................................................................................................160 Parameters.............................................................................................160 Return Value ..........................................................................................160 Example .................................................................................................160 Description .............................................................................................160 Syntax ....................................................................................................160 Parameters.............................................................................................160 Return Value ..........................................................................................160 Example .................................................................................................160 Description .............................................................................................161 Syntax ....................................................................................................161 Parameters.............................................................................................161 Return Value ..........................................................................................161 Example .................................................................................................161 Description .............................................................................................161 Syntax ....................................................................................................161 Parameters.............................................................................................162 Return Value ..........................................................................................162 Example .................................................................................................162 Description .............................................................................................163 Syntax ....................................................................................................163 Parameters.............................................................................................163 Return Value ..........................................................................................163 Example .................................................................................................163 Description .............................................................................................163 Syntax ....................................................................................................163 Parameters.............................................................................................163 Return Value ..........................................................................................163 Example .................................................................................................164 Description .............................................................................................164 Syntax ....................................................................................................164 Parameters.............................................................................................164
- 17. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Return Value ..........................................................................................164 Example .................................................................................................164 Description .............................................................................................165 Syntax ....................................................................................................165 Parameters.............................................................................................165 Return Value ..........................................................................................165 Example .................................................................................................165 Description .............................................................................................165 Syntax ....................................................................................................165 Parameters.............................................................................................165 Return Value ..........................................................................................166 Example .................................................................................................166 Description .............................................................................................166 Syntax ....................................................................................................166 Parameters.............................................................................................166 Return Value ..........................................................................................166 Example .................................................................................................166 Description .............................................................................................167 Syntax ....................................................................................................167 Parameters.............................................................................................167 Return Value ..........................................................................................167 Example .................................................................................................167 Description .............................................................................................167 Syntax ....................................................................................................167 Parameters.............................................................................................167 Return Value ..........................................................................................168 Example .................................................................................................168 Description .............................................................................................168 Syntax ....................................................................................................168 Parameters.............................................................................................168 Return Value ..........................................................................................168 Example .................................................................................................168 Python Tuples...................................................................... 170 Accessing Values in Tuples: ..................................................................170 Updating Tuples:....................................................................................171 Delete Tuple Elements:..........................................................................171 Basic Tuples Operations: .......................................................................171 Indexing, Slicing, and Matrixes:..............................................................172 No Enclosing Delimiters: ........................................................................172
- 18. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Built-in Tuple Functions:.........................................................................172 Description .............................................................................................173 Syntax ....................................................................................................173 Parameters.............................................................................................173 Return Value ..........................................................................................173 Example .................................................................................................173 Description .............................................................................................174 Syntax ....................................................................................................174 Parameters.............................................................................................174 Return Value ..........................................................................................174 Example .................................................................................................174 Description .............................................................................................174 Syntax ....................................................................................................174 Parameters.............................................................................................174 Return Value ..........................................................................................174 Example .................................................................................................175 Description .............................................................................................175 Syntax ....................................................................................................175 Parameters.............................................................................................175 Return Value ..........................................................................................175 Example .................................................................................................175 Description .............................................................................................176 Syntax ....................................................................................................176 Parameters.............................................................................................176 Return Value ..........................................................................................176 Example .................................................................................................176 Python Dictionary................................................................. 177 Accessing Values in Dictionary: .............................................................177 Updating Dictionary:...............................................................................178 Delete Dictionary Elements:...................................................................178 Properties of Dictionary Keys: ................................................................179 Built-in Dictionary Functions & Methods:................................................179 Description .............................................................................................180 Syntax ....................................................................................................180 Parameters.............................................................................................180 Return Value ..........................................................................................180 Example .................................................................................................180 Description .............................................................................................180 Syntax ....................................................................................................181
- 19. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Parameters.............................................................................................181 Return Value ..........................................................................................181 Example .................................................................................................181 Description .............................................................................................181 Syntax ....................................................................................................181 Parameters.............................................................................................181 Return Value ..........................................................................................181 Example .................................................................................................181 Description .............................................................................................182 Syntax ....................................................................................................182 Parameters.............................................................................................182 Return Value ..........................................................................................182 Example .................................................................................................182 Description .............................................................................................183 Syntax ....................................................................................................183 Parameters.............................................................................................183 Return Value ..........................................................................................183 Example .................................................................................................183 Description .............................................................................................183 Syntax ....................................................................................................184 Parameters.............................................................................................184 Return Value ..........................................................................................184 Example .................................................................................................184 Description .............................................................................................184 Syntax ....................................................................................................184 Parameters.............................................................................................184 Return Value ..........................................................................................184 Example .................................................................................................184 Description .............................................................................................185 Syntax ....................................................................................................185 Parameters.............................................................................................185 Return Value ..........................................................................................185 Example .................................................................................................185 Description .............................................................................................185 Syntax ....................................................................................................186 Parameters.............................................................................................186 Return Value ..........................................................................................186 Example .................................................................................................186 Description .............................................................................................186
- 20. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Syntax ....................................................................................................186 Parameters.............................................................................................186 Return Value ..........................................................................................186 Example .................................................................................................186 Description .............................................................................................187 Syntax ....................................................................................................187 Parameters.............................................................................................187 Return Value ..........................................................................................187 Example .................................................................................................187 Description .............................................................................................187 Syntax ....................................................................................................187 Parameters.............................................................................................187 Return Value ..........................................................................................188 Example .................................................................................................188 Description .............................................................................................188 Syntax ....................................................................................................188 Parameters.............................................................................................188 Return Value ..........................................................................................188 Example .................................................................................................188 Description .............................................................................................189 Syntax ....................................................................................................189 Parameters.............................................................................................189 Return Value ..........................................................................................189 Example .................................................................................................189 Python Date & Time............................................................. 190 What is Tick?..........................................................................................190 Example: ................................................................................................190 What is TimeTuple? ...............................................................................190 Getting current time -:.............................................................................191 Getting formatted time -:.........................................................................191 Getting calendar for a month -:...............................................................192 The time Module: ...................................................................................192 Description .............................................................................................193 Syntax ....................................................................................................193 Parameters.............................................................................................193 Return Value ..........................................................................................193 Example .................................................................................................193 Description .............................................................................................194 Syntax ....................................................................................................194
- 21. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Parameters.............................................................................................194 Return Value ..........................................................................................194 Example .................................................................................................194 Description .............................................................................................194 Syntax ....................................................................................................194 Parameters.............................................................................................195 Return Value ..........................................................................................195 Example .................................................................................................195 Description .............................................................................................195 Syntax ....................................................................................................195 Parameters.............................................................................................195 Return Value ..........................................................................................195 Example .................................................................................................196 Description .............................................................................................196 Syntax ....................................................................................................196 Parameters.............................................................................................196 Return Value ..........................................................................................196 Example .................................................................................................196 Description .............................................................................................196 Syntax ....................................................................................................197 Parameters.............................................................................................197 Return Value ..........................................................................................197 Example .................................................................................................197 Description .............................................................................................197 Syntax ....................................................................................................197 Parameters.............................................................................................197 Return Value ..........................................................................................197 Example .................................................................................................197 Description .............................................................................................198 Syntax ....................................................................................................198 Parameters.............................................................................................198 Return Value ..........................................................................................198 Example .................................................................................................198 Description .............................................................................................198 Syntax ....................................................................................................199 Parameters.............................................................................................199 Directive .................................................................................................199 Return Value ..........................................................................................200 Example .................................................................................................200
- 22. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Description .............................................................................................200 Syntax ....................................................................................................200 Parameters.............................................................................................200 Directive .................................................................................................200 Return Value ..........................................................................................201 Example .................................................................................................201 Description .............................................................................................201 Syntax ....................................................................................................202 Parameters.............................................................................................202 Return Value ..........................................................................................202 Example .................................................................................................202 Description .............................................................................................202 Syntax ....................................................................................................203 Parameters.............................................................................................203 Return Value ..........................................................................................203 Example .................................................................................................203 The calendar Module .............................................................................203 Other Modules & Functions:...................................................................204 Python Function................................................................... 205 Defining a Function ................................................................................205 Syntax: ...................................................................................................205 Example: ................................................................................................205 Calling a Function ..................................................................................206 Pass by reference vs value ....................................................................206 Function Arguments: ..............................................................................207 Required arguments:..............................................................................207 Keyword arguments: ..............................................................................208 Default arguments:.................................................................................208 Variable-length arguments: ....................................................................209 The Anonymous Functions:....................................................................209 Syntax: ...................................................................................................210 The return Statement: ............................................................................210 Scope of Variables: ................................................................................211 Global vs. Local variables: .....................................................................211 Python Modules ................................................................... 212 Example: ................................................................................................212 The import Statement:............................................................................212 The from...import Statement...................................................................213 The from...import * Statement: ...............................................................213
- 23. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Locating Modules: ..................................................................................213 The PYTHONPATH Variable: ................................................................213 Namespaces and Scoping: ....................................................................214 The dir( ) Function:.................................................................................214 The globals() and locals() Functions: .....................................................215 The reload() Function:............................................................................215 Packages in Python: ..............................................................................215 Python Files I/O ................................................................... 217 Printing to the Screen:............................................................................217 Reading Keyboard Input:........................................................................217 The raw_input Function:.........................................................................217 The input Function: ................................................................................218 Opening and Closing Files: ....................................................................218 The open Function: ................................................................................218 SYNTAX: ...............................................................................................218 The file object attributes: ........................................................................219 EXAMPLE: .............................................................................................219 The close() Method: ...............................................................................220 SYNTAX:................................................................................................220 EXAMPLE: .............................................................................................220 Reading and Writing Files: .....................................................................220 The write() Method: ................................................................................220 SYNTAX:................................................................................................220 EXAMPLE: .............................................................................................220 The read() Method: ................................................................................221 SYNTAX:................................................................................................221 EXAMPLE: .............................................................................................221 File Positions:.........................................................................................221 EXAMPLE: .............................................................................................221 Renaming and Deleting Files: ................................................................222 The rename() Method:............................................................................222 SYNTAX:................................................................................................222 EXAMPLE: .............................................................................................222 The remove() Method:............................................................................222 SYNTAX:................................................................................................222 EXAMPLE: .............................................................................................222 Directories in Python: .............................................................................223 The mkdir() Method:...............................................................................223 SYNTAX: ...............................................................................................223
- 24. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning EXAMPLE: ............................................................................................223 The chdir() Method:................................................................................223 SYNTAX: ...............................................................................................223 EXAMPLE: ............................................................................................223 The getcwd() Method: ............................................................................223 SYNTAX: ...............................................................................................223 EXAMPLE: ............................................................................................223 The rmdir() Method: ...............................................................................224 SYNTAX: ...............................................................................................224 EXAMPLE: ............................................................................................224 File & Directory Related Methods:..........................................................224 File Object Methods ...............................................................................224 Description .............................................................................................225 Syntax ....................................................................................................225 Parameters.............................................................................................225 Return Value ..........................................................................................225 Example .................................................................................................225 Description .............................................................................................226 Syntax ....................................................................................................226 Parameters.............................................................................................226 Return Value ..........................................................................................226 Example .................................................................................................226 Description .............................................................................................227 Syntax ....................................................................................................227 Parameters.............................................................................................227 Return Value ..........................................................................................227 Example .................................................................................................227 Description .............................................................................................227 Syntax ....................................................................................................227 Parameters.............................................................................................228 Return Value ..........................................................................................228 Example .................................................................................................228 Description .............................................................................................228 Syntax ....................................................................................................228 Parameters.............................................................................................228 Return Value ..........................................................................................228 Example .................................................................................................228 Description .............................................................................................229 Syntax ....................................................................................................229
- 25. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Parameters.............................................................................................229 Return Value ..........................................................................................229 Example .................................................................................................229 Description .............................................................................................230 Syntax ....................................................................................................230 Parameters.............................................................................................230 Return Value ..........................................................................................230 Example .................................................................................................230 Description .............................................................................................231 Syntax ....................................................................................................231 Parameters.............................................................................................231 Return Value ..........................................................................................231 Example .................................................................................................231 Description .............................................................................................232 Syntax ....................................................................................................232 Parameters.............................................................................................232 Return Value ..........................................................................................232 Example .................................................................................................232 Description .............................................................................................233 Syntax ....................................................................................................233 Parameters.............................................................................................233 Return Value ..........................................................................................233 Example .................................................................................................233 Description .............................................................................................234 Syntax ....................................................................................................234 Parameters.............................................................................................234 Return Value ..........................................................................................234 Example .................................................................................................234 Description .............................................................................................235 Syntax ....................................................................................................235 Parameters.............................................................................................235 Return Value ..........................................................................................235 Example .................................................................................................235 Description .............................................................................................236 Syntax ....................................................................................................236 Parameters.............................................................................................236 Return Value ..........................................................................................237 Example .................................................................................................237 Description .............................................................................................241
- 26. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Syntax ....................................................................................................241 Parameters.............................................................................................241 Return Value ..........................................................................................241 Example .................................................................................................241 Description .............................................................................................242 Syntax ....................................................................................................242 Parameters.............................................................................................242 Return Value ..........................................................................................242 Example .................................................................................................242 Description .............................................................................................243 Syntax ....................................................................................................243 Parameters.............................................................................................243 Return Value ..........................................................................................243 Example .................................................................................................243 Description .............................................................................................244 Syntax ....................................................................................................244 Parameters.............................................................................................244 Return Value ..........................................................................................244 Example .................................................................................................245 Description .............................................................................................245 Syntax ....................................................................................................245 Parameters.............................................................................................245 Return Value ..........................................................................................245 Example .................................................................................................245 Description .............................................................................................246 Syntax ....................................................................................................246 Parameters.............................................................................................246 Return Value ..........................................................................................246 Example .................................................................................................246 Description .............................................................................................246 Syntax ....................................................................................................246 Parameters.............................................................................................246 Return Value ..........................................................................................247 Example .................................................................................................247 Description .............................................................................................247 Syntax ....................................................................................................247 Parameters.............................................................................................247 Return Value ..........................................................................................247 Example .................................................................................................248
- 27. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Description .............................................................................................248 Syntax ....................................................................................................248 Parameters.............................................................................................248 Return Value ..........................................................................................248 Example .................................................................................................248 Description .............................................................................................249 Syntax ....................................................................................................249 Parameters.............................................................................................249 Return Value ..........................................................................................249 Example .................................................................................................249 Description .............................................................................................250 Syntax ....................................................................................................250 Parameters.............................................................................................250 Return Value ..........................................................................................250 Example .................................................................................................250 Description .............................................................................................251 Syntax ....................................................................................................251 Parameters.............................................................................................251 Return Value ..........................................................................................251 Example .................................................................................................251 Description .............................................................................................252 Syntax ....................................................................................................252 Parameters.............................................................................................252 Return Value ..........................................................................................252 Example .................................................................................................252 Description .............................................................................................253 Syntax ....................................................................................................253 Parameters.............................................................................................253 Return Value ..........................................................................................253 Example .................................................................................................253 Description .............................................................................................254 Syntax ....................................................................................................254 Parameters.............................................................................................254 Return Value ..........................................................................................254 Example .................................................................................................254 Description .............................................................................................255 Syntax ....................................................................................................255 Parameters.............................................................................................255 Return Value ..........................................................................................256
- 28. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Example .................................................................................................256 Description .............................................................................................256 Syntax ....................................................................................................257 Parameters.............................................................................................257 Return Value ..........................................................................................257 Example .................................................................................................257 Description .............................................................................................258 Syntax ....................................................................................................258 Parameters.............................................................................................258 Return Value ..........................................................................................258 Example .................................................................................................258 Description .............................................................................................259 Syntax ....................................................................................................259 Parameters.............................................................................................259 Return Value ..........................................................................................259 Example .................................................................................................259 Description .............................................................................................260 Syntax ....................................................................................................260 Parameters.............................................................................................260 Return Value ..........................................................................................260 Example .................................................................................................260 Description .............................................................................................261 Syntax ....................................................................................................261 Parameters.............................................................................................261 Return Value ..........................................................................................261 Example .................................................................................................261 Description .............................................................................................261 Syntax ....................................................................................................261 Parameters.............................................................................................262 Return Value ..........................................................................................262 Example .................................................................................................262 Description .............................................................................................262 Syntax ....................................................................................................262 Parameters.............................................................................................262 Return Value ..........................................................................................263 Example .................................................................................................263 Description .............................................................................................263 Syntax ....................................................................................................264 Parameters.............................................................................................264
- 29. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Return Value ..........................................................................................264 Example .................................................................................................264 Description .............................................................................................264 Syntax ....................................................................................................265 Parameters.............................................................................................265 Return Value ..........................................................................................265 Example .................................................................................................265 Description .............................................................................................266 Syntax ....................................................................................................266 Parameters.............................................................................................266 Return Value ..........................................................................................266 Example .................................................................................................266 Description .............................................................................................267 Syntax ....................................................................................................267 Parameters.............................................................................................267 Return Value ..........................................................................................267 Example .................................................................................................267 Description .............................................................................................267 Syntax ....................................................................................................267 Parameters.............................................................................................268 Return Value ..........................................................................................268 Example .................................................................................................268 Description .............................................................................................268 Syntax ....................................................................................................268 Parameters.............................................................................................268 Return Value ..........................................................................................269 Example .................................................................................................269 Description .............................................................................................269 Syntax ....................................................................................................270 Parameters.............................................................................................270 Return Value ..........................................................................................270 Example .................................................................................................270 Description .............................................................................................271 Syntax ....................................................................................................271 Parameters.............................................................................................271 Return Value ..........................................................................................271 Example .................................................................................................271 Description .............................................................................................271 Syntax ....................................................................................................271
- 30. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Parameters.............................................................................................272 Return Value ..........................................................................................272 Example .................................................................................................272 Description .............................................................................................272 Syntax ....................................................................................................272 Parameters.............................................................................................272 Return Value ..........................................................................................273 Example .................................................................................................273 Description .............................................................................................273 Syntax ....................................................................................................273 Parameters.............................................................................................273 Return Value ..........................................................................................273 Example .................................................................................................273 os.mkdir(path[, mode]) Description ........................................................274 Syntax ....................................................................................................274 Parameters.............................................................................................274 Return Value ..........................................................................................274 Example .................................................................................................274 os.mknod(filename[, mode=0600, device]) ............................................275 Description .............................................................................................275 Syntax ....................................................................................................275 Parameters.............................................................................................276 Return Value ..........................................................................................276 Example .................................................................................................276 os.open(file, flags[, mode]).....................................................................276 Description .............................................................................................276 Syntax ....................................................................................................276 Parameters.............................................................................................276 Return Value ..........................................................................................277 Example .................................................................................................277 os.pathconf(path, name) Description .....................................................278 Syntax ....................................................................................................278 Parameters.............................................................................................278 Return Value ..........................................................................................278 Example .................................................................................................278 Description .............................................................................................279 Syntax ....................................................................................................279 Parameters.............................................................................................279 Return Value ..........................................................................................279
- 31. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Example .................................................................................................279 Description .............................................................................................280 Syntax ....................................................................................................280 Parameters.............................................................................................280 Return Value ..........................................................................................280 Example .................................................................................................280 Description .............................................................................................281 Syntax ....................................................................................................281 Parameters.............................................................................................281 Return Value ..........................................................................................281 Example .................................................................................................281 Description .............................................................................................282 Syntax ....................................................................................................282 Parameters.............................................................................................282 Return Value ..........................................................................................282 Example .................................................................................................282 Description .............................................................................................282 Syntax ....................................................................................................282 Parameters.............................................................................................283 Return Value ..........................................................................................283 Example .................................................................................................283 Description .............................................................................................283 Syntax ....................................................................................................283 Parameters.............................................................................................283 Return Value ..........................................................................................283 Example .................................................................................................283 Description .............................................................................................284 Syntax ....................................................................................................284 Parameters.............................................................................................284 Return Value ..........................................................................................284 Example .................................................................................................284 Description .............................................................................................285 Syntax ....................................................................................................285 Parameters.............................................................................................285 Return Value ..........................................................................................285 Example .................................................................................................285 Description .............................................................................................286 Syntax ....................................................................................................286 Parameters.............................................................................................286
- 32. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Return Value ..........................................................................................286 Example .................................................................................................286 Description .............................................................................................287 Syntax ....................................................................................................287 Parameters.............................................................................................287 Return Value ..........................................................................................287 Example .................................................................................................287 Description .............................................................................................288 Syntax ....................................................................................................288 Parameters.............................................................................................288 Return Value ..........................................................................................288 Example .................................................................................................288 Description .............................................................................................288 Syntax ....................................................................................................288 Parameters.............................................................................................289 Return Value ..........................................................................................289 Example .................................................................................................289 Description .............................................................................................289 Syntax ....................................................................................................289 Parameters.............................................................................................289 Return Value ..........................................................................................290 Example .................................................................................................290 Description .............................................................................................290 Syntax ....................................................................................................290 Parameters.............................................................................................290 Return Value ..........................................................................................290 Example .................................................................................................290 Description .............................................................................................291 Syntax ....................................................................................................291 Parameters.............................................................................................291 Return Value ..........................................................................................291 Example .................................................................................................291 Description .............................................................................................292 Syntax ....................................................................................................292 Parameters.............................................................................................292 Return Value ..........................................................................................292 Example .................................................................................................292 Description .............................................................................................293 Syntax ....................................................................................................293
- 33. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Parameters.............................................................................................293 Return Value ..........................................................................................293 Example .................................................................................................293 Description .............................................................................................293 Syntax ....................................................................................................293 Parameters.............................................................................................294 Return Value ..........................................................................................294 Example .................................................................................................294 Description .............................................................................................294 Syntax ....................................................................................................294 Parameters.............................................................................................294 Return Value ..........................................................................................294 Example .................................................................................................294 Description .............................................................................................295 Syntax ....................................................................................................295 Parameters.............................................................................................295 Return Value ..........................................................................................295 Example .................................................................................................295 Description .............................................................................................296 Syntax ....................................................................................................296 Parameters.............................................................................................296 Return Value ..........................................................................................296 Example .................................................................................................296 Description .............................................................................................297 Syntax ....................................................................................................297 Parameters.............................................................................................297 Return Value ..........................................................................................297 Example .................................................................................................297 Description .............................................................................................298 Syntax ....................................................................................................298 Parameters.............................................................................................298 Return Value ..........................................................................................298 Example .................................................................................................298 Python Exceptions ............................................................... 300 The assert Statement:............................................................................301 Handling an exception:...........................................................................302 SYNTAX:................................................................................................302 EXAMPLE: ............................................................................................303 EXAMPLE: ............................................................................................303
- 34. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning The except clause with no exceptions:...................................................303 The except clause with multiple exceptions: ..........................................304 The try-finally clause: .............................................................................304 EXAMPLE: ............................................................................................304 Argument of an Exception:.....................................................................305 EXAMPLE: .............................................................................................305 Raising an exceptions: ...........................................................................306 SYNTAX: ...............................................................................................306 EXAMPLE: ............................................................................................306 User-Defined Exceptions:.......................................................................306 Python Classes/Objects....................................................... 307 Overview of OOP Terminology...............................................................307 Creating Classes:...................................................................................307 EXAMPLE: ............................................................................................308 Creating instance objects:......................................................................308 Accessing attributes: ..............................................................................308 Built-In Class Attributes:.........................................................................309 Destroying Objects (Garbage Collection):..............................................310 EXAMPLE: ............................................................................................310 Class Inheritance: ..................................................................................311 SYNTAX:................................................................................................311 EXAMPLE: .............................................................................................311 Overriding Methods:...............................................................................312 EXAMPLE: ............................................................................................312 Base Overloading Methods:...................................................................312 Overloading Operators:..........................................................................313 EXAMPLE: ............................................................................................313 Data Hiding: ...........................................................................................313 EXAMPLE: ............................................................................................314 Python Regular Expressions................................................ 315 The match Function ...............................................................................315 EXAMPLE: ............................................................................................316 The search Function ..............................................................................316 EXAMPLE: ............................................................................................316 Matching vs Searching:..........................................................................317 EXAMPLE: ............................................................................................317 Search and Replace:..............................................................................317 SYNTAX: ...............................................................................................317 EXAMPLE: ............................................................................................318
- 35. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Regular-expression Modifiers - Option Flags .........................................318 Regular-expression patterns: .................................................................318 Regular-expression Examples ............................................. 320 Literal characters:...................................................................................320 Character classes: .................................................................................320 Special Character Classes:....................................................................320 Repetition Cases:...................................................................................321 Nongreedy repetition:.............................................................................321 Grouping with parentheses: ...................................................................321 Backreferences: .....................................................................................321 Alternatives: ...........................................................................................322 Anchors:.................................................................................................322 Special syntax with parentheses:...........................................................322 Python CGI Programming.................................................... 323 Web Browsing........................................................................................323 CGI Architecture Diagram ......................................................................324 Web Server Support & Configuration .....................................................324 First CGI Program ..................................................................................324 Content-type:text/html................................................................325 Hello Word! This is my first CGI program..........................................325 HTTP Header.........................................................................................325 CGI Environment Variables....................................................................325 GET and POST Methods .......................................................................326 Passing Information using GET method:................................................326 Simple URL Example : Get Method .......................................................326 Content-type:text/html................................................................327 Hello ZARA ALI.....................................................................................327 Simple FORM Example: GET Method....................................................327 Passing Information using POST method: .............................................327 Passing Checkbox Data to CGI Program...............................................328 Passing Radio Button Data to CGI Program ..........................................329 Passing Text Area Data to CGI Program ...............................................330 Passing Drop Down Box Data to CGI Program......................................331 Using Cookies in CGI.............................................................................331 How It Works?........................................................................................332 Setting up Cookies .................................................................................332 Retrieving Cookies .................................................................................332 File Upload Example: .............................................................................333 How To Raise a "File Download" Dialog Box? .......................................334
- 36. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Python Database Access..................................................... 335 What is MySQLdb? ................................................................................336 How do I install the MySQLdb?..............................................................336 Database Connection:............................................................................336 EXAMPLE: ............................................................................................336 Creating Database Table: ......................................................................337 EXAMPLE: .............................................................................................337 INSERT Operation: ................................................................................338 EXAMPLE: ............................................................................................338 EXAMPLE: ............................................................................................339 READ Operation: ...................................................................................339 EXAMPLE: ............................................................................................339 Update Operation:..................................................................................340 EXAMPLE: .............................................................................................340 DELETE Operation: ...............................................................................340 EXAMPLE: ............................................................................................340 Performing Transactions: .......................................................................341 EXAMPLE: .............................................................................................341 COMMIT Operation:...............................................................................341 ROLLBACK Operation: ..........................................................................342 Disconnecting Database: .......................................................................342 Handling Errors: .....................................................................................342 Python Networking............................................................... 343 What are Sockets?.................................................................................343 The socket Module:................................................................................344 Server Socket Methods:.........................................................................344 Client Socket Methods: ..........................................................................344 General Socket Methods:.......................................................................344 A Simple Server: ....................................................................................344 A Simple Client:......................................................................................345 Python Internet modules ........................................................................345 Further Readings: ..................................................................................346 Python Sending Email.......................................................... 347 Example: ................................................................................................347 Sending an HTML e-mail using Python:.................................................348 EXAMPLE: ............................................................................................348 Sending Attachments as an e-mail:........................................................349 EXAMPLE: .............................................................................................349 Python Multithreading .......................................................... 351
- 37. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Starting a New Thread: ..........................................................................351 EXAMPLE: .............................................................................................351 The Threading Module: ..........................................................................352 Creating Thread using Threading Module:.............................................352 EXAMPLE: ............................................................................................353 Synchronizing Threads:..........................................................................354 EXAMPLE: ............................................................................................354 Multithreaded Priority Queue:.................................................................355 EXAMPLE: ............................................................................................355 Python XML Processing....................................................... 357 XML Parser Architectures and APIs:......................................................357 Parsing XML with SAX APIs:..................................................................358 The make_parser Method: .....................................................................358 The parse Method: .................................................................................358 The parseString Method:........................................................................359 EXAMPLE: ............................................................................................359 Parsing XML with DOM APIs: ................................................................361 Python GUI Programming.................................................... 363 Tkinter Programming..............................................................................363 Example: ................................................................................................363 Tkinter Widgets ......................................................................................364 Methods: ................................................................................................366 Example: ................................................................................................366 Example: ................................................................................................368 Methods: ................................................................................................370 Example: ................................................................................................371 Syntax: ...................................................................................................372 Parameters:............................................................................................372 Methods: ................................................................................................373 Example: ................................................................................................373 Syntax: ...................................................................................................374 Parameters:............................................................................................374 Example: ................................................................................................374 Syntax: ...................................................................................................375 Parameters:............................................................................................375 Example: ................................................................................................376 Syntax: ...................................................................................................377 Parameters:............................................................................................377 Methods: ................................................................................................378
- 38. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Example: ................................................................................................379 Syntax: ...................................................................................................379 Parameters:............................................................................................379 Example: ................................................................................................381 Methods: ................................................................................................382 Example: ................................................................................................383 Example: ................................................................................................385 Syntax: ...................................................................................................386 Parameters:............................................................................................386 Methods: ................................................................................................387 Example: ................................................................................................388 Scale ......................................................................................................388 Syntax: ...................................................................................................388 Parameters:............................................................................................388 Methods: ................................................................................................390 Example: ................................................................................................390 Scrollbar.................................................................................................391 Syntax: ...................................................................................................391 Parameters:............................................................................................391 Methods: ................................................................................................392 Example: ................................................................................................392 Text ........................................................................................................393 Syntax: ...................................................................................................393 Parameters:............................................................................................393 Methods: ................................................................................................394 Example: ................................................................................................396 Syntax: ...................................................................................................396 Parameters:............................................................................................396 Methods: ................................................................................................397 Example: ................................................................................................398 Spinbox ..................................................................................................398 Syntax: ...................................................................................................399 Parameters:............................................................................................399 Methods: ................................................................................................400 Example: ................................................................................................400 PanedWindow........................................................................................401 Syntax: ...................................................................................................401 Parameters:............................................................................................401 Methods: ................................................................................................402
- 39. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Example: ................................................................................................402 LabelFrame............................................................................................403 Syntax: ...................................................................................................403 Parameters:............................................................................................403 Example: ................................................................................................403 tkMessageBox........................................................................................404 Syntax: ...................................................................................................404 Parameters:............................................................................................404 Example: ................................................................................................405 Standard attributes:................................................................................405 Length options:.......................................................................................406 Simple Tuple Fonts: ...............................................................................407 EXAMPLE: .............................................................................................407 Font object Fonts: ..................................................................................407 EXAMPLE: .............................................................................................407 X Window Fonts:....................................................................................407 Example: ................................................................................................408 Example: ................................................................................................409 Example: ................................................................................................410 Example: ................................................................................................411 Geometry Management:.........................................................................412 The pack() Method .................................................................................412 Syntax: ...................................................................................................412 Example: ................................................................................................412 The grid() Method...................................................................................413 Syntax: ...................................................................................................413 Example: ................................................................................................413 The place() Method ................................................................................414 Syntax: ...................................................................................................414 Example: ................................................................................................414 Python Further Extensions................................................... 415 Pre-Requisite: ........................................................................................415 First look at a Python extension: ............................................................415 The header file Python.h ........................................................................415 The C functions:.....................................................................................416 The method mapping table:....................................................................416 EXAMPLE: ............................................................................................417 The initialization function:.......................................................................417 EXAMPLE: ............................................................................................417
- 40. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Building and Installing Extensions:.........................................................418 Import Extensions: .................................................................................418 Passing Function Parameters: ...............................................................418 The PyArg_ParseTuple Function: ..........................................................419 Returning Values:...................................................................................420 The Py_BuildValue Function:.................................................................421 Python Tools/Utilities............................................................ 422 The dis Module:......................................................................................422 EXAMPLE: .............................................................................................422 The pdb Module .....................................................................................423 EXAMPLE: .............................................................................................423 The profile Module: ................................................................................423 EXAMPLE: .............................................................................................424 The tabnanny Module.............................................................................424 EXAMPLE: .............................................................................................424
- 41. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Python Overview Python is a high-level, interpreted, interactive and object-oriented scripting language. Python was designed to be highly readable which uses English keywords frequently where as other languages use punctuation and it has fewer syntactical constructions than other languages. Python is Interpreted: This means that it is processed at runtime by the interpreter and you do not need to compile your program before executing it. This is similar to PERL and PHP. Python is Interactive: This means that you can actually sit at a Python prompt and interact with the interpreter directly to write your programs. Python is Object-Oriented: This means that Python supports Object-Oriented style or technique of programming that encapsulates code within objects. Python is Beginner's Language: Python is a great language for the beginner programmers and supports the development of a wide range of applications from simple text processing to WWW browsers to games. History of Python: Python was developed by Guido van Rossum in the late eighties and early nineties at the National Research Institute for Mathematics and Computer Science in the Netherlands. Python is derived from many other languages, including ABC, Modula-3, C, C++, Algol-68, SmallTalk and Unix shell and other scripting languages. Python is copyrighted. Like Perl, Python source code is now available under the GNU General Public License (GPL). Python is now maintained by a core development team at the institute, although Guido van Rossum still holds a vital role in directing its progress. Python Features: Python's feature highlights include: Easy-to-learn: Python has relatively few keywords, simple structure, and a clearly defined syntax. This allows the student to pick up the language in a relatively short period of time. Easy-to-read: Python code is much more clearly defined and visible to the eyes. Easy-to-maintain: Python's success is that its source code is fairly easy-to-maintain. A broad standard library: One of Python's greatest strengths is the bulk of the library is very portable and cross-platform compatible on UNIX, Windows and Macintosh. Interactive Mode: Support for an interactive mode in which you can enter results from a terminal right to the language, allowing interactive testing and debugging of snippets of code. CHAPTER 1
- 42. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Portable: Python can run on a wide variety of hardware platforms and has the same interface on all platforms. Extendable: You can add low-level modules to the Python interpreter. These modules enable programmers to add to or customize their tools to be more efficient. Databases: Python provides interfaces to all major commercial databases. GUI Programming: Python supports GUI applications that can be created and ported to many system calls, libraries and windows systems, such as Windows MFC, Macintosh and the X Window system of Unix. Scalable: Python provides a better structure and support for large programs than shell scripting. Apart from the above-mentioned features, Python has a big list of good features, few are listed below: Support for functional and structured programming methods as well as OOP. It can be used as a scripting language or can be compiled to byte-code for building large applications. Very high-level dynamic data types and supports dynamic type checking. Supports automatic garbage collection. It can be easily integrated with C, C++, COM, ActiveX, CORBA and Java.
- 43. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Python Environment Before we start writing our Python programs, let's understand how to set up our Python environment. Python is available on a wide variety of platforms including Linux and Mac OS X. Try opening a terminal window and type "python" to find out if its already installed and which version you have if it is installed. Unix (Solaris, Linux, FreeBSD, AIX, HP/UX, SunOS, IRIX, etc.) Win 9x/NT/2000 Macintosh (Intel, PPC, 68K) OS/2 DOS (multiple versions) PalmOS Nokia mobile phones Windows CE Acorn/RISC OS BeOS Amiga VMS/OpenVMS QNX VxWorks Psion Python has also been ported to the Java and .NET virtual machines CHAPTER 2
- 44. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Getting Python: The most up-to-date and current source code, binaries, documentation, news, etc. is available at the official website of Python: Python Official Website : http://www.python.org/ You can download Python documentation from the following site. The documentation is available in HTML, PDF and PostScript formats. Python Documentation Website : www.python.org/doc/ Install Python: Python distribution is available for a wide variety of platforms. You need to download only the binary code applicable for your platform and install Python. If the binary code for your platform is not available, you need a C compiler to compile the source code manually. Compiling the source code offers more flexibility in terms of choice of features that you require in your installation. Here is a quick overview of installing Python on various platforms: Unix & Linux Installation: Here are the simple steps to install Python on Unix/Linux machine. Open a Web browser and go to http://www.python.org/download/ Follow the link to download zipped source code available for Unix/Linux. Download and extract files. Editing the Modules/Setup file if you want to customize some options. run ./configure script make make install This will install python in a standard location /usr/local/bin and its libraries are installed in/usr/local/lib/pythonXX where XX is the version of Python that you are using. Windows Installation: Here are the steps to install Python on Windows machine. Open a Web browser and go to http://www.python.org/download/ Follow the link for the Windows installer python-XYZ.msi file where XYZ is the version you are going to install. To use this installer python-XYZ.msi, the Windows system must support Microsoft Installer 2.0. Just save the installer file to your local machine and then run it to find out if your machine supports MSI.
- 45. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Run the downloaded file by double-clicking it in Windows Explorer. This brings up the Python install wizard, which is really easy to use. Just accept the default settings, wait until the install is finished, and you're ready to roll! Macintosh Installation: Recent Macs come with Python installed, but it may be several years out of date. See http://www.python.org/download/mac/ for instructions on getting the current version along with extra tools to support development on the Mac. For older Mac OS's before Mac OS X 10.3 (released in 2003), MacPython is available." Jack Jansen maintains it and you can have full access to the entire documentation at his Web site - Jack Jansen Website : http://www.cwi.nl/~jack/macpython.html Just go to this link and you will find complete installation detail for Mac OS installation. Setting up PATH: Programs and other executable files can live in many directories, so operating systems provide a search path that lists the directories that the OS searches for executables. The path is stored in an environment variable, which is a named string maintained by the operating system. These variables contain information available to the command shell and other programs. The path variable is named PATH in Unix or Path in Windows (Unix is case-sensitive; Windows is not). In Mac OS, the installer handles the path details. To invoke the Python interpreter from any particular directory, you must add the Python directory to your path. Setting path at Unix/Linux: To add the Python directory to the path for a particular session in Unix: In the csh shell: type setenv PATH "$PATH:/usr/local/bin/python" and press Enter. In the bash shell (Linux): type export PATH="$PATH:/usr/local/bin/python" and press Enter. In the sh or ksh shell: type PATH="$PATH:/usr/local/bin/python" and press Enter. Note: /usr/local/bin/python is the path of the Python directory Setting path at Windows: To add the Python directory to the path for a particular session in Windows: At the command prompt : type path %path%;C:Python and press Enter. Note: C:Python is the path of the Python directory Python Environment Variables: Here are important environment variables, which can be recognized by Python: Variable Description
- 46. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning PYTHONPATH Has a role similar to PATH. This variable tells the Python interpreter where to locate the module files you import into a program. PYTHONPATH should include the Python source library directory and the directories containing your Python source code. PYTHONPATH is sometimes preset by the Python installer. PYTHONSTARTUP Contains the path of an initialization file containing Python source code that is executed every time you start the interpreter (similar to the Unix .profile or .login file). This file, often named .pythonrc.py in Unix, usually contains commands that load utilities or modify PYTHONPATH. PYTHONCASEOK Used in Windows to instruct Python to find the first case-insensitive match in an import statement. Set this variable to any value to activate it. PYTHONHOME An alternative module search path. It's usually embedded in the PYTHONSTARTUP or PYTHONPATH directories to make switching module libraries easy. Running Python: There are three different ways to start Python: (1) Interactive Interpreter: You can enter python and start coding right away in the interactive interpreter by starting it from the command line. You can do this from Unix, DOS or any other system, which provides you a command-line interpreter or shell window. $python # Unix/Linux or python% # Unix/Linux or C:>python # Windows/DOS Here is the list of all the available command line options: Option Description -d provide debug output -O generate optimized bytecode (resulting in .pyo files) -S do not run import site to look for Python paths on startup -v verbose output (detailed trace on import statements) -X disable class-based built-in exceptions (just use strings); obsolete starting with version 1.6 -c cmd run Python script sent in as cmd string file run Python script from given file
- 47. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning (2) Script from the Command-line: A Python script can be executed at command line by invoking the interpreter on your application, as in the following: $python script.py # Unix/Linux or python% script.py # Unix/Linux or C:>python script.py # Windows/DOS Note: Be sure the file permission mode allows execution. (3) Integrated Development Environment You can run Python from a graphical user interface (GUI) environment as well. All you need is a GUI application on your system that supports Python. Unix: IDLE is the very first Unix IDE for Python. Windows: PythonWin is the first Windows interface for Python and is an IDE with a GUI. Macintosh: The Macintosh version of Python along with the IDLE IDE is available from the main website, downloadable as either MacBinary or BinHex'd files. Before proceeding to next chapter, make sure your environment is properly set up and working perfectly fine. If you are not able to set up the environment properly, then you can take help from your system admin. All the examples given in subsequent chapters have been executed with Python 2.4.3 version available on CentOS flavor of Linux.
- 48. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Python Basic Syntax The Python language has many similarities to Perl, C and Java. However, there are some definite differences between the languages. This chapter is designed to quickly get you up to speed on the syntax that is expected in Python. First Python Program: INTERACTIVE MODE PROGRAMMING: Invoking the interpreter without passing a script file as a parameter brings up the following prompt: $ python Python 2.4.3 (#1, Nov 11 2010, 13:34:43) [GCC 4.1.2 20080704 (Red Hat 4.1.2-48)] on linux2 Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information. >>> Type the following text to the right of the Python prompt and press the Enter key: >>> print "Hello, Python!"; If you are running new version of Python, then you would need to use print statement with parenthesis like print ("Hello, Python!");. However at Python version 2.4.3, this will produce following result: Hello, Python! SCRIPT MODE PROGRAMMING: Invoking the interpreter with a script parameter begins execution of the script and continues until the script is finished. When the script is finished, the interpreter is no longer active. Let us write a simple Python program in a script. All python files will have extension .py. So put the following source code in a test.py file. print "Hello, Python!"; Here, I assumed that you have Python interpreter set in PATH variable. Now, try to run this program as follows: $ python test.py CHAPTER 3
- 49. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning This will produce the following result: Hello, Python! Let's try another way to execute a Python script. Below is the modified test.py file: #!/usr/bin/python print "Hello, Python!"; Here, I assumed that you have Python interpreter available in /usr/bin directory. Now, try to run this program as follows: $ chmod +x test.py # This is to make file executable $./test.py This will produce the following result: Hello, Python! Python Identifiers: A Python identifier is a name used to identify a variable, function, class, module or other object. An identifier starts with a letter A to Z or a to z or an underscore (_) followed by zero or more letters, underscores and digits (0 to 9). Python does not allow punctuation characters such as @, $ and % within identifiers. Python is a case sensitive programming language. Thus, Manpower and manpower are two different identifiers in Python. Here are following identifier naming convention for Python: Class names start with an uppercase letter and all other identifiers with a lowercase letter. Starting an identifier with a single leading underscore indicates by convention that the identifier is meant to be private. Starting an identifier with two leading underscores indicates a strongly private identifier. If the identifier also ends with two trailing underscores, the identifier is a language-defined special name. Reserved Words: The following list shows the reserved words in Python. These reserved words may not be used as constant or variable or any other identifier names. All the Python keywords contain lowercase letters only. And Exec Not Assert Finally Or Break For Pass Class From Print Continue Global Raise Def if Return
- 50. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Del import Try Elif in While Else is With Except lambda Yield Lines and Indentation: One of the first caveats programmers encounter when learning Python is the fact that there are no braces to indicate blocks of code for class and function definitions or flow control. Blocks of code are denoted by line indentation, which is rigidly enforced. The number of spaces in the indentation is variable, but all statements within the block must be indented the same amount. Both blocks in this example are fine: if True: print "True" else: print "False" However, the second block in this example will generate an error: if True: print "Answer" print "True" else: print "Answer" print "False" Thus, in Python all the continous lines indented with similar number of spaces would form a block. Following is the example having various statement blocks: Note: Don't try to understand logic or different functions used. Just make sure you undertood various blocks even if they are without braces. #!/usr/bin/python import sys try: # open file stream file = open(file_name, "w") except IOError: print "There was an error writing to", file_name sys.exit() print "Enter '", file_finish, print "' When finished" while file_text != file_finish: file_text = raw_input("Enter text: ") if file_text == file_finish: # close the file file.close break file.write(file_text) file.write("n") file.close() file_name = raw_input("Enter filename: ")
- 51. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning if len(file_name) == 0: print "Next time please enter something" sys.exit() try: file = open(file_name, "r") except IOError: print "There was an error reading file" sys.exit() file_text = file.read() file.close() print file_text Multi-Line Statements: Statements in Python typically end with a new line. Python does, however, allow the use of the line continuation character () to denote that the line should continue. For example: total = item_one + item_two + item_three Statements contained within the [], {} or () brackets do not need to use the line continuation character. For example: days = ['Monday', 'Tuesday', 'Wednesday', 'Thursday', 'Friday'] Quotation in Python: Python accepts single ('), double (") and triple (''' or """') quotes to denote string literals, as long as the same type of quote starts and ends the string. The triple quotes can be used to span the string across multiple lines. For example, all the following are legal: word = 'word' sentence = "This is a sentence." paragraph = """This is a paragraph. It is made up of multiple lines and sentences.""" Comments in Python: A hash sign (#) that is not inside a string literal begins a comment. All characters after the # and up to the physical line end are part of the comment and the Python interpreter ignores them. #!/usr/bin/python # First comment print "Hello, Python!"; # second comment This will produce the following result: Hello, Python! A comment may be on the same line after a statement or expression: name = "Madisetti" # This is again comment
- 52. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning You can comment multiple lines as follows: # This is a comment. # This is a comment, too. # This is a comment, too. # I said that already. Using Blank Lines: A line containing only whitespace, possibly with a comment, is known as a blank line and Python totally ignores it. In an interactive interpreter session, you must enter an empty physical line to terminate a multiline statement. Waiting for the User: The following line of the program displays the prompt, Press the enter key to exit and waits for the user to press the Enter key: #!/usr/bin/python raw_input("nnPress the enter key to exit.") Here, "nn" are being used to create two new lines before displaying the actual line. Once the user presses the key, the program ends. This is a nice trick to keep a console window open until the user is done with an application. Multiple Statements on a Single Line: The semicolon ( ; ) allows multiple statements on the single line given that neither statement starts a new code block. Here is a sample snip using the semicolon: import sys; x = 'foo'; sys.stdout.write(x + 'n') Multiple Statement Groups as Suites: A group of individual statements, which make a single code block are called suites in Python. Compound or complex statements, such as if, while, def, and class, are those which require a header line and a suite. Header lines begin the statement (with the keyword) and terminate with a colon ( : ) and are followed by one or more lines, which make up the suite. For example: if expression : suite elif expression : suite else : suite Command-Line Arguments: You may have seen, for instance, that many programs can be run so that they provide you with some basic information about how they should be run. Python enables you to do this with -h: $ python -h usage: python [option] ... [-c cmd | -m mod | file | -] [arg] ... Options and arguments (and corresponding environment variables):
- 53. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning -c cmd : program passed in as string (terminates option list) -d : debug output from parser (also PYTHONDEBUG=x) -E : ignore environment variables (such as PYTHONPATH) -h : print this help message and exit [ etc. ] You can also program your script in such a way that it should accept various options. Accessing Command-Line Arguments: Python provides a getopt module that helps you parse command-line options and arguments. $ python test.py arg1 arg2 arg3 The Python sys module provides access to any command-line arguments via the sys.argv. This serves two purpose: sys.argv is the list of command-line arguments. len(sys.argv) is the number of command-line arguments. Here sys.argv[0] is the program ie. script name. Example: Consider the following script test.py: #!/usr/bin/python import sys print 'Number of arguments:', len(sys.argv), 'arguments.' print 'Argument List:', str(sys.argv) Now run above script as follows: $ python test.py arg1 arg2 arg3 This will produce following result: Number of arguments: 4 arguments. Argument List: ['test.py', 'arg1', 'arg2', 'arg3'] NOTE: As mentioned above, first argument is always script name and it is also being counted in number of arguments. ParsingCommand-LineArguments: Python provided a getopt module that helps you parse command-line options and arguments. This module provides two functions and an exception to enable command-line argument parsing. This tutorial would discuss about one method and one exception, which are sufficient for your programming requirements. getopt.getopt method: This method parses command-line options and parameter list. Following is simple syntax for this method:
- 54. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning getopt.getopt(args, options[, long_options]) Here is the detail of the parameters: args: This is the argument list to be parsed. options: This is the string of option letters that the script wants to recognize, with options that require an argument should be followed by a colon (:). long_options: This is optional parameter and if specified, must be a list of strings with the names of the long options, which should be supported. Long options, which require an argument should be followed by an equal sign ('='). To accept only long options, options should be an empty string. This method returns value consisting of two elements: the first is a list of (option, value) pairs. The second is the list of program arguments left after the option list was stripped. Each option-and-value pair returned has the option as its first element, prefixed with a hyphen for short options (e.g., '-x') or two hyphens for long options (e.g., '--long-option'). exception getopt.GetoptError: This is raised when an unrecognized option is found in the argument list or when an option requiring an argument is given none. The argument to the exception is a string indicating the cause of the error. The attributes msg and opt give the error message and related option Example Consider we want to pass two file names through command line and we also want to give an option to check the usage of the script. Usage of the script is as follows: usage: test.py -i <inputfile> -o <outputfile> Here is the following script to test.py: #!/usr/bin/python import sys, getopt def main(argv): inputfile = '' outputfile = '' try: opts, args = getopt.getopt(argv,"hi:o:",["ifile=","ofile="]) except getopt.GetoptError: print 'test.py -i <inputfile> -o <outputfile>' sys.exit(2) for opt, arg in opts: if opt == '-h': print 'test.py -i <inputfile> -o <outputfile>' sys.exit() elif opt in ("-i", "--ifile"): inputfile = arg elif opt in ("-o", "--ofile"): outputfile = arg print 'Input file is "', inputfile print 'Output file is "', outputfile if __name__ == "__main__": main(sys.argv[1:])
- 55. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Now, run above script as follows: $ test.py -h usage: test.py -i <inputfile> -o <outputfile> $ test.py -i BMP -o usage: test.py -i <inputfile> -o <outputfile> $ test.py -i inputfile Input file is " inputfile Output file is "
- 56. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Python Variable Types Variables are nothing but reserved memory locations to store values. This means that when you create a variable you reserve some space in memory. Based on the data type of a variable, the interpreter allocates memory and decides what can be stored in the reserved memory. Therefore, by assigning different data types to variables, you can store integers, decimals or characters in these variables. Assigning Values to Variables: Python variables do not have to be explicitly declared to reserve memory space. The declaration happens automatically when you assign a value to a variable. The equal sign (=) is used to assign values to variables. The operand to the left of the = operator is the name of the variable and the operand to the right of the = operator is the value stored in the variable. For example: #!/usr/bin/python counter = 100 # An integer assignment miles = 1000.0 # A floating point name = "John" # A string print counter print miles print name Here, 100, 1000.0 and "John" are the values assigned to counter, miles and name variables, respectively. While running this program, this will produce the following result: 100 1000.0 John Multiple Assignment: Python allows you to assign a single value to several variables simultaneously. For example: a = b = c = 1 CHAPTER 4
- 57. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Here, an integer object is created with the value 1, and all three variables are assigned to the same memory location. You can also assign multiple objects to multiple variables. For example: a, b, c = 1, 2, "john" Here, two integer objects with values 1 and 2 are assigned to variables a and b, and one string object with the value "john" is assigned to the variable c. Standard Data Types: The data stored in memory can be of many types. For example, a person's age is stored as a numeric value and his or her address is stored as alphanumeric characters. Python has various standard types that are used to define the operations possible on them and the storage method for each of them. Python has five standard data types: Numbers String List Tuple Dictionary Python Numbers: Number data types store numeric values. They are immutable data types which means that changing the value of a number data type results in a newly allocated object. Number objects are created when you assign a value to them. For example: var1 = 1 var2 = 10 You can also delete the reference to a number object by using the del statement. The syntax of the del statement is: del var1[,var2[,var3[....,varN]]]] You can delete a single object or multiple objects by using the del statement. For example: del var del var_a, var_b Python supports four different numerical types: int (signed integers) long (long integers [can also be represented in octal and hexadecimal]) float (floating point real values)
- 58. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning complex (complex numbers) Examples: Here are some examples of numbers: Int Long float complex 10 51924361L 0.0 3.14j 100 -0x19323L 15.20 45.j -786 0122L -21.9 9.322e-36j 080 0xDEFABCECBDAECBFBAEl 32.3+e18 .876j -0490 535633629843L -90. -.6545+0J -0x260 -052318172735L -32.54e100 3e+26J 0x69 -4721885298529L 70.2-E12 4.53e-7j Python allows you to use a lowercase L with long, but it is recommended that you use only an uppercase L to avoid confusion with the number 1. Python displays long integers with an uppercase L. A complex number consists of an ordered pair of real floating-point numbers denoted by a + bj, where a is the real part and b is the imaginary part of the complex number. Python Strings: Strings in Python are identified as a contiguous set of characters in between quotation marks. Python allows for either pairs of single or double quotes. Subsets of strings can be taken using the slice operator ( [ ] and [ : ] ) with indexes starting at 0 in the beginning of the string and working their way from -1 at the end. The plus ( + ) sign is the string concatenation operator and the asterisk ( * ) is the repetition operator. For example: #!/usr/bin/python str = 'Hello World!' print str # Prints complete string print str[0] # Prints first character of the string print str[2:5] # Prints characters starting from 3rd to 5th print str[2:] # Prints string starting from 3rd character print str * 2 # Prints string two times print str + "TEST" # Prints concatenated string This will produce the following result: Hello World! H llo llo World! Hello World!Hello World! Hello World!TEST
- 59. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Python Lists: Lists are the most versatile of Python's compound data types. A list contains items separated by commas and enclosed within square brackets ([]). To some extent, lists are similar to arrays in C. One difference between them is that all the items belonging to a list can be of different data type. The values stored in a list can be accessed using the slice operator ( [ ] and [ : ] ) with indexes starting at 0 in the beginning of the list and working their way to end -1. The plus ( + ) sign is the list concatenation operator, and the asterisk ( * ) is the repetition operator. For example: #!/usr/bin/python list = [ 'abcd', 786 , 2.23, 'john', 70.2 ] tinylist = [123, 'john'] print list # Prints complete list print list[0] # Prints first element of the list print list[1:3] # Prints elements starting from 2nd till 3rd print list[2:] # Prints elements starting from 3rd element print tinylist * 2 # Prints list two times print list + tinylist # Prints concatenated lists This will produce the following result: ['abcd', 786, 2.23, 'john', 70.200000000000003] abcd [786, 2.23] [2.23, 'john', 70.200000000000003] [123, 'john', 123, 'john'] ['abcd', 786, 2.23, 'john', 70.200000000000003, 123, 'john'] Python Tuples: A tuple is another sequence data type that is similar to the list. A tuple consists of a number of values separated by commas. Unlike lists, however, tuples are enclosed within parentheses. The main differences between lists and tuples are: Lists are enclosed in brackets ( [ ] ) and their elements and size can be changed, while tuples are enclosed in parentheses ( ( ) ) and cannot be updated. Tuples can be thought of as read-only lists. For example: #!/usr/bin/python tuple = ( 'abcd', 786 , 2.23, 'john', 70.2 ) tinytuple = (123, 'john') print tuple # Prints complete list print tuple[0] # Prints first element of the list print tuple[1:3] # Prints elements starting from 2nd till 3rd print tuple[2:] # Prints elements starting from 3rd element print tinytuple * 2 # Prints list two times print tuple + tinytuple # Prints concatenated lists This will produce the following result: ('abcd', 786, 2.23, 'john', 70.200000000000003) abcd (786, 2.23)
- 60. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning (2.23, 'john', 70.200000000000003) (123, 'john', 123, 'john') ('abcd', 786, 2.23, 'john', 70.200000000000003, 123, 'john') Following is invalid with tuple, because we attempted to update a tuple, which is not allowed. Similar case is possible with lists: #!/usr/bin/python tuple = ( 'abcd', 786 , 2.23, 'john', 70.2 ) list = [ 'abcd', 786 , 2.23, 'john', 70.2 ] tuple[2] = 1000 # Invalid syntax with tuple list[2] = 1000 # Valid syntax with list Python Dictionary: Python's dictionaries are kind of hash table type. They work like associative arrays or hashes found in Perl and consist of key-value pairs. A dictionary key can be almost any Python type, but are usually numbers or strings. Values, on the other hand, can be any arbitrary Python object. Dictionaries are enclosed by curly braces ( { } ) and values can be assigned and accessed using square braces ( [] ). For example: #!/usr/bin/python dict = {} dict['one'] = "This is one" dict[2] = "This is two" tinydict = {'name': 'john','code':6734, 'dept': 'sales'} print dict['one'] # Prints value for 'one' key print dict[2] # Prints value for 2 key print tinydict # Prints complete dictionary print tinydict.keys() # Prints all the keys print tinydict.values() # Prints all the values This will produce the following result: This is one This is two {'dept': 'sales', 'code': 6734, 'name': 'john'} ['dept', 'code', 'name'] ['sales', 6734, 'john'] Dictionaries have no concept of order among elements. It is incorrect to say that the elements are "out of order"; they are simply unordered. Data Type Conversion: Sometimes, you may need to perform conversions between the built-in types. To convert between types, you simply use the type name as a function. There are several built-in functions to perform conversion from one data type to another. These functions return a new object representing the converted value.
- 61. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Function Description int(x [,base]) Converts x to an integer. base specifies the base if x is a string. long(x [,base] ) Converts x to a long integer. base specifies the base if x is a string. float(x) Converts x to a floating-point number. complex(real [,imag]) Creates a complex number. str(x) Converts object x to a string representation. repr(x) Converts object x to an expression string. eval(str) Evaluates a string and returns an object. tuple(s) Converts s to a tuple. list(s) Converts s to a list. set(s) Converts s to a set. dict(d) Creates a dictionary. d must be a sequence of (key,value) tuples. frozenset(s) Converts s to a frozen set. chr(x) Converts an integer to a character. unichr(x) Converts an integer to a Unicode character.
- 62. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning ord(x) Converts a single character to its integer value. hex(x) Converts an integer to a hexadecimal string. oct(x) Converts an integer to an octal string.
- 63. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Python Basic Operators What is an Operator? Simple answer can be given using expression 4 + 5 is equal to 9. Here, 4 and 5 are called operands and + is called operator. Python language supports the following types of operators. Arithmetic Operators Comparison (i.e., Relational) Operators Assignment Operators Logical Operators Bitwise Operators Membership Operators Identity Operators Let's have a look on all operators one by one. Python Arithmetic Operators: Assume variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20, then: Operator Description Example + Addition - Adds values on either side of the operator a + b will give 30 - Subtraction - Subtracts right hand operand from left hand operand a - b will give -10 * Multiplication - Multiplies values on either side of the operator a * b will give 200 / Division - Divides left hand operand by right hand operand b / a will give 2 CHAPTER 5
- 64. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning % Modulus - Divides left hand operand by right hand operand and returns remainder b % a will give 0 ** Exponent - Performs exponential (power) calculation on operators a**b will give 10 to the power 20 // Floor Division - The division of operands where the result is the quotient in which the digits after the decimal point are removed. 9//2 is equal to 4 and 9.0//2.0 is equal to 4.0 Example: Try the following example to understand all the arithmetic operators available in Python programming language: #!/usr/bin/python a = 21 b = 10 c = 0 c = a + b print "Line 1 - Value of c is ", c c = a - b print "Line 2 - Value of c is ", c c = a * b print "Line 3 - Value of c is ", c c = a / b print "Line 4 - Value of c is ", c c = a % b print "Line 5 - Value of c is ", c a = 2 b = 3 c = a**b print "Line 6 - Value of c is ", c a = 10 b = 5 c = a//b print "Line 7 - Value of c is ", c When you execute the above program, it produces the following result: Line 1 - Value of c is 31 Line 2 - Value of c is 11 Line 3 - Value of c is 210 Line 4 - Value of c is 2 Line 5 - Value of c is 1 Line 6 - Value of c is 8
- 65. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Line 7 - Value of c is 2 Python Comparison Operators: Following table shows all the comparison operators supported by Python language. Assume variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20, then: Operator Description Example == Checks if the value of two operands is equal or not, if yes then condition becomes true. (a == b) is not true. != Checks if the value of two operands is equal or not, if values are not equal then condition becomes true. (a != b) is true. <> Checks if the value of two operands is equal or not, if values are not equal then condition becomes true. (a <> b) is true. This is similar to != operator. > Checks if the value of left operand is greater than the value of right operand, if yes then condition becomes true. (a > b) is not true. < Checks if the value of left operand is less than the value of right operand, if yes then condition becomes true. (a < b) is true. >= Checks if the value of left operand is greater than or equal to the value of right operand, if yes then condition becomes true. (a >= b) is not true. <= Checks if the value of left operand is less than or equal to the value of right operand, if yes then condition becomes true. (a <= b) is true. Example: Try following example to understand all the comparison operators available in Python programming language: #!/usr/bin/python a = 21 b = 10 c = 0 if ( a == b ): print "Line 1 - a is equal to b" else: print "Line 1 - a is not equal to b" if ( a != b ): print "Line 2 - a is not equal to b" else: print "Line 2 - a is equal to b"
- 66. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning if ( a <> b ): print "Line 3 - a is not equal to b" else: print "Line 3 - a is equal to b" if ( a < b ): print "Line 4 - a is less than b" else: print "Line 4 - a is not less than b" if ( a > b ): print "Line 5 - a is greater than b" else: print "Line 5 - a is not greater than b" a = 5; b = 20; if ( a <= b ): print "Line 6 - a is either less than or equal to b" else: print "Line 6 - a is neither less than nor equal to b" if ( b >= a ): print "Line 7 - b is either greater than or equal to b" else: print "Line 7 - b is neither greater than nor equal to b" When you execute the above program, it produces the following result: Line 1 - a is not equal to b Line 2 - a is not equal to b Line 3 - a is not equal to b Line 4 - a is not less than b Line 5 - a is greater than b Line 6 - a is either less than or equal to b Line 7 - b is either greater than or equal to b
- 67. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Python Assignment Operators: Assume variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20, then: Operator Description Example = Simple assignment operator, Assigns values from right side operands to left side operand c = a + b will assign value of a + b into c += Add AND assignment operator, It adds right operand to the left operand and assigns the result to left operand c += a is equivalent to c = c + a -= Subtract AND assignment operator, It subtracts right operand from the left operand and assigns the result to left operand c -= a is equivalent to c = c - a *= Multiply AND assignment operator, It multiplies right operand with the left operand and assigns the result to left operand c *= a is equivalent to c = c * a /= Divide AND assignment operator, It divides left operand with the right operand and assigns the result to left operand c /= a is equivalent to c = c / a %= Modulus AND assignment operator, It takes modulus using two operands and assigns the result to left operand c %= a is equivalent to c = c % a **= Exponent AND assignment operator, Performs exponential (power) calculation on operators and assigns value to the left operand c **= a is equivalent to c = c ** a //= Floor Dividion and assigns a value, Performs floor division on operators and assigns value to the left operand c //= a is equivalent to c = c // a Example: Try following example to understand all the assignment operators available in Python programming language: #!/usr/bin/python a = 21 b = 10 c = 0 c = a + b print "Line 1 - Value of c is ", c c += a print "Line 2 - Value of c is ", c c *= a print "Line 3 - Value of c is ", c
- 68. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning c /= a print "Line 4 - Value of c is ", c c = 2 c %= a print "Line 5 - Value of c is ", c c **= a print "Line 6 - Value of c is ", c c //= a print "Line 7 - Value of c is ", c When you execute the above program, it produces the following result: Line 1 - Value of c is 31 Line 2 - Value of c is 52 Line 3 - Value of c is 1092 Line 4 - Value of c is 52 Line 5 - Value of c is 2 Line 6 - Value of c is 2097152 Line 7 - Value of c is 99864 Python Bitwise Operators: Bitwise operator works on bits and perform bit-by-bit operation. Assume if a = 60 and b = 13, now in binary format they will be as follows: a = 0011 1100 b = 0000 1101 ----------------- a&b = 0000 1100 a|b = 0011 1101 a^b = 0011 0001 ~a = 1100 0011 There are following Bitwise operators supported by Python language: Operator Description Example & Binary AND Operator copies a bit to the result if it exists in both operands. (a & b) will give 12 which is 0000 1100
- 69. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning | Binary OR Operator copies a bit if it exists in either operand. (a | b) will give 61 which is 0011 1101 ^ Binary XOR Operator copies the bit if it is set in one operand but not both. (a ^ b) will give 49 which is 0011 0001 ~ Binary Ones Complement Operator is unary and has the effect of 'flipping' bits. (~a ) will give -60 which is 1100 0011 << Binary Left Shift Operator. The left operands value is moved left by the number of bits specified by the right operand. a << 2 will give 240 which is 1111 0000 >> Binary Right Shift Operator. The left operands value is moved right by the number of bits specified by the right operand. a >> 2 will give 15 which is 0000 1111 Example: Try following example to understand all the bitwise operators available in Python programming language: #!/usr/bin/python a = 60 # 60 = 0011 1100 b = 13 # 13 = 0000 1101 c = 0 c = a & b; # 12 = 0000 1100 print "Line 1 - Value of c is ", c c = a | b; # 61 = 0011 1101 print "Line 2 - Value of c is ", c c = a ^ b; # 49 = 0011 0001 print "Line 3 - Value of c is ", c c = ~a; # -61 = 1100 0011 print "Line 4 - Value of c is ", c c = a << 2; # 240 = 1111 0000 print "Line 5 - Value of c is ", c c = a >> 2; # 15 = 0000 1111 print "Line 6 - Value of c is ", c When you execute the above program, it produces the following result:
- 70. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Line 1 - Value of c is 12 Line 2 - Value of c is 61 Line 3 - Value of c is 49 Line 4 - Value of c is -61 Line 5 - Value of c is 240 Line 6 - Value of c is 15 Python Logical Operators: There are following logical operators supported by Python language. Assume variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20, then: Operator Description Example and Called Logical AND operator. If both the operands are true, then the condition becomes true. (a and b) is true. or Called Logical OR Operator. If any of the two operands are non zero, then the condition becomes true. (a or b) is true. not Called Logical NOT Operator. Used to reverse the logical state of its operand. If a condition is true, then Logical NOT operator will make it false. not(a and b) is false. Example: Try the following example to understand all the logical operators available in Python programming language: #!/usr/bin/python a = 10 b = 20 c = 0 if ( a and b ): print "Line 1 - a and b are true" else: print "Line 1 - Either a is not true or b is not true" if ( a or b ): print "Line 2 - Either a is true or b is true or both are true" else: print "Line 2 - Neither a is true nor b is true" a = 0 if ( a and b ):
- 71. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning print "Line 3 - a and b are true" else: print "Line 3 - Either a is not true or b is not true" if ( a or b ): print "Line 4 - Either a is true or b is true or both are true" else: print "Line 4 - Neither a is true nor b is true" if not( a and b ): print "Line 5 - a and b are true" else: print "Line 5 - Either a is not true or b is not true" When you execute the above program, it produces the following result: Line 1 - a and b are true Line 2 - Either a is true or b is true or both are true Line 3 - Either a is not true or b is not true Line 4 - Either a is true or b is true or both are true Line 5 - a and b are true Python Membership Operators: In addition to the operators discussed previously, Python has membership operators, which test for membership in a sequence, such as strings, lists or tuples. There are two membership operators explained below: Operator Description Example In Evaluates to true if it finds a variable in the specified sequence and false otherwise. x in y, here in results in a 1 if x is a member of sequence y. not in Evaluates to true if it does not finds a variable in the specified sequence and false otherwise. x not in y, here not in results in a 1 if x is not a member of sequence y. Example: Try following example to understand all the membership operators available in Python programming language: #!/usr/bin/python a = 10 b = 20 list = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ]; if ( a in list ):
- 72. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning print "Line 1 - a is available in the given list" else: print "Line 1 - a is not available in the given list" if ( b not in list ): print "Line 2 - b is not available in the given list" else: print "Line 2 - b is available in the given list" a = 2 if ( a in list ): print "Line 3 - a is available in the given list" else: print "Line 3 - a is not available in the given list" When you execute the above program, it produces the following result: Line 1 - a is not available in the given list Line 2 - b is not available in the given list Line 3 - a is available in the given list Python Identity Operators: Identity operators compare the memory locations of two objects. There are two Identity operators explained below: Operator Description Example Is Evaluates to true if the variables on either side of the operator point to the same object and false otherwise. x is y, here is results in 1 if id(x) equals id(y). is not Evaluates to false if the variables on either side of the operator point to the same object and true otherwise. x is not y, here is not results in 1 if id(x) is not equal to id(y). Example: Try following example to understand all the identity operators available in Python programming language: #!/usr/bin/python a = 20 b = 20 if ( a is b ): print "Line 1 - a and b have same identity" else: print "Line 1 - a and b do not have same identity"
- 73. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning if ( id(a) == id(b) ): print "Line 2 - a and b have same identity" else: print "Line 2 - a and b do not have same identity" b = 30 if ( a is b ): print "Line 3 - a and b have same identity" else: print "Line 3 - a and b do not have same identity" if ( a is not b ): print "Line 4 - a and b do not have same identity" else: print "Line 4 - a and b have same identity" When you execute the above program, it produces the following result: Line 1 - a and b have same identity Line 2 - a and b have same identity Line 3 - a and b do not have same identity Line 4 - a and b do not have same identity Python Operators Precedence Operator precedence determines the grouping of terms in an expression. This affects how an expression is evaluated. Certain operators have higher precedence than others; for example, the multiplication operator has higher precedence than the addition operator. For example, x = 7 + 3 * 2; here, x is assigned 13, not 20 because operator * has higher precedence than +, so it first multiplies 3*2 and then adds into 7. Here, operators with the highest precedence appear at the top of the table, those with the lowest appear at the bottom. Within an expression, higher precedence operators will be evaluated first. The following table lists all operators from highest precedence to lowest: Operator Description ** Exponentiation (raise to the power) ~ + - Complement, unary plus and minus (method names for the last two are +@ and -@) * / % // Multiply, divide, modulo and floor division
- 74. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning + - Addition and subtraction >> << Right and left bitwise shift & Bitwise 'AND' ^ | Bitwise exclusive `OR' and regular `OR' <= < > >= Comparison operators <> == != Equality operators = %= /= //= -= += *= **= Assignment operators is is not Identity operators in not in Membership operators not or and Logical operators Example: Try following example to understand operator precedence available in Python programming language: #!/usr/bin/python a = 20 b = 10 c = 15 d = 5 e = 0 e = (a + b) * c / d #( 30 * 15 ) / 5 print "Value of (a + b) * c / d is ", e e = ((a + b) * c) / d # (30 * 15 ) / 5 print "Value of ((a + b) * c) / d is ", e e = (a + b) * (c / d); # (30) * (15/5) print "Value of (a + b) * (c / d) is ", e e = a + (b * c) / d; # 20 + (150/5) print "Value of a + (b * c) / d is ", e When you execute the above program, it produces the following result:
- 75. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Value of (a + b) * c / d is 90 Value of ((a + b) * c) / d is 90 Value of (a + b) * (c / d) is 90 Value of a + (b * c) / d is 50
- 76. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Python Decision Making Decision making structures require that the programmer specify one or more conditions to be evaluated or tested by the program, along with a statement or statements to be executed if the condition is determined to be true, and optionally, other statements to be executed if the condition is determined to be false. Following is the general form of a typical decision making structure found in most of the programming languages: Python programming language assumes any non-zero and non-null values as true, and if it is either zero or null, then it is assumed as false value. Python programming language provides following types of decision making statements. Click the following links to check their detail. Statement Description CHAPTER 6
- 77. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning if statements An if statement consists of a boolean expression followed by one or more statements. if...else statements An if statement can be followed by an optional else statement, which executes when the boolean expression is false. nested if statements You can use one if or else if statement inside another if or else if statement(s). If statements The if statement of Python is similar to that of other languages. The if statement contains a logical expression using which data is compared and a decision is made based on the result of the comparison. Syntax: The syntax of an if statement in Python programming language is: if expression: statement(s) If the boolean expression evaluates to true, then the block of statement(s) inside the if statement will be executed. If boolean expression evaluates to false, then the first set of code after the end of the if statement(s) will be executed. Python programming language assumes any non-zero and non-null values as true, and if it is eitherzero or null, then it is assumed as false value. Flow Diagram: Example: #!/usr/bin/python var1 = 100
- 78. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning if var1: print "1 - Got a true expression value" print var1 var2 = 0 if var2: print "2 - Got a true expression value" print var2 print "Good bye!" When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: 1 - Got a true expression value 100 Good bye! if...else statements An else statement can be combined with an if statement. An else statement contains the block of code that executes if the conditional expression in the if statement resolves to 0 or a false value. The else statement is an optional statement and there could be at most only one else statement following if . Syntax: The syntax of the if...else statement is: if expression: statement(s) else: statement(s) Flow Diagram:
- 79. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Example: #!/usr/bin/python var1 = 100 if var1: print "1 - Got a true expression value" print var1 else: print "1 - Got a false expression value" print var1 var2 = 0 if var2: print "2 - Got a true expression value" print var2 else: print "2 - Got a false expression value" print var2 print "Good bye!" When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: 1 - Got a true expression value 100 2 - Got a false expression value 0 Good bye! The elif Statement The elif statement allows you to check multiple expressions for truth value and execute a block of code as soon as one of the conditions evaluates to true. Like the else, the elif statement is optional. However, unlike else, for which there can be at most one statement, there can be an arbitrary number of elif statements following an if. The syntax of the if...elif statement is: if expression1: statement(s) elif expression2: statement(s) elif expression3: statement(s) else: statement(s) Core Python does not provide switch or case statements as in other languages, but we can use if..elif...statements to simulate switch case as follows: Example: #!/usr/bin/python var = 100 if var == 200:
- 80. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning print "1 - Got a true expression value" print var elif var == 150: print "2 - Got a true expression value" print var2 elif var == 100: print "3 - Got a true expression value" print var else: print "4 - Got a false expression value" print var print "Good bye!" When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: 3 - Got a true expression value 100 Good bye! nested if statements There may be a situation when you want to check for another condition after a condition resolves to true. In such a situation, you can use the nested if construct. In a nested if construct, you can have an if...elif...else construct inside another if...elif...else construct. Syntax: The syntax of the nested if...elif...else construct may be: if expression1: statement(s) if expression2: statement(s) elif expression3: statement(s) else statement(s) elif expression4: statement(s) else: statement(s) Example: #!/usr/bin/python var = 100 if var < 200: print "Expression value is less than 200" if var == 150: print "Which is 150" elif var == 100: print "Which is 100" elif var == 50: print "Which is 50" elif var < 50: print "Expression value is less than 50" else: print "Could not find true expression"
- 81. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning print "Good bye!" When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: Expression value is less than 200 Which is 100 Good bye! Single Statement Suites: If the suite of an if clause consists only of a single line, it may go on the same line as the header statement. Here is an example of a one-line if clause: #!/usr/bin/python var = 100 if ( var == 100 ) : print "Value of expression is 100" print "Good bye!" When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: Value of expression is 100 Good bye!
- 82. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Python Loops There may be a situation when you need to execute a block of code several number of times. In general, statements are executed sequentially: The first statement in a function is executed first, followed by the second, and so on. Programming languages provide various control structures that allow for more complicated execution paths. A loop statement allows us to execute a statement or group of statements multiple times and following is the general form of a loop statement in most of the programming languages: Python programming language provides following types of loops to handle looping requirements. Click the following links to check their detail. CHAPTER 7
- 83. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Loop Type Description while loop Repeats a statement or group of statements while a given condition is true. It tests the condition before executing the loop body. for loop Executes a sequence of statements multiple times and abbreviates the code that manages the loop variable. nested loops You can use one or more loop inside any another while, for or do..while loop. while loop A while loop statement in Python programming language repeatedly executes a target statement as long as a given condition is true. Syntax: The syntax of a while loop in Python programming language is: while expression: statement(s) Here, statement(s) may be a single statement or a block of statements. The condition may be any expression, and true is any non-zero value. The loop iterates while the condition is true. When the condition becomes false, program control passes to the line immediately following the loop. In Python, all the statements indented by the same number of character spaces after a programming construct are considered to be part of a single block of code. Python uses indentation as its method of grouping statements. Flow Diagram:
- 84. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Here, key point of the while loop is that the loop might not ever run. When the condition is tested and the result is false, the loop body will be skipped and the first statement after the while loop will be executed. Example: #!/usr/bin/python count = 0 while (count < 9): print 'The count is:', count count = count + 1 print "Good bye!" When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: The count is: 0 The count is: 1 The count is: 2 The count is: 3 The count is: 4 The count is: 5 The count is: 6 The count is: 7 The count is: 8 Good bye! The block here, consisting of the print and increment statements, is executed repeatedly until count is no longer less than 9. With each iteration, the current value of the index count is displayed and then increased by 1. The Infinite Loop: A loop becomes infinite loop if a condition never becomes false. You must use caution when using while loops because of the possibility that this condition never resolves to a false value. This results in a loop that never ends. Such a loop is called an infinite loop. An infinite loop might be useful in client/server programming where the server needs to run continuously so that client programs can communicate with it as and when required. #!/usr/bin/python var = 1 while var == 1 : # This constructs an infinite loop num = raw_input("Enter a number :") print "You entered: ", num print "Good bye!" When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: Enter a number :20 You entered: 20 Enter a number :29 You entered: 29 Enter a number :3 You entered: 3 Enter a number between :Traceback (most recent call last): File "test.py", line 5, in <module> num = raw_input("Enter a number :")
- 85. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning KeyboardInterrupt Above example will go in an infite loop and you would need to use CTRL+C to come out of the program. The else Statement Used with Loops Python supports to have an else statement associated with a loop statement. If the else statement is used with a for loop, the else statement is executed when the loop has exhausted iterating the list. If the else statement is used with a while loop, the else statement is executed when the condition becomes false. The following example illustrates the combination of an else statement with a while statement that prints a number as long as it is less than 5, otherwise else statement gets executed. #!/usr/bin/python count = 0 while count < 5: print count, " is less than 5" count = count + 1 else: print count, " is not less than 5" When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: 0 is less than 5 1 is less than 5 2 is less than 5 3 is less than 5 4 is less than 5 5 is not less than 5 Single Statement Suites: Similar to the if statement syntax, if your while clause consists only of a single statement, it may be placed on the same line as the while header. Here is the syntax and example of a one-line while clause: #!/usr/bin/python flag = 1 while (flag): print 'Given flag is really true!' print "Good bye!" Do not try above example because it will go into infinite loop and you will have to use CTRL+C keys to come out. for loop The for loop in Python has the ability to iterate over the items of any sequence, such as a list or a string. Syntax: The syntax of a for loop look is as follows: for iterating_var in sequence:
- 86. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning statements(s) If a sequence contains an expression list, it is evaluated first. Then, the first item in the sequence is assigned to the iterating variable iterating_var. Next, the statements block is executed. Each item in the list is assigned to iterating_var, and the statement(s) block is executed until the entire sequence is exhausted. Flow Diagram: Example: #!/usr/bin/python for letter in 'Python': # First Example print 'Current Letter :', letter fruits = ['banana', 'apple', 'mango'] for fruit in fruits: # Second Example print 'Current fruit :', fruit print "Good bye!" When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: Current Letter : P Current Letter : y Current Letter : t Current Letter : h Current Letter : o Current Letter : n Current fruit : banana Current fruit : apple Current fruit : mango Good bye!
- 87. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Iterating by Sequence Index: An alternative way of iterating through each item is by index offset into the sequence itself. Following is a simple example: #!/usr/bin/python fruits = ['banana', 'apple', 'mango'] for index in range(len(fruits)): print 'Current fruit :', fruits[index] print "Good bye!" When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: Current fruit : banana Current fruit : apple Current fruit : mango Good bye! Here, we took the assistance of the len() built-in function, which provides the total number of elements in the tuple as well as the range() built-in function to give us the actual sequence to iterate over. The else Statement Used with Loops Python supports to have an else statement associated with a loop statement. If the else statement is used with a for loop, the else statement is executed when the loop has exhausted iterating the list. If the else statement is used with a while loop, the else statement is executed when the condition becomes false. The following example illustrates the combination of an else statement with a for statement that searches for prime numbers from 10 through 20. #!/usr/bin/python for num in range(10,20): #to iterate between 10 to 20 for i in range(2,num): #to iterate on the factors of the number if num%i == 0: #to determine the first factor j=num/i #to calculate the second factor print '%d equals %d * %d' % (num,i,j) break #to move to the next number, the #first FOR else: # else part of the loop print num, 'is a prime number' When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: 10 equals 2 * 5 11 is a prime number 12 equals 2 * 6 13 is a prime number 14 equals 2 * 7 15 equals 3 * 5 16 equals 2 * 8 17 is a prime number 18 equals 2 * 9 19 is a prime number nested loops
- 88. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Python programming language allows to use one loop inside another loop. Following section shows few examples to illustrate the concept. Syntax: The syntax for a nested for loop statement in Python is as follows: for iterating_var in sequence: for iterating_var in sequence: statements(s) statements(s) The syntax for a nested while loop statement in Python programming language is as follows: while expression: while expression: statement(s) statement(s) A final note on loop nesting is that you can put any type of loop inside of any other type of loop. For example, a for loop can be inside a while loop or vice versa. Example: The following program uses a nested for loop to find the prime numbers from 2 to 100: #!/usr/bin/python i = 2 while(i < 100): j = 2 while(j <= (i/j)): if not(i%j): break j = j + 1 if (j > i/j) : print i, " is prime" i = i + 1 print "Good bye!" When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: 2 is prime 3 is prime 5 is prime 7 is prime 11 is prime 13 is prime 17 is prime 19 is prime 23 is prime 29 is prime 31 is prime 37 is prime 41 is prime 43 is prime 47 is prime 53 is prime 59 is prime 61 is prime 67 is prime
- 89. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning 71 is prime 73 is prime 79 is prime 83 is prime 89 is prime 97 is prime Good bye! Loop Control Statements: Loop control statements change execution from its normal sequence. When execution leaves a scope, all automatic objects that were created in that scope are destroyed. Python supports the following control statements. Click the following links to check their detail. Control Statement Description break statement Terminates the loop statement and transfers execution to the statement immediately following the loop. continue statement Causes the loop to skip the remainder of its body and immediately retest its condition prior to reiterating. pass statement The pass statement in Python is used when a statement is required syntactically but you do not want any command or code to execute. break statement The break statement in Python terminates the current loop and resumes execution at the next statement, just like the traditional break found in C. The most common use for break is when some external condition is triggered requiring a hasty exit from a loop. The break statement can be used in both while and for loops. If you are using nested loops (i.e., one loop inside another loop), the break statement will stop the execution of the innermost loop and start executing the next line of code after the block. Syntax: The syntax for a break statement in Python is as follows: break
- 90. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Flow Diagram: Example: #!/usr/bin/python for letter in 'Python': # First Example if letter == 'h': break print 'Current Letter :', letter var = 10 # Second Example while var > 0: print 'Current variable value :', var var = var -1 if var == 5: break print "Good bye!" When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: Current Letter : P Current Letter : y Current Letter : t Current variable value : 10 Current variable value : 9 Current variable value : 8 Current variable value : 7 Current variable value : 6 Good bye! continue statement
- 91. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning The continue statement in Python returns the control to the beginning of the while loop. The continue statement rejects all the remaining statements in the current iteration of the loop and moves the control back to the top of the loop. The continue statement can be used in both while and for loops. Syntax: The syntax for a continue statement in Python is as follows: continue Flow Diagram: Example: #!/usr/bin/python for letter in 'Python': # First Example if letter == 'h': continue print 'Current Letter :', letter var = 10 # Second Example while var > 0: var = var -1 if var == 5: continue print 'Current variable value :', var print “Good bye!” When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: Current Letter : P Current Letter : y Current Letter : t Current Letter : o
- 92. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Current Letter : n Current variable value : 9 Current variable value : 8 Current variable value : 7 Current variable value : 6 Current variable value : 4 Current variable value : 3 Current variable value : 2 Current variable value : 1 Current variable value : 0 Good bye! pass statement The pass statement in Python is used when a statement is required syntactically but you do not want any command or code to execute. The pass statement is a null operation; nothing happens when it executes. The pass is also useful in places where your code will eventually go, but has not been written yet (e.g., in stubs for example): Syntax: The syntax for a pass statement in Python is as follows: pass Example: #!/usr/bin/python for letter in 'Python': if letter == 'h': pass print 'This is pass block' print 'Current Letter :', letter print "Good bye!" When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: Current Letter : P Current Letter : y Current Letter : t This is pass block Current Letter : h Current Letter : o Current Letter : n Good bye!
- 93. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Python Numbers Number data types store numeric values. They are immutable data types which mean that changing the value of a number data type results in a newly allocated object. Number objects are created when you assign a value to them. For example: var1 = 1 var2 = 10 You can also delete the reference to a number object by using the del statement. The syntax of the del statement is: del var1[,var2[,var3[....,varN]]]] You can delete a single object or multiple objects by using the del statement. For example: del var del var_a, var_b Python supports four different numerical types: int (signed integers): often called just integers or ints are positive or negative whole numbers with no decimal point. long (long integers ): or longs are integers of unlimited size, written like integers and followed by an uppercase or lowercase L. float (floating point real values) : or floats represent real numbers and are written with a decimal point dividing the integer and fractional parts. Floats may also be in scientific notation, with E or e indicating the power of 10 (2.5e2 = 2.5 x 102 = 250). complex (complex numbers) : are of the form a + bJ, where a and b are floats and J (or j) represents the square root of -1 (which is an imaginary number). a is the real part of the number, and b is the imaginary part. Complex numbers are not used much in Python programming. Examples: Here are some examples of numbers: int Long Float complex 10 51924361L 0.0 3.14j CHAPTER 8
- 94. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning 100 -0x19323L 15.20 45.j -786 0122L -21.9 9.322e-36j 080 0xDEFABCECBDAECBFBAEl 32.3+e18 .876j -0490 535633629843L -90. -.6545+0J -0x260 -052318172735L -32.54e100 3e+26J 0x69 -4721885298529L 70.2-E12 4.53e-7j Python allows you to use a lowercase L with long, but it is recommended that you use only an uppercase L to avoid confusion with the number 1. Python displays long integers with an uppercase L. A complex number consists of an ordered pair of real floating point numbers denoted by a + bj, where a is the real part and b is the imaginary part of the complex number. Number Type Conversion: Python converts numbers internally in an expression containing mixed types to a common type for evaluation. But sometimes, you'll need to coerce a number explicitly from one type to another to satisfy the requirements of an operator or function parameter. Type int(x) to convert x to a plain integer. Type long(x) to convert x to a long integer. Type float(x) to convert x to a floating-point number. Type complex(x) to convert x to a complex number with real part x and imaginary part zero. Type complex(x, y) to convert x and y to a complex number with real part x and imaginary part y. x and y are numeric expressions Mathematical Functions: Python includes the following functions that perform mathematical calculations. Function Returns ( description ) abs(x) The absolute value of x: the (positive) distance between x and zero. ceil(x) The ceiling of x: the smallest integer not less than x cmp(x, y) -1 if x < y, 0 if x == y, or 1 if x > y exp(x) The exponential of x: ex fabs(x) The absolute value of x. floor(x) The floor of x: the largest integer not greater than x log(x) The natural logarithm of x, for x> 0 log10(x) The base-10 logarithm of x for x> 0
- 95. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning max(x1, x2,...) The largest of its arguments: the value closest to positive infinity min(x1, x2,...) The smallest of its arguments: the value closest to negative infinity modf(x) The fractional and integer parts of x in a two-item tuple. Both parts have the same sign as x. The integer part is returned as a float. pow(x, y) The value of x**y. round(x [,n]) x rounded to n digits from the decimal point. Python rounds away from zero as a tie- breaker: round(0.5) is 1.0 and round(-0.5) is -1.0. sqrt(x) The square root of x for x > 0 These mathematical functions are explained here: abs(x) Description The method abs() returns absolute value of x - the (positive) distance between x and zero. Syntax Following is the syntax for abs() method: abs( x ) Parameters x -- This is a numeric expression. Return Value This method returns absolute value of x. Example The following example shows the usage of abs() method. #!/usr/bin/python print "abs(-45) : ", abs(-45) print "abs(100.12) : ", abs(100.12) print "abs(119L) : ", abs(119L) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: abs(-45) : 45
- 96. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning abs(100.12) : 100.12 abs(119L) : 119 ceil(x) Description The method ceil() returns ceiling value of x - the smallest integer not less than x. Syntax Following is the syntax for ceil() method: import math math.ceil( x ) Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import math module and then we need to call this function using math static object. Parameters x -- This is a numeric expression. Return Value This method returns smallest integer not less than x. Example The following example shows the usage of ceil() method. #!/usr/bin/python import math # This will import math module print "math.ceil(-45.17) : ", math.ceil(-45.17) print "math.ceil(100.12) : ", math.ceil(100.12) print "math.ceil(100.72) : ", math.ceil(100.72) print "math.ceil(119L) : ", math.ceil(119L) print "math.ceil(math.pi) : ", math.ceil(math.pi) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: math.ceil(-45.17) : -45.0 math.ceil(100.12) : 101.0 math.ceil(100.72) : 101.0 math.ceil(119L) : 119.0 math.ceil(math.pi) : 4.0 cmp(x, y) Description The method cmp() returns the sign of the difference of two numbers : -1 if x < y, 0 if x == y, or 1 if x > y .
- 97. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Syntax Following is the syntax for cmp() method: cmp( x, y ) Parameters x -- This is a numeric expression. y -- This is also a numeric expression. Return Value This method returns -1 if x < y, returns 0 if x == y and 1 if x > y Example The following example shows the usage of cmp() method. #!/usr/bin/python print "cmp(80, 100) : ", cmp(80, 100) print "cmp(180, 100) : ", cmp(180, 100) print "cmp(-80, 100) : ", cmp(-80, 100) print "cmp(80, -100) : ", cmp(80, -100) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: cmp(80, 100) : -1 cmp(180, 100) : 1 cmp(-80, 100) : -1 cmp(80, -100) : 1 exp(x) Description The method exp() returns returns exponential of x: ex. Syntax Following is the syntax for exp() method: import math math.exp( x ) Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import math module and then we need to call this function using math static object. Parameters x -- This is a numeric expression. Return Value This method returns exponential of x: ex.
- 98. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Example The following example shows the usage of exp() method. #!/usr/bin/python import math # This will import math module print "math.exp(-45.17) : ", math.exp(-45.17) print "math.exp(100.12) : ", math.exp(100.12) print "math.exp(100.72) : ", math.exp(100.72) print "math.exp(119L) : ", math.exp(119L) print "math.exp(math.pi) : ", math.exp(math.pi) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: math.exp(-45.17) : 2.41500621326e-20 math.exp(100.12) : 3.03084361407e+43 math.exp(100.72) : 5.52255713025e+43 math.exp(119L) : 4.7978133273e+51 math.exp(math.pi) : 23.1406926328 fabs(x) Description The method fabs() returns the absolute value of x. Syntax Following is the syntax for fabs() method: import math math.fabs( x ) Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import math module and then we need to call this function using math static object. Parameters x -- This is a numeric value. Return Value This method returns absolute value of x. Example The following example shows the usage of fabs() method. #!/usr/bin/python import math # This will import math module print "math.fabs(-45.17) : ", math.fabs(-45.17) print "math.fabs(100.12) : ", math.fabs(100.12)
- 99. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning print "math.fabs(100.72) : ", math.fabs(100.72) print "math.fabs(119L) : ", math.fabs(119L) print "math.fabs(math.pi) : ", math.fabs(math.pi) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: math.fabs(-45.17) : 45.17 math.fabs(100.12) : 100.12 math.fabs(100.72) : 100.72 math.fabs(119L) : 119.0 math.fabs(math.pi) : 3.14159265359 floor(x) Description The method floor() returns floor of x - the largest integer not greater than x. Syntax Following is the syntax for floor() method import math math.floor( x ) Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import math module and then we need to call this function using math static object. Parameters x -- This is a numeric expression. Return Value This method returns largest integer not greater than x. Example The following example shows the usage of floor() method. #!/usr/bin/python import math # This will import math module print "math.floor(-45.17) : ", math.floor(-45.17) print "math.floor(100.12) : ", math.floor(100.12) print "math.floor(100.72) : ", math.floor(100.72) print "math.floor(119L) : ", math.floor(119L) print "math.floor(math.pi) : ", math.floor(math.pi) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: math.floor(-45.17) : -46.0 math.floor(100.12) : 100.0 math.floor(100.72) : 100.0 math.floor(119L) : 119.0 math.floor(math.pi) : 3.0
- 100. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning log(x) Description The method log() returns natural logarithm of x, for x > 0. Syntax Following is the syntax for log() method: import math math.log( x ) Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import math module and then we need to call this function using math static object. Parameters x -- This is a numeric expression. Return Value This method returns natural logarithm of x, for x > 0. Example The following example shows the usage of log() method. #!/usr/bin/python import math # This will import math module print "math.log(100.12) : ", math.log(100.12) print "math.log(100.72) : ", math.log(100.72) print "math.log(119L) : ", math.log(119L) print "math.log(math.pi) : ", math.log(math.pi) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: math.log(100.12) : 4.60636946656 math.log(100.72) : 4.61234438974 math.log(119L) : 4.77912349311 math.log(math.pi) : 1.14472988585 log10(x) Description The method log10() returns base-10 logarithm of x for x > 0. Syntax Following is the syntax for log10() method: import math math.log10( x )
- 101. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import math module and then we need to call this function using math static object. Parameters x -- This is a numeric expression. Return Value This method returns base-10 logarithm of x for x > 0. Example The following example shows the usage of log10() method. #!/usr/bin/python import math # This will import math module print "math.log10(100.12) : ", math.log10(100.12) print "math.log10(100.72) : ", math.log10(100.72) print "math.log10(119L) : ", math.log10(119L) print "math.log10(math.pi) : ", math.log10(math.pi) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: math.log10(100.12) : 2.00052084094 math.log10(100.72) : 2.0031157171 math.log10(119L) : 2.07554696139 math.log10(math.pi) : 0.497149872694 max(x1, x2,...) Description The method max() returns the largest of its arguments: the value closest to positive infinity. Syntax Following is the syntax for max() method: max( x, y, z, .... ) Parameters x -- This is a numeric expression. y -- This is also a numeric expression. z -- This is also a numeric expression. Return Value This method returns largest of its arguments. Example The following example shows the usage of max() method. #!/usr/bin/python
- 102. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning print "max(80, 100, 1000) : ", max(80, 100, 1000) print "max(-20, 100, 400) : ", max(-20, 100, 400) print "max(-80, -20, -10) : ", max(-80, -20, -10) print "max(0, 100, -400) : ", max(0, 100, -400) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: max(80, 100, 1000) : 1000 max(-20, 100, 400) : 400 max(-80, -20, -10) : -10 max(0, 100, -400) : 100 min(x1, x2,...) Description The method min() returns the smallest of its arguments: the value closest to negative infinity. Syntax Following is the syntax for min() method: min( x, y, z, .... ) Parameters x -- This is a numeric expression. y -- This is also a numeric expression. z -- This is also a numeric expression. Return Value This method returns smallest of its arguments. Example The following example shows the usage of min() method. #!/usr/bin/python print "min(80, 100, 1000) : ", min(80, 100, 1000) print "min(-20, 100, 400) : ", min(-20, 100, 400) print "min(-80, -20, -10) : ", min(-80, -20, -10) print "min(0, 100, -400) : ", min(0, 100, -400) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: min(80, 100, 1000) : 80 min(-20, 100, 400) : -20 min(-80, -20, -10) : -80 min(0, 100, -400) : -400
- 103. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning modf(x) Description The method modf() returns the fractional and integer parts of x in a two-item tuple. Both parts have the same sign as x. The integer part is returned as a float. Syntax Following is the syntax for modf() method: import math math.modf( x ) Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import math module and then we need to call this function using math static object. Parameters x -- This is a numeric expression. Return Value This method returns the fractional and integer parts of x in a two-item tuple. Both parts have the same sign as x. The integer part is returned as a float. Example The following example shows the usage of modf() method. #!/usr/bin/python import math # This will import math module print "math.modf(100.12) : ", math.modf(100.12) print "math.modf(100.72) : ", math.modf(100.72) print "math.modf(119L) : ", math.modf(119L) print "math.modf(math.pi) : ", math.modf(math.pi) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: math.modf(100.12) : (0.12000000000000455, 100.0) math.modf(100.72) : (0.71999999999999886, 100.0) math.modf(119L) : (0.0, 119.0) math.modf(math.pi) : (0.14159265358979312, 3.0) pow(x, y)
- 104. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Description The method pow() returns returns the value of xy. Syntax Following is the syntax for pow() method: import math math.pow( x, y ) Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import math module and then we need to call this function using math static object. Parameters x -- This is a numeric expression. y -- This is also a numeric expression. Return Value This method returns value of xy. Example The following example shows the usage of pow() method. #!/usr/bin/python import math # This will import math module print "math.pow(100, 2) : ", math.pow(100, 2) print "math.pow(100, -2) : ", math.pow(100, -2) print "math.pow(2, 4) : ", math.pow(2, 4) print "math.pow(3, 0) : ", math.pow(3, 0) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: math.pow(100, 2) : 10000.0 math.pow(100, -2) : 0.0001 math.pow(2, 4) : 16.0 math.pow(3, 0) : 1.0 round(x [,n]) Description The method round() returns x rounded to n digits from the decimal point. Syntax Following is the syntax for round() method: round( x [, n] ) Parameters x -- This is a numeric expression.. n -- This is also a numeric expression.
- 105. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Return Value This method returns x rounded to n digits from the decimal point. Example The following example shows the usage of round() method. #!/usr/bin/python print "round(80.23456, 2) : ", round(80.23456, 2) print "round(100.000056, 3) : ", round(100.000056, 3) print "round(-100.000056, 3) : ", round(-100.000056, 3) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: round(80.23456, 2) : 80.23 round(100.000056, 3) : 100.0 round(-100.000056, 3) : -100.0 sqrt(x) Description The method sqrt() returns the square root of x for x > 0. Syntax Following is the syntax for sqrt() method: import math math.sqrt( x ) Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import math module and then we need to call this function using math static object. Parameters x -- This is a numeric expression. Return Value This method returns square root of x for x > 0. Example The following example shows the usage of sqrt() method. #!/usr/bin/python import math # This will import math module print "math.sqrt(100) : ", math.sqrt(100) print "math.sqrt(7) : ", math.sqrt(7) print "math.sqrt(math.pi) : ", math.sqrt(math.pi)
- 106. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: math.sqrt(100) : 10.0 math.sqrt(7) : 2.64575131106 math.sqrt(math.pi) : 1.77245385091 Random Number Functions: Random numbers are used for games, simulations, testing, security and privacy applications. Python includes the following functions that are commonly used: Function Description choice(seq) A random item from a list, tuple or string. randrange ([start,] stop [,step]) A randomly selected element from range(start, stop, step) random() A random float r, such that 0 is less than or equal to r and r is less than 1 seed([x]) Sets the integer starting value used in generating random numbers. Call this function before calling any other random module function. Returns None. shuffle(lst) Randomizes the items of a list in place. Returns None. uniform(x, y) A random float r, such that x is less than or equal to r and r is less than y The Random Number Functions are explained here: choice(seq) Description The method choice() returns a random item from a list, tuple, or string. Syntax Following is the syntax for choice() method: choice( seq ) Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import random module and then we need to call this function using random static object. Parameters seq -- This could be a list, tuple, or string... Return Value This method returns a random item. Example The following example shows the usage of choice() method. #!/usr/bin/python
- 107. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning import random print "choice([1, 2, 3, 5, 9]) : ", random.choice([1, 2, 3, 5, 9]) print "choice('A String') : ", random.choice('A String') Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: choice([1, 2, 3, 5, 9]) : 2 choice('A String') : n randrange ([start,] stop [,step]) Description The method randrange() returns a randomly selected element from range(start, stop, step). Syntax Following is the syntax for randrange() method: randrange ([start,] stop [,step]) Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import random module and then we need to call this function using random static object. Parameters start -- Start point of the range. This would be included in the range. . stop -- Stop point of the range. This would be excluded from the range.. step -- Steps to be added in a number to decide a random number.. Return Value This method returns a random item from the given range Example The following example shows the usage of randrange() method. #!/usr/bin/python import random # Select an even number in 100 <= number < 1000 print "randrange(100, 1000, 2) : ", random.randrange(100, 1000, 2) # Select another number in 100 <= number < 1000 print "randrange(100, 1000, 3) : ", random.randrange(100, 1000, 3) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: randrange(100, 1000, 2) : 976
- 108. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning randrange(100, 1000, 3) : 520 random() Description The method random() returns a random float r, such that 0 is less than or equal to r and r is less than 1. Syntax Following is the syntax for random() method: random ( ) Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import random module and then we need to call this function using random static object. Parameters NA Return Value This method returns a random float r, such that 0 is less than or equal to r and r is less than 1. Example The following example shows the usage of random() method. #!/usr/bin/python import random # First random number print "random() : ", random.random() # Second random number print "random() : ", random.random() Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: random() : 0.281954791393 random() : 0.309090465205 seed([x]) Description The method seed() sets the integer starting value used in generating random numbers. Call this function before calling any other random module function.
- 109. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Syntax Following is the syntax for seed() method: seed ( [x] ) Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import seed module and then we need to call this function using random static object. Parameters x -- This is the seed for the next random number. If omitted,s then it takes system time to generate next random number. Return Value This method does not return any value. Example The following example shows the usage of seed() method. #!/usr/bin/python import random random.seed( 10 ) print "Random number with seed 10 : ", random.random() # It will generate same random number random.seed( 10 ) print "Random number with seed 10 : ", random.random() # It will generate same random number random.seed( 10 ) print "Random number with seed 10 : ", random.random() Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Random number with seed 10 : 0.57140259469 Random number with seed 10 : 0.57140259469 Random number with seed 10 : 0.57140259469 shuffle(lst) Description The method shuffle() randomizes the items of a list in place.
- 110. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Syntax Following is the syntax for shuffle() method: shuffle (lst ) Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import shuffle module and then we need to call this function using random static object. Parameters lst -- This could be a list or tuple. Return Value This method returns reshuffled list. Example The following example shows the usage of shuffle() method. #!/usr/bin/python import random list = [20, 16, 10, 5]; random.shuffle(list) print "Reshuffled list : ", list random.shuffle(list) print "Reshuffled list : ", list Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Reshuffled list : [16, 5, 10, 20] Reshuffled list : [16, 5, 20, 10] uniform(x, y) Description The method uniform() returns a random float r, such that x is less than or equal to r and r is less than y. Syntax Following is the syntax for uniform() method: uniform(x, y) Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import uniform module and then we need to call this function using random static object.
- 111. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Parameters x -- Sets the lower limit of the random float. y -- Sets the upper limit of the random float. Return Value This method returns a floating point number. Example The following example shows the usage of uniform() method. #!/usr/bin/python import random print "Random Float uniform(5, 10) : ", random.uniform(5, 10) print "Random Float uniform(7, 14) : ", random.uniform(7, 14) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Random Float uniform(5, 10) : 5.52615217015 Random Float uniform(7, 14) : 12.5326369199 Trigonometric Functions: Python includes the following functions that perform trigonometric calculations. Function Description acos(x) Returns the arc cosine of x, in radians. asin(x) Returns the arc sine of x, in radians. atan(x) Returns the arc tangent of x, in radians. atan2(y, x) Returns atan(y / x), in radians. cos(x) Returns the cosine of x radians. hypot(x, y) Returns the Euclidean norm, sqrt(x*x + y*y). sin(x) Returns the sine of x radians. tan(x) Returns the tangent of x radians. degrees(x) Converts angle x from radians to degrees. radians(x) Converts angle x from degrees to radians. The Trigonometric Functions are explained here: acos(x)
- 112. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Description The method acos() returns the arc cosine of x, in radians. Syntax Following is the syntax for acos() method: acos(x) Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import math module and then we need to call this function using math static object. Parameters x -- This must be a numeric value in the range -1 to 1. If x is greater than 1 then it will generate an error. Return Value This method returns arc cosine of x, in radians. Example The following example shows the usage of acos() method. #!/usr/bin/python import math print "acos(0.64) : ", math.acos(0.64) print "acos(0) : ", math.acos(0) print "acos(-1) : ", math.acos(-1) print "acos(1) : ", math.acos(1) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: acos(0.64) : 0.876298061168 acos(0) : 1.57079632679 acos(-1) : 3.14159265359 acos(1) : 0.0 asin(x) Description The method asin() returns the arc sine of x, in radians. Syntax Following is the syntax for asin() method: asin(x) Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import math module and then we need to call this function using math static object. Parameters x -- This must be a numeric value in the range -1 to 1. If x is greater than 1 then it will generate an error.
- 113. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Return Value This method returns arc sine of x, in radians. Example The following example shows the usage of asin() method. #!/usr/bin/python import math print "asin(0.64) : ", math.asin(0.64) print "asin(0) : ", math.asin(0) print "asin(-1) : ", math.asin(-1) print "asin(1) : ", math.asin(1) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: asin(0.64) : 0.694498265627 asin(0) : 0.0 asin(-1) : -1.57079632679 asin(1) : 1.57079632679 atan(x) Description The method atan() returns the arc tangent of x, in radians. Syntax Following is the syntax for atan() method: atan(x) Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import math module and then we need to call this function using math static object. Parameters x -- This must be a numeric value. Return Value This method returns arc tangent of x, in radians. Example The following example shows the usage of atan() method. #!/usr/bin/python import math print "atan(0.64) : ", math.atan(0.64) print "atan(0) : ", math.atan(0) print "atan(10) : ", math.atan(10)
- 114. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning print "atan(-1) : ", math.atan(-1) print "atan(1) : ", math.atan(1) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: atan(0.64) : 0.569313191101 atan(0) : 0.0 atan(10) : 1.4711276743 atan(-1) : -0.785398163397 atan(1) : 0.785398163397 atan2(y, x) Description The method atan2() returns atan(y / x), in radians. Syntax Following is the syntax for atan2() method: atan2(y, x) Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import math module and then we need to call this function using math static object. Parameters y -- This must be a numeric value. x -- This must be a numeric value. Return Value This method returns atan(y / x), in radians. Example The following example shows the usage of atan2() method. #!/usr/bin/python import math print "atan2(-0.50,-0.50) : ", math.atan2(-0.50,-0.50) print "atan2(0.50,0.50) : ", math.atan2(0.50,0.50) print "atan2(5,5) : ", math.atan2(5,5) print "atan2(-10,10) : ", math.atan2(-10,10) print "atan2(10,20) : ", math.atan2(10,20) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: atan2(-0.50,-0.50) : -2.35619449019 atan2(0.50,0.50) : 0.785398163397 atan2(5,5) : 0.785398163397 atan2(-10,10) : -0.785398163397 atan2(10,20) : 0.463647609001
- 115. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning cos(x) Description The method cos() returns the cosine of x radians. Syntax Following is the syntax for cos() method: cos(x) Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import math module and then we need to call this function using math static object. Parameters x -- This must be a numeric value. Return Value This method returns a numeric value between -1 and 1, which represents the cosine of the angle. Example The following example shows the usage of cos() method. #!/usr/bin/python import math print "cos(3) : ", math.cos(3) print "cos(-3) : ", math.cos(-3) print "cos(0) : ", math.cos(0) print "cos(math.pi) : ", math.cos(math.pi) print "cos(2*math.pi) : ", math.cos(2*math.pi) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: cos(3) : -0.9899924966 cos(-3) : -0.9899924966 cos(0) : 1.0 cos(math.pi) : -1.0 cos(2*math.pi) : 1.0 hypot(x, y) Description The method hypot() return the Euclidean norm, sqrt(x*x + y*y). Syntax Following is the syntax for hypot() method: hypot(x, y)
- 116. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import math module and then we need to call this function using math static object. Parameters x -- This must be a numeric value. y -- This must be a numeric value. Return Value This method returns Euclidean norm, sqrt(x*x + y*y). Example The following example shows the usage of hypot() method. #!/usr/bin/python import math print "hypot(3, 2) : ", math.hypot(3, 2) print "hypot(-3, 3) : ", math.hypot(-3, 3) print "hypot(0, 2) : ", math.hypot(0, 2) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: hypot(3, 2) : 3.60555127546 hypot(-3, 3) : 4.24264068712 hypot(0, 2) : 2.0 sin(x) Description The method sin() returns the sine of x, in radians. Syntax Following is the syntax for sin() method: sin(x) Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import math module and then we need to call this function using math static object. Parameters x -- This must be a numeric value. Return Value This method returns a numeric value between -1 and 1, which represents the sine of the parameter x. Example The following example shows the usage of sin() method. #!/usr/bin/python import math
- 117. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning print "sin(3) : ", math.sin(3) print "sin(-3) : ", math.sin(-3) print "sin(0) : ", math.sin(0) print "sin(math.pi) : ", math.sin(math.pi) print "sin(math.pi/2) : ", math.sin(math.pi/2) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: sin(3) : 0.14112000806 sin(-3) : -0.14112000806 sin(0) : 0.0 sin(math.pi) : 1.22460635382e-16 sin(math.pi/2) : 1.0 tan(x) Description The method tan() returns the tangent of x radians. Syntax Following is the syntax for tan() method: tan(x) Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import math module and then we need to call this function using math static object. Parameters x -- This must be a numeric value. Return Value This method returns a numeric value between -1 and 1, which represents the tangent of the parameter x. Example The following example shows the usage of tan() method. #!/usr/bin/python import math print "tan(3) : ", math.tan(3) print "tan(-3) : ", math.tan(-3) print "tan(0) : ", math.tan(0) print "tan(math.pi) : ", math.tan(math.pi)
- 118. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning print "tan(math.pi/2) : ", math.tan(math.pi/2) print "tan(math.pi/4) : ", math.tan(math.pi/4) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: tan(3) : -0.142546543074 tan(-3) : 0.142546543074 tan(0) : 0.0 tan(math.pi) : -1.22460635382e-16 tan(math.pi/2) : 1.63317787284e+16 tan(math.pi/4) : 1.0 degrees(x) Description The method degrees() converts angle x from radians to degrees.. Syntax Following is the syntax for degrees() method: degrees(x) Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import math module and then we need to call this function using math static object. Parameters x -- This must be a numeric value. Return Value This method returns degree value of an angle. Example The following example shows the usage of degrees() method. #!/usr/bin/python import math print "degrees(3) : ", math.degrees(3) print "degrees(-3) : ", math.degrees(-3) print "degrees(0) : ", math.degrees(0) print "degrees(math.pi) : ", math.degrees(math.pi) print "degrees(math.pi/2) : ", math.degrees(math.pi/2) print "degrees(math.pi/4) : ", math.degrees(math.pi/4) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
- 119. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning degrees(3) : 171.887338539 degrees(-3) : -171.887338539 degrees(0) : 0.0 degrees(math.pi) : 180.0 degrees(math.pi/2) : 90.0 degrees(math.pi/4) : 45.0 radians(x) Description The method radians() converts angle x from degrees to radians. Syntax Following is the syntax for radians() method: radians(x) Note: This function is not accessible directly, so we need to import math module and then we need to call this function using math static object. Parameters x -- This must be a numeric value. Return Value This method returns radian value of an angle. Example The following example shows the usage of radians() method. #!/usr/bin/python import math print "radians(3) : ", math.radians(3) print "radians(-3) : ", math.radians(-3) print "radians(0) : ", math.radians(0) print "radians(math.pi) : ", math.radians(math.pi) print "radians(math.pi/2) : ", math.radians(math.pi/2) print "radians(math.pi/4) : ", math.radians(math.pi/4) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: radians(3) : 0.0523598775598 radians(-3) : -0.0523598775598 radians(0) : 0.0 radians(math.pi) : 0.0548311355616
- 120. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning radians(math.pi/2) : 0.0274155677808 radians(math.pi/4) : 0.0137077838904 Mathematical Constants: The module also defines two mathematical constants: Constants Description Pi The mathematical constant pi. E The mathematical constant e.
- 121. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Python Strings Strings are amongst the most popular types in Python. We can create them simply by enclosing characters in quotes. Python treats single quotes the same as double quotes. Creating strings is as simple as assigning a value to a variable. For example: var1 = 'Hello World!' var2 = "Python Programming" Accessing Values in Strings: Python does not support a character type; these are treated as strings of length one, thus also considered a substring. To access substrings, use the square brackets for slicing along with the index or indices to obtain your substring. Following is a simple example: #!/usr/bin/python var1 = 'Hello World!' var2 = "Python Programming" print "var1[0]: ", var1[0] print "var2[1:5]: ", var2[1:5] When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: var1[0]: H var2[1:5]: ytho Updating Strings: You can "update" an existing string by (re)assigning a variable to another string. The new value can be related to its previous value or to a completely different string altogether. Following is a simple example: #!/usr/bin/python var1 = 'Hello World!' CHAPTER 9
- 122. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning print "Updated String :- ", var1[:6] + 'Python' When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: Updated String :- Hello Python Escape Characters: Following table is a list of escape or non-printable characters that can be represented with backslash notation. Backslash notation Hexadecimal character Description a 0x07 Bell or alert b 0x08 Backspace cx Control-x C-x Control-x e 0x1b Escape f 0x0c Formfeed M-C-x Meta-Control-x n 0x0a Newline nnn Octal notation, where n is in the range 0.7 r 0x0d Carriage return s 0x20 Space t 0x09 Tab v 0x0b Vertical tab x Character x xnn Hexadecimal notation, where n is in the range 0.9, a.f, or A.F String Special Operators: Assume string variable a holds 'Hello' and variable b holds 'Python', then: Operator Description Example + Concatenation - Adds values on either side of the operator a + b will give
- 123. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning HelloPython * Repetition - Creates new strings, concatenating multiple copies of the same string a*2 will give -HelloHello [] Slice - Gives the character from the given index a[1] will give e [ : ] Range Slice - Gives the characters from the given range a[1:4] will give ell In Membership - Returns true if a character exists in the given string H in a will give 1 not in Membership - Returns true if a character does not exist in the given string M not in a will give 1 r/R Raw String - Suppresses actual meaning of Escape characters. The syntax for raw strings is exactly the same as for normal strings with the exception of the raw string operator, the letter "r," which precedes the quotation marks. The "r" can be lowercase (r) or uppercase (R) and must be placed immediately preceding the first quote mark. print r'n' prints n and print R'n' prints n % Format - Performs String formatting See at next section String Formatting Operator: One of Python's coolest features is the string format operator %. This operator is unique to strings and makes up for the pack of having functions from C's printf() family. Following is a simple example: #!/usr/bin/python print "My name is %s and weight is %d kg!" % ('Zara', 21) When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: My name is Zara and weight is 21 kg! Here is the list of complete set of symbols, which can be used along with %: Format Symbol Conversion %c character %s string conversion via str() prior to formatting %i signed decimal integer %d signed decimal integer %u unsigned decimal integer
- 124. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning %o octal integer %x hexadecimal integer (lowercase letters) %X hexadecimal integer (UPPERcase letters) %e exponential notation (with lowercase 'e') %E exponential notation (with UPPERcase 'E') %f floating point real number %g the shorter of %f and %e %G the shorter of %f and %E Other supported symbols and functionality are listed in the following table: Symbol Functionality * argument specifies width or precision - left justification + display the sign <sp> leave a blank space before a positive number # add the octal leading zero ( '0' ) or hexadecimal leading '0x' or '0X', depending on whether 'x' or 'X' were used. 0 pad from left with zeros (instead of spaces) % '%%' leaves you with a single literal '%' (var) mapping variable (dictionary arguments) m.n. m is the minimum total width and n is the number of digits to display after the decimal point (if appl.) Triple Quotes: Python's triple quotes comes to the rescue by allowing strings to span multiple lines, including verbatim NEWLINEs, TABs, and any other special characters. The syntax for triple quotes consists of three consecutive single or double quotes. #!/usr/bin/python para_str = """this is a long string that is made up of several lines and non-printable characters such as TAB ( t ) and they will show up that way when displayed. NEWLINEs within the string, whether explicitly given like this within the brackets [ n ], or just a NEWLINE within
- 125. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning the variable assignment will also show up. """ print para_str; When the above code is executed, it produces the following result. Note how every single special character has been converted to its printed form, right down to the last NEWLINE at the end of the string between the "up." and closing triple quotes. Also note that NEWLINEs occur either with an explicit carriage return at the end of a line or its escape code (n): this is a long string that is made up of several lines and non-printable characters such as TAB ( ) and they will show up that way when displayed. NEWLINEs within the string, whether explicitly given like this within the brackets [ ], or just a NEWLINE within the variable assignment will also show up. Raw String: Raw strings don't treat the backslash as a special character at all. Every character you put into a raw string stays the way you wrote it: #!/usr/bin/python print 'C:nowhere' When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: C:nowhere Now let's make use of raw string. We would put expression in r'expression' as follows: #!/usr/bin/python print r'C:nowhere' When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: C:nowhere Unicode String: Normal strings in Python are stored internally as 8-bit ASCII, while Unicode strings are stored as 16-bit Unicode. This allows for a more varied set of characters, including special characters from most languages in the world. I'll restrict my treatment of Unicode strings to the following: #!/usr/bin/python print u'Hello, world!' When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: Hello, world! As you can see, Unicode strings use the prefix u, just as raw strings use the prefix r.
- 126. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Built-in String Methods: Python includes the following built-in methods to manipulate strings: SN Methods with Description 1 capitalize() Capitalizes first letter of string 2 center(width, fillchar) Returns a space-padded string with the original string centered to a total of width columns 3 count(str, beg= 0,end=len(string)) Counts how many times str occurs in string or in a substring of string if starting index beg and ending index end are given 4 decode(encoding='UTF-8',errors='strict') Decodes the string using the codec registered for encoding. encoding defaults to the default string encoding. 5 encode(encoding='UTF-8',errors='strict') Returns encoded string version of string; on error, default is to raise a ValueError unless errors is given with 'ignore' or 'replace'. 6 endswith(suffix, beg=0, end=len(string)) Determines if string or a substring of string (if starting index beg and ending index end are given) ends with suffix; returns true if so and false otherwise 7 expandtabs(tabsize=8) Expands tabs in string to multiple spaces; defaults to 8 spaces per tab if tabsize not provided 8 find(str, beg=0 end=len(string)) Determine if str occurs in string or in a substring of string if starting index beg and ending index end are given; returns index if found and -1 otherwise 9 index(str, beg=0, end=len(string)) Same as find(), but raises an exception if str not found 10 isalnum() Returns true if string has at least 1 character and all characters are alphanumeric and false otherwise 11 isalpha() Returns true if string has at least 1 character and all characters are alphabetic and false otherwise 12 isdigit() Returns true if string contains only digits and false otherwise 13 islower() Returns true if string has at least 1 cased character and all cased characters are in lowercase and false otherwise 14 isnumeric() Returns true if a unicode string contains only numeric characters and false otherwise 15 isspace() Returns true if string contains only whitespace characters and false otherwise
- 127. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning 16 istitle() Returns true if string is properly "titlecased" and false otherwise 17 isupper() Returns true if string has at least one cased character and all cased characters are in uppercase and false otherwise 18 join(seq) Merges (concatenates) the string representations of elements in sequence seq into a string, with separator string 19 len(string) Returns the length of the string 20 ljust(width[, fillchar]) Returns a space-padded string with the original string left-justified to a total of width columns 21 lower() Converts all uppercase letters in string to lowercase 22 lstrip() Removes all leading whitespace in string 23 maketrans() Returns a translation table to be used in translate function. 24 max(str) Returns the max alphabetical character from the string str 25 min(str) Returns the min alphabetical character from the string str 26 replace(old, new [, max]) Replaces all occurrences of old in string with new or at most max occurrences if max given 27 rfind(str, beg=0,end=len(string)) Same as find(), but search backwards in string 28 rindex( str, beg=0, end=len(string)) Same as index(), but search backwards in string 29 rjust(width,[, fillchar]) Returns a space-padded string with the original string right-justified to a total of width columns. 30 rstrip() Removes all trailing whitespace of string 31 split(str="", num=string.count(str)) Splits string according to delimiter str (space if not provided) and returns list of substrings; split into at most num substrings if given 32 splitlines( num=string.count('n')) Splits string at all (or num) NEWLINEs and returns a list of each line with NEWLINEs removed 33 startswith(str, beg=0,end=len(string)) Determines if string or a substring of string (if starting index beg and ending index end are given) starts with substring str; returns true if so and false otherwise
- 128. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning 34 strip([chars]) Performs both lstrip() and rstrip() on string 35 swapcase() Inverts case for all letters in string 36 title() Returns "titlecased" version of string, that is, all words begin with uppercase and the rest are lowercase 37 translate(table, deletechars="") Translates string according to translation table str(256 chars), removing those in the del string 38 upper() Converts lowercase letters in string to uppercase 39 zfill (width) Returns original string leftpadded with zeros to a total of width characters; intended for numbers, zfill() retains any sign given (less one zero) 40 isdecimal() Returns true if a unicode string contains only decimal characters and false otherwise The functions are explained below: capitalize() Description The method capitalize() returns a copy of the string with only its first character capitalized. For 8-bit strings, this method is locale-dependent. Syntax Following is the syntax for capitalize() method: str.capitalize() Parameters NA Return Value This method returns a copy of the string with only its first character capitalized. Example The following example shows the usage of capitalize() method. #!/usr/bin/python str = "this is string example....wow!!!"; print "str.capitalize() : ", str.capitalize() Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: str.capitalize() : This is string example....wow!!!
- 129. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning center(width, fillchar) Description The method center() returns centered in a string of length width. Padding is done using the specifiedfillchar. Default filler is a space. Syntax Following is the syntax for center() method: str.center(width[, fillchar]) Parameters width -- This is the total width of the string. fillchar -- This is the filler character. Return Value This method returns centered in a string of length width. Example The following example shows the usage of center() method. #!/usr/bin/python str = "this is string example....wow!!!"; print "str.center(40, 'a') : ", str.center(40, 'a') Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: str.center(40, 'a') : aaaathis is string example....wow!!!aaaa count(str, beg= 0,end=len(string)) Description The method count() returns the number of occurrences of substring sub in the range [start, end]. Optional arguments start and end are interpreted as in slice notation. Syntax Following is the syntax for count() method: str.count(sub, start= 0,end=len(string)) Parameters sub -- This is the substring to be searched. start -- Search starts from this index. First character starts from 0 index. By default search starts from 0 index. end -- Search ends from this index. First character starts from 0 index. By default search ends at the last index.
- 130. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Return Value This method returns centered in a string of length width. Example The following example shows the usage of count() method. #!/usr/bin/python str = "this is string example....wow!!!"; sub = "i"; print "str.count(sub, 4, 40) : ", str.count(sub, 4, 40) sub = "wow"; print "str.count(sub) : ", str.count(sub) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: str.count(sub, 4, 40) : 2 str.count(sub) : 1 decode(encoding='UTF-8',errors='strict') Description The method decode() decodes the string using the codec registered for encoding. It defaults to the default string encoding. Syntax Following is the syntax for decode() method: str.decode(encoding='UTF-8',errors='strict') Parameters encoding -- This is the encodings to be used. For a list of all encoding schemes please visit:Standard Encodings. errors -- This may be given to set a different error handling scheme. The default for errors is 'strict', meaning that encoding errors raise a UnicodeError. Other possible values are 'ignore', 'replace', 'xmlcharrefreplace', 'backslashreplace' and any other name registered via codecs.register_error(). Return Value This method returns an decoded version of the string. Example The following example shows the usage of decode() method. #!/usr/bin/python
- 131. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning str = "this is string example....wow!!!"; str = str.encode('base64','strict'); print "Encoded String: " + str; print "Decoded String: " + str.decode('base64','strict') Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Encoded String: dGhpcyBpcyBzdHJpbmcgZXhhbXBsZS4uLi53b3chISE= Decoded String: this is string example....wow!!! encode(encoding='UTF-8',errors='strict') Description The method encode() returns an encoded version of the string. Default encoding is the current default string encoding. errors may be given to set a different error handling scheme. Syntax Following is the syntax for encode() method: str.encode(encoding='UTF-8',errors='strict') Parameters encoding -- This is the encodings to be used. For a list of all encoding schemes please visitStandard Encodings. errors -- This may be given to set a different error handling scheme. The default for errors is 'strict', meaning that encoding errors raise a UnicodeError. Other possible values are 'ignore', 'replace', 'xmlcharrefreplace', 'backslashreplace' and any other name registered via codecs.register_error(). Return Value This method returns an encoded version of the string. Example The following example shows the usage of encode() method. #!/usr/bin/python str = "this is string example....wow!!!"; print "Encoded String: " + str.encode('base64','strict') Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Encoded String: dGhpcyBpcyBzdHJpbmcgZXhhbXBsZS4uLi53b3chISE= endswith(suffix, beg=0, end=len(string)) Description The method endswith() returns True if the string ends with the specified suffix, otherwise return False optionally restricting the matching with the given indices start and end.
- 132. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Syntax Following is the syntax for endswith() method: str.endswith(suffix[, start[, end]]) Parameters suffix -- This could be a string or could also be a tuple of suffixes to look for. start -- The slice begins from here. end -- The slice ends here. Return Value This method returns True if the string ends with the specified suffix, otherwise return False. Example The following example shows the usage of endswith() method. #!/usr/bin/python str = "this is string example....wow!!!"; suffix = "wow!!!"; print str.endswith(suffix); print str.endswith(suffix,20); suffix = "is"; print str.endswith(suffix, 2, 4); print str.endswith(suffix, 2, 6); Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: True True True False expandtabs(tabsize=8) Description The method expandtabs() returns a copy of the string in which tab characters ie. 't' have been expanded using spaces, optionally using the given tabsize (default 8). Syntax Following is the syntax for expandtabs() method: str.expandtabs(tabsize=8)
- 133. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Parameters tabsize -- This specifies the number of characters to be replaced for a tab character 't'. Return Value This method returns a copy of the string in which tab characters i.e., 't' have been expanded using spaces. Example The following example shows the usage of expandtabs() method. #!/usr/bin/python str = "this iststring example....wow!!!"; print "Original string: " + str; print "Defualt exapanded tab: " + str.expandtabs(); print "Double exapanded tab: " + str.expandtabs(16); Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Original string: this is string example....wow!!! Defualt exapanded tab: this is string example....wow!!! Double exapanded tab: this is string example....wow!!! find(str, beg=0 end=len(string)) Description The method find() determines if string str occurs in string, or in a substring of string if starting indexbeg and ending index end are given. Syntax Following is the syntax for find() method: str.find(str, beg=0 end=len(string)) Parameters str -- This specifies the string to be searched. beg -- This is the starting index, by default its 0. end -- This is the ending index, by default its equal to the lenght of the string. Return Value This method returns index if found and -1 otherwise. Example The following example shows the usage of find() method. #!/usr/bin/python str1 = "this is string example....wow!!!"; str2 = "exam"; print str1.find(str2); print str1.find(str2, 10);
- 134. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning print str1.find(str2, 40); Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: 15 15 -1 index(str, beg=0, end=len(string)) Description The method index() determines if string str occurs in string or in a substring of string if starting indexbeg and ending index end are given. This method is same as find(), but raises an exception if sub is not found. Syntax Following is the syntax for index() method: str.index(str, beg=0 end=len(string)) Parameters str -- This specifies the string to be searched. beg -- This is the starting index, by default its 0. end -- This is the ending index, by default its equal to the length of the string. Return Value This method returns index if found otherwise raises an exception if str is not found. Example The following example shows the usage of index() method. #!/usr/bin/python str = "this is string example....wow!!!"; str = "exam"; print str.index(str); print str.index(str, 10); print str.index(str, 40); Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: 15 15 Traceback (most recent call last): File "test.py", line 8, in print str.index(str, 40); ValueError: substring not found shell returned 1 Note: We would see how to handle exceptions in subsequent chapters. So for the time being leave it as it is. isalnum()
- 135. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Description The method isalnum() checks whether the string consists of alphanumeric characters. Syntax Following is the syntax for isalnum() method: str.isa1num() Parameters NA Return Value This method returns true if all characters in the string are alphanumeric and there is at least one character, false otherwise. Example The following example shows the usage of isalnum() method. #!/usr/bin/python str = "this2009"; # No space in this string print str.isalnum(); str = "this is string example....wow!!!"; print str.isalnum(); Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: True False isalpha() Description The method isalpha() checks whether the string consists of alphabetic characters only. Syntax Following is the syntax for islpha() method: str.isalpha() Parameters NA Return Value This method returns true if all characters in the string are alphabetic and there is at least one character, false otherwise.
- 136. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Example The following example shows the usage of isalpha() method. #!/usr/bin/python str = "this"; # No space & digit in this string print str.isalpha(); str = "this is string example....wow!!!"; print str.isalpha(); Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: True False isdigit() Description The method isdigit() checks whether the string consists of digits only. Syntax Following is the syntax for isdigit() method: str.isdigit() Parameters NA Return Value This method returns true if all characters in the string are digits and there is at least one character, false otherwise. Example The following example shows the usage of isdigit() method. #!/usr/bin/python str = "123456"; # Only digit in this string print str.isdigit(); str = "this is string example....wow!!!"; print str.isdigit(); Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: True False islower()
- 137. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Description The method islower() checks whether all the case-based characters (letters) of the string are lowercase. Syntax Following is the syntax for islower() method: str.islower() Parameters NA Return Value This method returns true if all cased characters in the string are lowercase and there is at least one cased character, false otherwise. Example The following example shows the usage of islower() method. #!/usr/bin/python str = "THIS is string example....wow!!!"; print str.islower(); str = "this is string example....wow!!!"; print str.islower(); Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: False True isnumeric() Description The method isnumeric() checks whether the string consists of only numeric characters. This method is present only on unicode objects. Note: To define a string as Unicode, one simply prefixes a 'u' to the opening quotation mark of the assignment. Below is the example. Syntax Following is the syntax for isnumeric() method: str.isnumeric() Parameters NA Return Value This method returns true if all characters in the string are numeric, false otherwise.
- 138. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Example The following example shows the usage of isnumeric() method. #!/usr/bin/python str = u"this2009"; print str.isnumeric(); str = u"23443434"; print str.isnumeric(); Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: False True isspace() Description The method isspace() checks whether the string consists of whitespace. Syntax Following is the syntax for isspace() method: str.isspace() Parameters NA Return Value This method returns true if there are only whitespace characters in the string and there is at least one character, false otherwise. Example The following example shows the usage of isspace() method. #!/usr/bin/python str = " "; print str.isspace(); str = "This is string example....wow!!!"; print str.isspace(); Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: True
- 139. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning False istitle() Description The method istitle() checks whether all the case-based characters in the string following non-casebased letters are uppercase and all other case-based characters are lowercase. Syntax Following is the syntax for istitle() method: str.istitle() Parameters NA Return Value This method returns true if the string is a titlecased string and there is at least one character, for example uppercase characters may only follow uncased characters and lowercase characters only cased ones. It returns false otherwise. Example The following example shows the usage of istitle() method. #!/usr/bin/python str = "This Is String Example...Wow!!!"; print str.istitle(); str = "This is string example....wow!!!"; print str.istitle(); Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: True False isupper() Description The method isupper() checks whether all the case-based characters (letters) of the string are uppercase. Syntax Following is the syntax for isupper() method: str.isupper()
- 140. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Parameters NA Return Value This method returns true if all cased characters in the string are uppercase and there is at least one cased character, false otherwise. Example The following example shows the usage of isupper() method. #!/usr/bin/python str = "THIS IS STRING EXAMPLE....WOW!!!"; print str.isupper(); str = "THIS is string example....wow!!!"; print str.isupper(); Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: True False join(seq) Description The method join() returns a string in which the string elements of sequence have been joined by strseparator. Syntax Following is the syntax for join() method: str.join(sequence) Parameters sequence -- This is a sequence of the elements to be joined. Return Value This method returns a string, which is the concatenation of the strings in the sequence seq. The separator between elements is the string providing this method. Example The following example shows the usage of join() method. #!/usr/bin/python str = "-"; seq = ("a", "b", "c"); # This is sequence of strings. print str.join( seq );
- 141. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: a-b-c len(string) Description The method len() returns the length of the string. Syntax Following is the syntax for len() method: len( str ) Parameters NA Return Value This method returns the length of the string. Example The following example shows the usage of len() method. #!/usr/bin/python str = "this is string example....wow!!!"; print "Length of the string: ", len(str); Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Length of the string: 32 ljust(width[, fillchar]) Description The method ljust() returns the string left justified in a string of length width. Padding is done using the specified fillchar (default is a space). The original string is returned if width is less than len(s). Syntax Following is the syntax for ljust() method: str.ljust(width[, fillchar]) Parameters width -- This is string length in total after padding. fillchar -- This is filler character, default is a space.
- 142. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Return Value This method returns the string left justified in a string of length width. Padding is done using the specified fillchar (default is a space). The original string is returned if width is less than len(s). Example The following example shows the usage of ljust() method. #!/usr/bin/python str = "this is string example....wow!!!"; print str.ljust(50, '0'); Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: this is string example....wow!!!000000000000000000 lower() Description The method lower() returns a copy of the string in which all case-based characters have been lowercased. Syntax Following is the syntax for lower() method: str.lower() Parameters NA Return Value This method returns a copy of the string in which all case-based characters have been lowercased. Example The following example shows the usage of lower() method. #!/usr/bin/python str = "THIS IS STRING EXAMPLE....WOW!!!"; print str.lower(); Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: this is string example....wow!!! lstrip() Description The method lstrip() returns a copy of the string in which all chars have been stripped from the beginning of the string (default whitespace characters).
- 143. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Syntax Following is the syntax for lstrip() method: str.lstrip([chars]) Parameters chars -- You can supply what chars have to be trimmed. Return Value This method returns a copy of the string in which all chars have been stripped from the beginning of the string (default whitespace characters). Example The following example shows the usage of lstrip() method. #!/usr/bin/python str = " this is string example....wow!!! "; print str.lstrip(); str = "88888888this is string example....wow!!!8888888"; print str.lstrip('8'); Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: this is string example....wow!!! this is string example....wow!!!8888888 maketrans() Description The method maketrans() returns a translation table that maps each character in the intab string into the character at the same position in the outtab string. Then this table is passed to the translate() function. Note: Both intab and outtab must have the same length. Syntax Following is the syntax for maketrans() method: str.maketrans(intab, outtab]); Parameters intab -- This is the string having actual characters. outtab -- This is the string having corresponding mapping character. Return Value This method returns a translate table to be used translate() function. Example The following example shows the usage of maketrans() method. Under this, every vowel in a string is replaced by its vowel position:
- 144. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning #!/usr/bin/python from string import maketrans # Required to call maketrans function. intab = "aeiou" outtab = "12345" trantab = maketrans(intab, outtab) str = "this is string example....wow!!!"; print str.translate(trantab); Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: th3s 3s str3ng 2x1mpl2....w4w!!! max(str) Description The method max() returns the max alphabetical character from the string str. Syntax Following is the syntax for max() method: max(str) Parameters str -- This is the string from which max alphabetical character needs to be returned. Return Value This method returns the max alphabetical character from the string str. Example The following example shows the usage of max() method. #!/usr/bin/python str = "this is really a string example....wow!!!"; print "Max character: " + max(str); str = "this is a string example....wow!!!"; print "Max character: " + max(str); Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Max character: y Max character: x min(str) Description The method min() returns the min alphabetical character from the string str.
- 145. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Syntax Following is the syntax for min() method: min(str) Parameters str -- This is the string from which min alphabetical character needs to be returned. Return Value This method returns the max alphabetical character from the string str. Example The following example shows the usage of min() method. #!/usr/bin/python str = "this-is-real-string-example....wow!!!"; print "Min character: " + min(str); str = "this-is-a-string-example....wow!!!"; print "Min character: " + min(str); Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Min character: ! Min character: ! replace(old, new [, max]) Description The method replace() returns a copy of the string in which the occurrences of old have been replaced with new, optionally restricting the number of replacements to max. Syntax Following is the syntax for replace() method: str.replace(old, new[, max]) Parameters old -- This is old substring to be replaced. new -- This is new substring, which would replace old substring. max -- If this optional argument max is given, only the first count occurrences are replaced.
- 146. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Return Value This method returns a copy of the string with all occurrences of substring old replaced by new. If the optional argument max is given, only the first count occurrences are replaced. Example The following example shows the usage of replace() method. #!/usr/bin/python str = "this is string example....wow!!! this is really string"; print str.replace("is", "was"); print str.replace("is", "was", 3); Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: thwas was string example....wow!!! thwas was really string thwas was string example....wow!!! thwas is really string rfind(str, beg=0,end=len(string)) Description The method rfind() returns the last index where the substring str is found, or -1 if no such index exists, optionally restricting the search to string[beg:end]. Syntax Following is the syntax for rfind() method: str.rfind(str, beg=0 end=len(string)) Parameters str -- This specifies the string to be searched. beg -- This is the starting index, by default its 0. end -- This is the ending index, by default its equal to the length of the string. Return Value This method returns last index if found and -1 otherwise. Example The following example shows the usage of rfind() method. #!/usr/bin/python str = "this is really a string example....wow!!!"; str = "is"; print str.rfind(str); print str.rfind(str, 0, 10); print str.rfind(str, 10, 0);
- 147. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning print str.find(str); print str.find(str, 0, 10); print str.find(str, 10, 0); Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: 5 5 -1 2 2 -1 rindex( str, beg=0, end=len(string)) Description The method rindex() returns the last index where the substring str is found, or raises an exception if no such index exists, optionally restricting the search to string[beg:end]. Syntax Following is the syntax for rindex() method: str.rindex(str, beg=0 end=len(string)) Parameters str -- This specifies the string to be searched. beg -- This is the starting index, by default its 0 len -- This is ending index, by default its equal to the length of the string. Return Value This method returns last index if found otherwise raises an exception if str is not found. Example The following example shows the usage of rindex() method. #!/usr/bin/python str = "this is string example....wow!!!"; str = "is"; print str.rindex(str); print str.index(str); Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: 5 2 rjust(width,[, fillchar])
- 148. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Description The method rjust() returns the string right justified in a string of length width. Padding is done using the specified fillchar (default is a space). The original string is returned if width is less than len(s). Syntax Following is the syntax for rjust() method: str.rjust(width[, fillchar]) Parameters width -- This is the string length in total after padding. fillchar -- This is the filler character, default is a space. Return Value This method returns the string right justified in a string of length width. Padding is done using the specified fillchar (default is a space). The original string is returned if width is less than len(s). Example The following example shows the usage of rjust() method. #!/usr/bin/python str = "this is string example....wow!!!"; print str.rjust(50, '0'); Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: 000000000000000000this is string example....wow!!! rstrip() Description The method rstrip() returns a copy of the string in which all chars have been stripped from the end of the string (default whitespace characters). Syntax Following is the syntax for rstrip() method: str.rstrip([chars]) Parameters chars -- You can supply what chars have to be trimmed. Return Value This method returns a copy of the string in which all chars have been stripped from the end of the string (default whitespace characters).
- 149. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Example The following example shows the usage of rstrip() method. #!/usr/bin/python str = " this is string example....wow!!! "; print str.rstrip(); str = "88888888this is string example....wow!!!8888888"; print str.rstrip('8'); Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: this is string example....wow!!! 88888888this is string example....wow!!! split(str="", num=string.count(str)) Description The method split() returns a list of all the words in the string, using str as the separator (splits on all whitespace if left unspecified), optionally limiting the number of splits to num. Syntax Following is the syntax for split() method: str.split(str="", num=string.count(str)). Parameters str -- This is any delimeter, by default it is space. num -- this is number of lines to be made. Return Value This method returns a list of lines. Example The following example shows the usage of split() method. #!/usr/bin/python str = "Line1-abcdef nLine2-abc nLine4-abcd"; print str.split( ); print str.split(' ', 1 ); Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: ['Line1-abcdef', 'Line2-abc', 'Line4-abcd'] ['Line1-abcdef', 'nLine2-abc nLine4-abcd'] splitlines( num=string.count('n')) Description The method splitlines() returns a list with all the lines in string, optionally including the line breaks (if num is supplied and is true)
- 150. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Syntax Following is the syntax for splitlines() method: str.splitlines( num=string.count('n')) Parameters num -- This is any number, if present then it would be assumed that line breaks need to be included in the lines. Return Value This method returns true if found matching string otherwise false. Example The following example shows the usage of splitlines() method. #!/usr/bin/python str = "Line1-a b c d e fnLine2- a b cnnLine4- a b c d"; print str.splitlines( ); print str.splitlines( 0 ); print str.splitlines( 3 ); print str.splitlines( 4 ); print str.splitlines( 5 ); Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: ['Line1-a b c d e f', 'Line2- a b c', '', 'Line4- a b c d'] ['Line1-a b c d e f', 'Line2- a b c', '', 'Line4- a b c d'] ['Line1-a b c d e fn', 'Line2- a b cn', 'n', 'Line4- a b c d'] ['Line1-a b c d e fn', 'Line2- a b cn', 'n', 'Line4- a b c d'] ['Line1-a b c d e fn', 'Line2- a b cn', 'n', 'Line4- a b c d'] startswith(str, beg=0,end=len(string)) Description The method startswith() checks whether string starts with str, optionally restricting the matching with the given indices start and end. Syntax Following is the syntax for startswith() method: str.startswith(str, beg=0,end=len(string)); Parameters str -- This is the string to be checked. beg -- This is the optional parameter to set start index of the matching boundary. end -- This is the optional parameter to set start index of the matching boundary. Return Value This method returns true if found matching string otherwise false.
- 151. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Example The following example shows the usage of startswith() method. #!/usr/bin/python str = "this is string example....wow!!!"; print str.startswith( 'this' ); print str.startswith( 'is', 2, 4 ); print str.startswith( 'this', 2, 4 ); Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: True True False strip([chars]) Description The method strip() returns a copy of the string in which all chars have been stripped from the beginning and the end of the string (default whitespace characters). Syntax Following is the syntax for strip() method: str.strip([chars]); Parameters chars -- The characters to be removed from beginning or end of the string. Return Value This method returns a copy of the string in which all chars have been stripped from the beginning and the end of the string. Example The following example shows the usage of strip() method. #!/usr/bin/python str = "0000000this is string example....wow!!!0000000"; print str.strip( '0' ); Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: this is string example....wow!!! swapcase()
- 152. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Description The method swapcase() returns a copy of the string in which all the case-based characters have had their case swapped. Syntax Following is the syntax for swapcase() method: str.swapcase(); Parameters NA Return Value This method returns a copy of the string in which all the case-based characters have had their case swapped. Example The following example shows the usage of swapcase() method. #!/usr/bin/python str = "this is string example....wow!!!"; print str.swapcase(); str = "THIS IS STRING EXAMPLE....WOW!!!"; print str.swapcase(); Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: THIS IS STRING EXAMPLE....WOW!!! this is string example....wow!!! title() Description The method title() returns a copy of the string in which first characters of all the words are capitalized. Syntax Following is the syntax for title() method: str.title(); Parameters NA Return Value This method returns a copy of the string in which first characters of all the words are capitalized.
- 153. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Example The following example shows the usage of title() method. #!/usr/bin/python str = "this is string example....wow!!!"; print str.title(); Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: This Is String Example....Wow!!! translate(table, deletechars="") Description The method translate() returns a copy of the string in which all characters have been translated usingtable (constructed with the maketrans() function in the string module), optionally deleting all characters found in the string deletechars. Syntax Following is the syntax for translate() method: str.translate(table[, deletechars]); Parameters table -- You can use the maketrans() helper function in the string module to create a translation table. deletechars -- The list of characters to be removed from the source string. Return Value This method returns a translated copy of the string. Example The following example shows the usage of translate() method. Under this, every vowel in a string is replaced by its vowel position: #!/usr/bin/python from string import maketrans # Required to call maketrans function. intab = "aeiou" outtab = "12345" trantab = maketrans(intab, outtab) str = "this is string example....wow!!!"; print str.translate(trantab);
- 154. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: th3s 3s str3ng 2x1mpl2....w4w!!! Following is the example to delete 'x' and 'm' characters from the string: #!/usr/bin/python from string import maketrans # Required to call maketrans function. intab = "aeiou" outtab = "12345" trantab = maketrans(intab, outtab) str = "this is string example....wow!!!"; print str.translate(trantab, 'xm'); This will produce following result: th3s 3s str3ng 21pl2....w4w!!! upper() Description The method upper() returns a copy of the string in which all case-based characters have been uppercased. Syntax Following is the syntax for upper() method: str.upper() Parameters NA Return Value This method returns a copy of the string in which all case-based characters have been uppercased. Example The following example shows the usage of upper() method. #!/usr/bin/python str = "this is string example....wow!!!";
- 155. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning print "str.upper() : ", str.upper() Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: str.upper() : THIS IS STRING EXAMPLE....WOW!!! zfill (width) Description The method zfill() pads string on the left with zeros to fill width. Syntax Following is the syntax for zfill() method: str.zfill(width) Parameters width -- This is final width of the string. This is the width which we would get after filling zeros. Return Value This method returns padded string. Example The following example shows the usage of zfill() method. #!/usr/bin/python str = "this is string example....wow!!!"; print str.zfill(40); print str.zfill(50); Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: 00000000this is string example....wow!!! 000000000000000000this is string example....wow!!! isdecimal() The method isdecimal() checks whether the string consists of only decimal characters. This method are present only on unicode objects. Note: To define a string as Unicode, one simply prefixes a 'u' to the opening quotation mark of the assignment. Below is the example. Syntax Following is the syntax for isdecimal() method: str.isdecimal()
- 156. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Parameters NA Return Value This method returns true if all characters in the string are decimal, false otherwise. Example The following example shows the usage of isdecimal() method. #!/usr/bin/python str = u"this2009"; print str.isdecimal(); str = u"23443434"; print str.isdecimal(); Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: False True
- 157. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Python Lists The most basic data structure in Python is the sequence. Each element of a sequence is assigned a number - its position or index. The first index is zero, the second index is one, and so forth. Python has six built-in types of sequences, but the most common ones are lists and tuples, which we would see in this tutorial. There are certain things you can do with all sequence types. These operations include indexing, slicing, adding, multiplying, and checking for membership. In addition, Python has built-in functions for finding the length of a sequence and for finding its largest and smallest elements. Python Lists: The list is a most versatile datatype available in Python which can be written as a list of comma-separated values (items) between square brackets. Good thing about a list is that items in a list need not all have the same type. Creating a list is as simple as putting different comma-separated values between squere brackets. For example: list1 = ['physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000]; list2 = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ]; list3 = ["a", "b", "c", "d"]; Like string indices, list indices start at 0, and lists can be sliced, concatenated and so on. Accessing Values in Lists: To access values in lists, use the square brackets for slicing along with the index or indices to obtain value available at that index. Following is a simple example: #!/usr/bin/python list1 = ['physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000]; list2 = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 ]; print "list1[0]: ", list1[0] print "list2[1:5]: ", list2[1:5] When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: list1[0]: physics CHAPTER 10
- 158. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning list2[1:5]: [2, 3, 4, 5] Updating Lists: You can update single or multiple elements of lists by giving the slice on the left-hand side of the assignment operator, and you can add to elements in a list with the append() method. Following is a simple example: #!/usr/bin/python list = ['physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000]; print "Value available at index 2 : " print list[2]; list[2] = 2001; print "New value available at index 2 : " print list[2]; Note: append() method is discussed in subsequent section. When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: Value available at index 2 : 1997 New value available at index 2 : 2001 Delete List Elements: To remove a list element, you can use either the del statement if you know exactly which element(s) you are deleting or the remove() method if you do not know. Following is a simple example: #!/usr/bin/python list1 = ['physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000]; print list1; del list1[2]; print "After deleting value at index 2 : " print list1; When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: ['physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000] After deleting value at index 2 : ['physics', 'chemistry', 2000] Note: remove() method is discussed in subsequent section. Basic List Operations: Lists respond to the + and * operators much like strings; they mean concatenation and repetition here too, except that the result is a new list, not a string. In fact, lists respond to all of the general sequence operations we used on strings in the prior chapter.
- 159. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Python Expression Results Description len([1, 2, 3]) 3 Length [1, 2, 3] + [4, 5, 6] [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] Concatenation ['Hi!'] * 4 ['Hi!', 'Hi!', 'Hi!', 'Hi!'] Repetition 3 in [1, 2, 3] True Membership for x in [1, 2, 3]: print x, 1 2 3 Iteration Indexing, Slicing, and Matrixes: Because lists are sequences, indexing and slicing work the same way for lists as they do for strings. Assuming following input: L = ['spam', 'Spam', 'SPAM!'] Python Expression Results Description L[2] 'SPAM!' Offsets start at zero L[-2] 'Spam' Negative: count from the right L[1:] ['Spam', 'SPAM!'] Slicing fetches sections Built-in List Functions & Methods: Python includes the following list functions: SN Function with Description 1 cmp(list1, list2) Compares elements of both lists. 2 len(list) Gives the total length of the list. 3 max(list) Returns item from the list with max value. 4 min(list) Returns item from the list with min value. 5 list(seq) Converts a tuple into list. The functions are explained below: cmp(list1, list2)
- 160. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Description The method cmp() compares elements of two lists. Syntax Following is the syntax for cmp() method: cmp(list1, list2) Parameters list1 -- This is the first list to be compared. list2 -- This is the second list to be compared. Return Value If elements are of the same type, perform the compare and return the result. If elements are different types, check to see if they are numbers. If numbers, perform numeric coercion if necessary and compare. If either element is a number, then the other element is "larger" (numbers are "smallest"). Otherwise, types are sorted alphabetically by name. If we reached the end of one of the lists, the longer list is "larger." If we exhaust both lists and share the same data, the result is a tie, meaning that 0 is returned. Example The following example shows the usage of cmp() method. #!/usr/bin/python list1, list2 = [123, 'xyz'], [456, 'abc'] print cmp(list1, list2); print cmp(list2, list1); list3 = list2 + [786]; print cmp(list2, list3) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: -1 1 -1 len(list) Description The method len() returns the number of elements in the list.
- 161. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Syntax Following is the syntax for len() method: len(list) Parameters list -- This is a list for which number of elements to be counted. Return Value This method returns the number of elements in the list. Example The following example shows the usage of len() method. #!/usr/bin/python list1, list2 = [123, 'xyz', 'zara'], [456, 'abc'] print "First list length : ", len(list1); print "Second list length : ", len(list2); Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: First list length : 3 Second list length : 2 max(list) Description The method max returns the elements from the list with maximum value. Syntax Following is the syntax for max() method: max(list) Parameters list -- This is a list from which max valued element to be returned. Return Value This method returns the elements from the list with maximum value. Example The following example shows the usage of max() method. #!/usr/bin/python list1, list2 = [123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc'], [456, 700, 200]
- 162. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning print "Max value element : ", max(list1); print "Max value element : ", max(list2); Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Max value element : zara Max value element : 700 min(list) Description The method min() returns the elements from the list with minimum value. Syntax Following is the syntax for min() method: min(list) Parameters list -- This is a list from which min valued element to be returned. Return Value This method returns the elements from the list with minimum value. Example The following example shows the usage of min() method. #!/usr/bin/python list1, list2 = [123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc'], [456, 700, 200] print "min value element : ", min(list1); print "min value element : ", min(list2); Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: min value element : 123 min value element : 200 list(seq) Description The method list() takes sequence types and converts them to lists. This is used to convert a given tuple into list. Note: Tuple are very similar to lists with only difference that element values of a tuple can not be changed and tuple elements are put between parentheses instead of square bracket. Syntax Following is the syntax for list() method: list( seq )
- 163. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Parameters seq -- This is a tuple to be converted into list. Return Value This method returns the list. Example The following example shows the usage of list() method. !/usr/bin/python aTuple = (123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc'); aList = list(aTuple) print "List elements : ", aList Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: List elements : [123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc'] Python includes the following list methods: SN Methods with Description 1 list.append(obj) Appends object obj to list 2 list.count(obj) Returns count of how many times obj occurs in list 3 list.extend(seq) Appends the contents of seq to list 4 list.index(obj) Returns the lowest index in list that obj appears 5 list.insert(index, obj) Inserts object obj into list at offset index 6 list.pop(obj=list[-1]) Removes and returns last object or obj from list 7 list.remove(obj) Removes object obj from list 8 list.reverse() Reverses objects of list in place 9 list.sort([func]) Sorts objects of list, use compare func if given The methods are explained below:
- 164. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning list.append(obj) Description The method append() appends a passed obj into the existing list. Syntax Following is the syntax for append() method: list.append(obj) Parameters obj -- This is the object to be appended in the list. Return Value This method does not return any value but updates existing list. Example The following example shows the usage of append() method. #!/usr/bin/python aList = [123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc']; aList.append( 2009 ); print "Updated List : ", aList; Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Updated List : [123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc', 2009] list.count(obj) Description The method cmp() compares elements of two lists. Syntax Following is the syntax for cmp() method: cmp(list1, list2) Parameters list1 -- This is the first list to be compared. list2 -- This is the second list to be compared. Return Value If elements are of the same type, perform the compare and return the result. If elements are different types, check to see if they are numbers. If numbers, perform numeric coercion if necessary and compare.
- 165. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning If either element is a number, then the other element is "larger" (numbers are "smallest"). Otherwise, types are sorted alphabetically by name. If we reached the end of one of the lists, the longer list is "larger." If we exhaust both lists and share the same data, the result is a tie, meaning that 0 is returned. Example The following example shows the usage of cmp() method. #!/usr/bin/python list1, list2 = [123, 'xyz'], [456, 'abc'] print cmp(list1, list2); print cmp(list2, list1); list3 = list2 + [786]; print cmp(list2, list3) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: -1 1 -1 list.extend(seq) Description The method extend() appends the contents of seq to list. Syntax Following is the syntax for extend() method: list.extend(seq) Parameters seq -- This is the list of elements Return Value This method does not return any value but add the content to existing list. Example The following example shows the usage of extend() method. #!/usr/bin/python aList = [123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc', 123]; bList = [2009, 'manni']; aList.extend(bList) print "Extended List : ", aList ;
- 166. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Extended List : [123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc', 123, 2009, 'manni'] list.index(obj) Description The method index() returns the lowest index in list that obj appears. Syntax Following is the syntax for index() method: list.index(obj) Parameters obj -- This is the object to be find out. Return Value This method returns index of the found object otherwise raise an exception indicating that value does not find. Example The following example shows the usage of index() method. #!/usr/bin/python aList = [123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc']; print "Index for xyz : ", aList.index( 'xyz' ) ; print "Index for zara : ", aList.index( 'zara' ) ; Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Index for xyz : 1 Index for xxx : 2 list.insert(index, obj) Description The method insert() inserts object obj into list at offset index. Syntax Following is the syntax for insert() method: list.insert(index, obj) Parameters index -- This is the Index where the object obj need to be inserted. obj -- This is the Object to be inserted into the given list.
- 167. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Return Value This method does not return any value but it inserts the given element at the given index. Example The following example shows the usage of insert() method. #!/usr/bin/python aList = [123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc'] aList.insert( 3, 2009) print "Final List : ", aList Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Final List : [123, 'xyz', 'zara', 2009, 'abc'] list.pop(obj=list[-1]) Description The method pop() removes and returns last object or obj from the list. Syntax Following is the syntax for pop() method: list.pop(obj=list[-1]) Parameters obj -- This is an optional parameter, index of the object to be removed from the list. Return Value This method returns the removed object from the list. Example The following example shows the usage of pop() method. #!/usr/bin/python aList = [123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc'] print "A List : ", aList.pop() print "B List : ", aList.pop(2) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: A List : abc B List : zara
- 168. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning list.remove(obj) Description The method remove() removes first obj from the list. Syntax Following is the syntax for remove() method: list.remove(obj) Parameters obj -- This is the object to be removed from the list. Return Value This method does not return any value but removes the given object from the list. Example The following example shows the usage of remove() method. #!/usr/bin/python aList = [123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc', 'xyz']; aList.remove('xyz'); print "List : ", aList; aList.remove('abc'); print "List : ", aList; Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: List : [123, 'zara', 'abc', 'xyz'] List : [123, 'zara', 'xyz'] list.reverse() Description The method reverse() reverses objects of list in place. Syntax Following is the syntax for reverse() method: list.reverse() Parameters NA
- 169. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Return Value This method does not return any value but reverse the given object from the list. Example The following example shows the usage of reverse() method. #!/usr/bin/python aList = [123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc', 'xyz'] aList.reverse() print "List : ", aList Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: List : ['xyz', 'abc', 'zara', 'xyz', 123] list.sort([func]) Description The method sort() sorts objects of list, use compare func if given. Syntax Following is the syntax for sort() method: list.sort([func]) Parameters func -- This is an optional parameter, if given the it would use that function to sort the objects of the list.. Return Value This method does not return any value but sort the given object from the list. Example The following example shows the usage of sort() method. #!/usr/bin/python aList = [123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc', 'xyz'] aList.sort() print "List : ", aList Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: List : [123, 'abc', 'xyz', 'xyz', 'zara']
- 170. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning
- 171. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Python Tuples Atuple is a sequence of immutable Python objects. Tuples are sequences, just like lists. The only difference is that tuples can't be changed i.e., tuples are immutable and tuples use parentheses and lists use square brackets. Creating a tuple is as simple as putting different comma-separated values and optionally you can put these comma-separated values between parentheses also. For example: tup1 = ('physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000); tup2 = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ); tup3 = "a", "b", "c", "d"; The empty tuple is written as two parentheses containing nothing: tup1 = (); To write a tuple containing a single value you have to include a comma, even though there is only one value: tup1 = (50,); Like string indices, tuple indices start at 0, and tuples can be sliced, concatenated and so on. Accessing Values in Tuples: To access values in tuple, use the square brackets for slicing along with the index or indices to obtain value available at that index. Following is a simple example: #!/usr/bin/python tup1 = ('physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000); tup2 = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 ); print "tup1[0]: ", tup1[0] print "tup2[1:5]: ", tup2[1:5] When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: tup1[0]: physics tup2[1:5]: [2, 3, 4, 5] CHAPTER 11
- 172. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Updating Tuples: Tuples are immutable which means you cannot update them or change values of tuple elements. But we able to take portions of an existing tuples to create a new tuples as follows. Following is a simple example: #!/usr/bin/python tup1 = (12, 34.56); tup2 = ('abc', 'xyz'); # Following action is not valid for tuples # tup1[0] = 100; # So let's create a new tuple as follows tup3 = tup1 + tup2; print tup3; When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: (12, 34.56, 'abc', 'xyz') Delete Tuple Elements: Removing individual tuple elements is not possible. There is, of course, nothing wrong with putting together another tuple with the undesired elements discarded. To explicitly remove an entire tuple, just use the del statement. Following is a simple example: #!/usr/bin/python tup = ('physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000); print tup; del tup; print "After deleting tup : " print tup; This will produce following result. Note an exception raised, this is because after del tup tuple does not exist any more: ('physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000) After deleting tup : Traceback (most recent call last): File "test.py", line 9, in <module> print tup; NameError: name 'tup' is not defined Basic Tuples Operations: Tuples respond to the + and * operators much like strings; they mean concatenation and repetition here too, except that the result is a new tuple, not a string. In fact, tuples respond to all of the general sequence operations we used on strings in the prior chapter: Python Expression Results Description len((1, 2, 3)) 3 Length
- 173. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning (1, 2, 3) + (4, 5, 6) (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) Concatenation ['Hi!'] * 4 ('Hi!', 'Hi!', 'Hi!', 'Hi!') Repetition 3 in (1, 2, 3) True Membership for x in (1, 2, 3): print x, 1 2 3 Iteration Indexing, Slicing, and Matrixes: Because tuples are sequences, indexing and slicing work the same way for tuples as they do for strings. Assuming following input: L = ('spam', 'Spam', 'SPAM!') Python Expression Results Description L[2] 'SPAM!' Offsets start at zero L[-2] 'Spam' Negative: count from the right L[1:] ['Spam', 'SPAM!'] Slicing fetches sections No Enclosing Delimiters: Any set of multiple objects, comma-separated, written without identifying symbols, i.e., brackets for lists, parentheses for tuples, etc., default to tuples, as indicated in these short examples: #!/usr/bin/python print 'abc', -4.24e93, 18+6.6j, 'xyz'; x, y = 1, 2; print "Value of x , y : ", x,y; When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: abc -4.24e+93 (18+6.6j) xyz Value of x , y : 1 2 Built-in Tuple Functions: Python includes the following tuple functions: SN Function with Description 1 cmp(tuple1, tuple2) Compares elements of both tuples. 2 len(tuple) Gives the total length of the tuple.
- 174. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning 3 max(tuple) Returns item from the tuple with max value. 4 min(tuple) Returns item from the tuple with min value. 5 tuple(seq) Converts a list into tuple. The functions are explained below in detail: cmp(tuple1, tuple2) Description The method cmp() compares elements of two tuples. Syntax Following is the syntax for cmp() method: cmp(tuple1, tuple2) Parameters tuple1 -- This is the first tuple to be compared tuple2 -- This is the second tuple to be compared Return Value If elements are of the same type, perform the compare and return the result. If elements are different types, check to see if they are numbers. If numbers, perform numeric coercion if necessary and compare. If either element is a number, then the other element is "larger" (numbers are "smallest"). Otherwise, types are sorted alphabetically by name. If we reached the end of one of the tuples, the longer tuple is "larger." If we exhaust both tuples and share the same data, the result is a tie, meaning that 0 is returned. Example The following example shows the usage of cmp() method. #!/usr/bin/python tuple1, tuple2 = (123, 'xyz'), (456, 'abc') print cmp(tuple1, tuple2); print cmp(tuple2, tuple1); tuple3 = tuple2 + (786,); print cmp(tuple2, tuple3) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: -1 1 -1
- 175. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning len(tuple) Description The method len() returns the number of elements in the tuple. Syntax Following is the syntax for len() method: len(tuple) Parameters tuple -- This is a tuple for which number of elements to be counted. Return Value This method returns the number of elements in the tuple. Example The following example shows the usage of len() method. #!/usr/bin/python tuple1, tuple2 = (123, 'xyz', 'zara'), (456, 'abc') print "First tuple length : ", len(tuple1); print "Second tuple length : ", len(tuple2); Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: First tuple length : 3 Second tuple length : 2 max(tuple) Description The method max() returns the elements from the tuple with maximum value. Syntax Following is the syntax for max() method: max(tuple) Parameters tuple -- This is a tuple from which max valued element to be returned. Return Value This method returns the elements from the tuple with maximum value.
- 176. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Example The following example shows the usage of max() method. #!/usr/bin/python tuple1, tuple2 = (123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc'), (456, 700, 200) print "Max value element : ", max(tuple1); print "Max value element : ", max(tuple2); Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Max value element : zara Max value element : 700 min(tuple) Description The method min() returns the elements from the tuple with minimum value. Syntax Following is the syntax for min() method: min(tuple) Parameters tuple -- This is a tuple from which min valued element to be returned. Return Value This method returns the elements from the tuple with minimum value. Example The following example shows the usage of min() method. #!/usr/bin/python tuple1, tuple2 = (123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc'), (456, 700, 200) print "min value element : ", min(tuple1); print "min value element : ", min(tuple2); Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: min value element : 123 min value element : 200
- 177. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning tuple(seq) Description The method tuple() compares elements of two tuples. Syntax Following is the syntax for tuple() method: tuple( seq ) Parameters seq -- This is a tuple to be converted into tuple. Return Value This method returns the tuple. Example The following example shows the usage of tuple() method. #!/usr/bin/python aList = (123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc'); aTuple = tuple(aList) print "Tuple elements : ", aTuple Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Tuple elements : (123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc')
- 178. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Python Dictionary Adictionary is mutable and is another container type that can store any number of Python objects, including other container types. Dictionaries consist of pairs (called items) of keys and their corresponding values. Python dictionaries are also known as associative arrays or hash tables. The general syntax of a dictionary is as follows: dict = {'Alice': '2341', 'Beth': '9102', 'Cecil': '3258'} You can create dictionary in the following way as well: dict1 = { 'abc': 456 }; dict2 = { 'abc': 123, 98.6: 37 }; Each key is separated from its value by a colon (:), the items are separated by commas, and the whole thing is enclosed in curly braces. An empty dictionary without any items is written with just two curly braces, like this: {}. Keys are unique within a dictionary while values may not be. The values of a dictionary can be of any type, but the keys must be of an immutable data type such as strings, numbers, or tuples. Accessing Values in Dictionary: To access dictionary elements, you can use the familiar square brackets along with the key to obtain its value. Following is a simple example: #!/usr/bin/python dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7, 'Class': 'First'}; print "dict['Name']: ", dict['Name']; print "dict['Age']: ", dict['Age']; When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: dict['Name']: Zara dict['Age']: 7 If we attempt to access a data item with a key, which is not part of the dictionary, we get an error as follows: CHAPTER 12
- 179. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning #!/usr/bin/python dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7, 'Class': 'First'}; print "dict['Alice']: ", dict['Alice']; When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: dict['Alice']: Traceback (most recent call last): File "test.py", line 4, in <module> print "dict['Alice']: ", dict['Alice']; KeyError: 'Alice' Updating Dictionary: You can update a dictionary by adding a new entry or item (i.e., a key-value pair), modifying an existing entry, or deleting an existing entry as shown below in the simple example: #!/usr/bin/python dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7, 'Class': 'First'}; dict['Age'] = 8; # update existing entry dict['School'] = "DPS School"; # Add new entry print "dict['Age']: ", dict['Age']; print "dict['School']: ", dict['School']; When the above code is executed, it produces following result: dict['Age']: 8 dict['School']: DPS School Delete Dictionary Elements: You can either remove individual dictionary elements or clear the entire contents of a dictionary. You can also delete entire dictionary in a single operation. To explicitly remove an entire dictionary, just use the del statement. Following is a simple example: #!/usr/bin/python dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7, 'Class': 'First'}; del dict['Name']; # remove entry with key 'Name' dict.clear(); # remove all entries in dict del dict ; # delete entire dictionary print "dict['Age']: ", dict['Age']; print "dict['School']: ", dict['School']; This will produce the following result. Note an exception raised, this is because after del dict dictionary does not exist any more:
- 180. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning dict['Age']: Traceback (most recent call last): File "test.py", line 8, in <module> print "dict['Age']: ", dict['Age']; TypeError: 'type' object is unsubscriptable Note: del() method is discussed in subsequent section. Properties of Dictionary Keys: Dictionary values have no restrictions. They can be any arbitrary Python object, either standard objects or user- defined objects. However, same is not true for the keys. There are two important points to remember about dictionary keys: (a) More than one entry per key not allowed. Which means no duplicate key is allowed. When duplicate keys encountered during assignment, the last assignment wins. Following is a simple example: #!/usr/bin/python dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7, 'Name': 'Manni'}; print "dict['Name']: ", dict['Name']; When the above code is executed, it produces following result: dict['Name']: Manni (b) Keys must be immutable. Which means you can use strings, numbers or tuples as dictionary keys but something like ['key'] is not allowed. Following is a simple example: #!/usr/bin/python dict = {['Name']: 'Zara', 'Age': 7}; print "dict['Name']: ", dict['Name']; When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: Traceback (most recent call last): File "test.py", line 3, in <module> dict = {['Name']: 'Zara', 'Age': 7}; TypeError: list objects are unhashable Built-in Dictionary Functions & Methods: Python includes the following dictionary functions: SN Function with Description 1 cmp(dict1, dict2) Compares elements of both dict. 2 len(dict) Gives the total length of the dictionary. This would be equal to the number of items in the dictionary.
- 181. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning 3 str(dict) Produces a printable string representation of a dictionary 4 type(variable) Returns the type of the passed variable. If passed variable is dictionary, then it would return a dictionary type. The dictionary functions are explained below individually: cmp(dict1, dict2) Description The method cmp() compares two dictionaries based on key and values. Syntax Following is the syntax for cmp() method: cmp(dict1, dict2) Parameters dict1 -- This is the first dictionary to be compared with dict2. dict2 -- This is the second dictionary to be compared with dict1. Return Value This method returns 0 if both dictionaries are equal, -1 if dict1 < dict2 and 1 if dict1 > dic2. Example The following example shows the usage of cmp() method. #!/usr/bin/python dict1 = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7}; dict2 = {'Name': 'Mahnaz', 'Age': 27}; dict3 = {'Name': 'Abid', 'Age': 27}; dict4 = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7}; print "Return Value : %d" % cmp (dict1, dict2) print "Return Value : %d" % cmp (dict2, dict3) print "Return Value : %d" % cmp (dict1, dict4) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Return Value : -1 Return Value : 1 Return Value : 0 len(dict) Description The method len() gives the total length of the dictionary. This would be equal to the number of items in the dictionary.
- 182. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Syntax Following is the syntax for len() method: len(dict) Parameters dict -- This is the dictionary, whose length needs to be calculated. Return Value This method returns the length. Example The following example shows the usage of len() method. #!/usr/bin/python dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7}; print "Length : %d" % len (dict) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Length : 2 str(dict) Description The method str() produces a printable string representation of a dictionary. Syntax Following is the syntax for str() method: str(dict) Parameters dict -- This is the dictionary. Return Value This method returns string representation. Example The following example shows the usage of str() method. #!/usr/bin/python dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7}; print "Equivalent String : %s" % str (dict) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Equivalent String : {'Age': 7, 'Name': 'Zara'}
- 183. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning type(variable) Description The method type() returns the type of the passed variable. If passed variable is dictionary then it would return a dictionary type. Syntax Following is the syntax for type() method: type(dict) Parameters dict -- This is the dictionary. Return Value This method returns the type of the passed variable. Example The following example shows the usage of type() method. #!/usr/bin/python dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7}; print "Variable Type : %s" % type (dict) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Variable Type : <type 'dict'> Python includes the following dictionary methods: SN Methods with Description 1 dict.clear() Removes all elements of dictionary dict 2 dict.copy() Returns a shallow copy of dictionary dict 3 dict.fromkeys() Create a new dictionary with keys from seq and values set to value. 4 dict.get(key, default=None) For key key, returns value or default if key not in dictionary 5 dict.has_key(key) Returns true if key in dictionary dict, false otherwise 6 dict.items() Returns a list of dict's (key, value) tuple pairs
- 184. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning 7 dict.keys() Returns list of dictionary dict's keys 8 dict.setdefault(key, default=None) Similar to get(), but will set dict[key]=default if key is not already in dict 9 dict.update(dict2) Adds dictionary dict2's key-values pairs to dict 10 dict.values() Returns list of dictionary dict's values The methods are explained below individually: dict.clear() Description The method clear() removes all items from the dictionary. Syntax Following is the syntax for clear() method: dict.clear() Parameters NA Return Value This method does not return any value. Example The following example shows the usage of clear() method. #!/usr/bin/python dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7}; print "Start Len : %d" % len(dict) dict.clear() print "End Len : %d" % len(dict) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Start Len : 2 End Len : 0 dict.copy() Description The method copy() returns a shallow copy of the dictionary.
- 185. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Syntax Following is the syntax for copy() method: dict.copy() Parameters NA Return Value This method returns a shallow copy of the dictionary. Example The following example shows the usage of copy() method. #!/usr/bin/python dict1 = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7}; dict2 = dict1.copy() print "New Dictionary : %s" % str(dict2) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: New Dictionary : {'Age': 7, 'Name': 'Zara'} dict.fromkeys() Description The method fromkeys() creates a new dictionary with keys from seq and values set to value. Syntax Following is the syntax for fromkeys() method: dict.fromkeys(seq[, value])) Parameters seq -- This is the list of values which would be used for dictionary keys preparation. value -- This is optional, if provided then value would be set to this value Return Value This method returns the list. Example The following example shows the usage of fromkeys() method. #!/usr/bin/python
- 186. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning seq = ('name', 'age', 'sex') dict = dict.fromkeys(seq) print "New Dictionary : %s" % str(dict) dict = dict.fromkeys(seq, 10) print "New Dictionary : %s" % str(dict) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: New Dictionary : {'age': None, 'name': None, 'sex': None} New Dictionary : {'age': 10, 'name': 10, 'sex': 10} dict.get(key, default=None) Description The method get() returns a value for the given key. If key is not available then returns default value None. Syntax Following is the syntax for get() method: dict.get(key, default=None) Parameters key -- This is the Key to be searched in the dictionary. default -- This is the Value to be returned in case key does not exist. Return Value This method return a value for the given key. If key is not available, then returns default value None. Example The following example shows the usage of get() method. #!/usr/bin/python dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7} print "Value : %s" % dict.get('Age') print "Value : %s" % dict.get('Sex', "Never") Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Value : 7 Value : Never dict.has_key(key) Description The method has_key() returns true if a given key is available in the dictionary, otherwise it returns a false.
- 187. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Syntax Following is the syntax for has_key() method: dict.has_key(key) Parameters key -- This is the Key to be searched in the dictionary. Return Value This method return true if a given key is available in the dictionary, otherwise it returns a false. Example The following example shows the usage of has_key() method. #!/usr/bin/python dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7} print "Value : %s" % dict.has_key('Age') print "Value : %s" % dict.has_key('Sex') Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Value : True Value : False dict.items() Description The method items() returns a list of dict's (key, value) tuple pairs Syntax Following is the syntax for items() method: dict.items() Parameters NA Return Value This method returns a list of tuple pairs. Example The following example shows the usage of items() method. #!/usr/bin/python dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7} print "Value : %s" % dict.items()
- 188. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Value : [('Age', 7), ('Name', 'Zara')] dict.keys() Description The method keys() returns a list of all the available keys in the dictionary. Syntax Following is the syntax for keys() method: dict.keys() Parameters NA Return Value This method returns a list of all the available keys in the dictionary. Example The following example shows the usage of keys() method. #!/usr/bin/python dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7} print "Value : %s" % dict.keys() Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Value : ['Age', 'Name'] dict.setdefault(key, default=None) Description The method setdefault() is similar to get(), but will set dict[key]=default if key is not already in dict. Syntax Following is the syntax for setdefault() method: dict.setdefault(key, default=None) Parameters key -- This is the key to be searched. default -- This is the Value to be returned in case key is not found.
- 189. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Return Value This method does not return any value. Example The following example shows the usage of setdefault() method. #!/usr/bin/python dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7} print "Value : %s" % dict.setdefault('Age', None) print "Value : %s" % dict.setdefault('Sex', None) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Value : 7 Value : None dict.update(dict2) Description The method update() adds dictionary dict2's key-values pairs in to dict. This function does not return anything. Syntax Following is the syntax for update() method: dict.update(dict2) Parameters dict2 -- This is the dictionary to be added into dict. Return Value This method does not return any value. Example The following example shows the usage of update() method. #!/usr/bin/python dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7} dict2 = {'Sex': 'female' } dict.update(dict2) print "Value : %s" % dict Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Value : {'Age': 7, 'Name': 'Zara', 'Sex': 'female'}
- 190. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning dict.values() Description The method values() returns a list of all the values available in a given dictionary. Syntax Following is the syntax for values() method: dict.values() Parameters NA Return Value This method returns a list of all the values available in a given dictionary. Example The following example shows the usage of values() method. #!/usr/bin/python dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7} print "Value : %s" % dict.values() Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Value : [7, 'Zara']
- 191. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Python Date & Time Apython program can handle date & time in several ways. Converting between date formats is a common chore for computers. Python's time and calendar modules help track dates and times. What is Tick? Time intervals are floating-point numbers in units of seconds. Particular instants in time are expressed in seconds since 12:00am, January 1, 1970(epoch). There is a popular time module available in Python which provides functions for working with times, and for converting between representations. The function time.time() returns the current system time in ticks since 12:00am, January 1, 1970(epoch). Example: #!/usr/bin/python import time; # This is required to include time module. ticks = time.time() print "Number of ticks since 12:00am, January 1, 1970:", ticks This would produce a result something as follows: Number of ticks since 12:00am, January 1, 1970: 7186862.73399 Date arithmetic is easy to do with ticks. However, dates before the epoch cannot be represented in this form. Dates in the far future also cannot be represented this way - the cutoff point is sometime in 2038 for UNIX and Windows. What is TimeTuple? Many of Python's time functions handle time as a tuple of 9 numbers, as shown below: Index Field Values 0 4-digit year 2008 1 Month 1 to 12 2 Day 1 to 31 CHAPTER 13
- 192. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning 3 Hour 0 to 23 4 Minute 0 to 59 5 Second 0 to 61 (60 or 61 are leap-seconds) 6 Day of Week 0 to 6 (0 is Monday) 7 Day of year 1 to 366 (Julian day) 8 Daylight savings -1, 0, 1, -1 means library determines DST The above tuple is equivalent to struct_time structure. This structure has following attributes: Index Attributes Values 0 tm_year 2008 1 tm_mon 1 to 12 2 tm_mday 1 to 31 3 tm_hour 0 to 23 4 tm_min 0 to 59 5 tm_sec 0 to 61 (60 or 61 are leap-seconds) 6 tm_wday 0 to 6 (0 is Monday) 7 tm_yday 1 to 366 (Julian day) 8 tm_isdst -1, 0, 1, -1 means library determines DST Getting current time -: To translate a time instant from a seconds since the epoch floating-point value into a time-tuple, pass the floating- point value to a function (e.g., localtime) that returns a time-tuple with all nine items valid. #!/usr/bin/python import time; localtime = time.localtime(time.time()) print "Local current time :", localtime This would the produce following result, which could be formatted in any other presentable form: Local current time : time.struct_time(tm_year=2008, tm_mon=5, tm_mday=15, tm_hour=12, tm_min=55, tm_sec=32, tm_wday=0, tm_yday=136, tm_isdst=1) Getting formatted time -: You can format any time as per your requirement, but simple method to get time in readable format is asctime(): #!/usr/bin/python import time;
- 193. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning localtime = time.asctime( time.localtime(time.time()) ) print "Local current time :", localtime This would produce the following result: Local current time : Tue Jan 13 10:17:09 2009 Getting calendar for a month -: The calendar module gives a wide range of methods to play with yearly and monthly calendars. Here, we print a calendar for a given month ( Jan 2008 ): #!/usr/bin/python import calendar cal = calendar.month(2008, 1) print "Here is the calendar:" print cal; This would produce the following result: Here is the calendar: January 2008 Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 The time Module: There is a popular time module available in Python which provides functions for working with times and for converting between representations. Here is the list of all available methods: SN Function with Description 1 time.altzone() The offset of the local DST timezone, in seconds west of UTC, if one is defined. This is negative if the local DST timezone is east of UTC (as in Western Europe, including the UK). Only use this if daylight is nonzero. 2 time.asctime([tupletime]) Accepts a time-tuple and returns a readable 24-character string such as 'Tue Dec 11 18:07:14 2008'. 3 time.clock( ) Returns the current CPU time as a floating-point number of seconds. To measure computational costs of different approaches, the value of time.clock is more useful than that of time.time(). 4 time.ctime([secs]) Like asctime(localtime(secs)) and without arguments is like asctime( ) 5 time.gmtime([secs]) Accepts an instant expressed in seconds since the epoch and returns a time-tuple t with the UTC time. Note : t.tm_isdst is always 0
- 194. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning 6 time.localtime([secs]) Accepts an instant expressed in seconds since the epoch and returns a time-tuple t with the local time (t.tm_isdst is 0 or 1, depending on whether DST applies to instant secs by local rules). 7 time.mktime(tupletime) Accepts an instant expressed as a time-tuple in local time and returns a floating-point value with the instant expressed in seconds since the epoch. 8 time.sleep(secs) Suspends the calling thread for secs seconds. 9 time.strftime(fmt[,tupletime]) Accepts an instant expressed as a time-tuple in local time and returns a string representing the instant as specified by string fmt. 10 time.strptime(str,fmt='%a %b %d %H:%M:%S %Y') Parses str according to format string fmt and returns the instant in time-tuple format. 11 time.time( ) Returns the current time instant, a floating-point number of seconds since the epoch. 12 time.tzset() Resets the time conversion rules used by the library routines. The environment variable TZ specifies how this is done. The methods are explained here individually: time.altzone() Description The method altzone() is the attribute of the time module. This returns the offset of the local DST timezone, in seconds west of UTC, if one is defined. This is negative if the local DST timezone is east of UTC (as in Western Europe, including the UK). Only use this if daylight is nonzero. Syntax Following is the syntax for altzone() method: time.altzone Parameters NA Return Value This method returns the offset of the local DST timezone, in seconds west of UTC, if one is defined. Example The following example shows the usage of altzone() method. #!/usr/bin/python import time print "time.altzone %d " % time.altzone
- 195. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: time.altzone() 25200 time.asctime([tupletime]) Description The method asctime() converts a tuple or struct_time representing a time as returned by gmtime() or localtime() to a 24-character string of the following form: 'Tue Feb 17 23:21:05 2009'. Syntax Following is the syntax for asctime() method: time.asctime([t])) Parameters t -- This is a tuple of 9 elements or struct_time representing a time as returned by gmtime() or localtime() function. Return Value This method returns 24-character string of the following form: 'Tue Feb 17 23:21:05 2009'. Example The following example shows the usage of asctime() method. #!/usr/bin/python import time t = time.localtime() print "time.asctime(t): %s " % time.asctime(t) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result on my machine: time.asctime(t): Tue Feb 17 09:42:58 2009 time.clock( ) Description The method clock() returns the current processor time as a floating point number expressed in seconds on Unix. The precision depends on that of the C function of the same name, but in any case, this is the function to use for benchmarking Python or timing algorithms. On Windows, this function returns wall-clock seconds elapsed since the first call to this function, as a floating point number, based on the Win32 function QueryPerformanceCounter. Syntax Following is the syntax for clock() method: time.clock()
- 196. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Parameters NA Return Value This method returns the current processor time as a floating point number expressed in seconds onUnix and in Windows it returns wall-clock seconds elapsed since the first call to this function, as a floating point number. Example The following example shows the usage of clock() method. #!/usr/bin/python import time def procedure(): time.sleep(2.5) # measure process time t0 = time.clock() procedure() print time.clock() - t0, "seconds process time" # measure wall time t0 = time.time() procedure() print time.time() - t0, "seconds wall time" Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: 0.0 seconds process time 2.50023603439 seconds wall time Note: Not all systems can measure the true process time. On such systems (including Windows), clock usually measures the wall time since the program was started. time.ctime([secs]) Description The method ctime() converts a time expressed in seconds since the epoch to a string representing local time. If secs is not provided or None, the current time as returned by time() is used. This function is equivalent to asctime(localtime(secs)). Locale information is not used by ctime(). Syntax Following is the syntax for ctime() method: time.ctime([ sec ]) Parameters sec -- These are the number of seconds to be converted into string representation. Return Value This method does not return any value.
- 197. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Example The following example shows the usage of ctime() method. #!/usr/bin/python import time print "time.ctime() : %s" % time.ctime() Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: time.ctime() : Tue Feb 17 10:00:18 2009 time.gmtime([secs]) Description The method gmtime() converts a time expressed in seconds since the epoch to a struct_time in UTC in which the dst flag is always zero. If secs is not provided or None, the current time as returned by time() is used. Syntax Following is the syntax for gmtime() method: time.gmtime([ sec ]) Parameters sec -- These are the number of seconds to be converted into structure struct_time representation. Return Value This method does not return any value. Example The following example shows the usage of gmtime() method. #!/usr/bin/python import time print "time.gmtime() : %s" % time.gmtime() Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: time.gmtime() : time.struct_time(tm_year=2013, tm_mon=4, tm_mday=28, tm_hour=12, tm_min=29, tm_sec=48, tm_wday=6, tm_yday=118, tm_isdst=0) time.localtime([secs]) Description The method localtime() is similar to gmtime() but it converts number of seconds to local time. If secs is not provided or None, the current time as returned by time() is used. The dst flag is set to 1 when DST applies to the given time.
- 198. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Syntax Following is the syntax for localtime() method: time.localtime([ sec ]) Parameters sec -- These are the number of seconds to be converted into structure struct_time representation. Return Value This method does not return any value. Example The following example shows the usage of localtime() method. #!/usr/bin/python import time print "time.localtime() : %s" % time.localtime() Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: time.localtime() : time.struct_time(tm_year=2013, tm_mon=4, tm_mday=28, tm_hour=5, tm_min=28, tm_sec=41, tm_wday=6, tm_yday=118, tm_isdst=0) time.mktime(tupletime) Description The method mktime() is the inverse function of localtime(). Its argument is the struct_time or full 9-tuple and it returns a floating point number, for compatibility with time(). If the input value cannot be represented as a valid time, either OverflowError or ValueError will be raised. Syntax Following is the syntax for mktime() method: time.mktime(t) Parameters t -- This is the struct_time or full 9-tuple. Return Value This method returns a floating point number, for compatibility with time(). Example The following example shows the usage of mktime() method. #!/usr/bin/python import time t = (2009, 2, 17, 17, 3, 38, 1, 48, 0)
- 199. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning secs = time.mktime( t ) print "time.mktime(t) : %f" % secs print "asctime(localtime(secs)): %s" % time.asctime(time.localtime(secs)) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: time.mktime(t) : 1234915418.000000 asctime(localtime(secs)): Tue Feb 17 17:03:38 2009 time.sleep(secs) Description The method sleep() suspends execution for the given number of seconds. The argument may be a floating point number to indicate a more precise sleep time. The actual suspension time may be less than that requested because any caught signal will terminate the sleep() following execution of that signal's catching routine. Syntax Following is the syntax for sleep() method: time.sleep(t) Parameters t -- This is the number of seconds execution to be suspended. Return Value This method does not return any value. Example The following example shows the usage of sleep() method. #!/usr/bin/python import time print "Start : %s" % time.ctime() time.sleep( 5 ) print "End : %s" % time.ctime() Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Start : Tue Feb 17 10:19:18 2009 End : Tue Feb 17 10:19:23 2009 time.strftime(fmt[,tupletime]) Description The method strftime() converts a tuple or struct_time representing a time as returned by gmtime() or localtime() to a string as specified by the format argument.
- 200. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning If t is not provided, the current time as returned by localtime() is used. format must be a string. An exception ValueError is raised if any field in t is outside of the allowed range. Syntax Following is the syntax for strftime() method: time.strftime(format[, t]) Parameters t -- This is the time in number of seconds to be formatted. format -- This is the directive which would be used to format given time. The following directives can be embedded in the format string: Directive %a - abbreviated weekday name %A - full weekday name %b - abbreviated month name %B - full month name %c - preferred date and time representation %C - century number (the year divided by 100, range 00 to 99) %d - day of the month (01 to 31) %D - same as %m/%d/%y %e - day of the month (1 to 31) %g - like %G, but without the century %G - 4-digit year corresponding to the ISO week number (see %V). %h - same as %b %H - hour, using a 24-hour clock (00 to 23) %I - hour, using a 12-hour clock (01 to 12) %j - day of the year (001 to 366) %m - month (01 to 12) %M - minute %n - newline character %p - either am or pm according to the given time value %r - time in a.m. and p.m. notation %R - time in 24 hour notation %S - second %t - tab character %T - current time, equal to %H:%M:%S %u - weekday as a number (1 to 7), Monday=1. Warning: In Sun Solaris Sunday=1 %U - week number of the current year, starting with the first Sunday as the first day of the first week %V - The ISO 8601 week number of the current year (01 to 53), where week 1 is the first week that has at least 4 days in the current year, and with Monday as the first day of the week %W - week number of the current year, starting with the first Monday as the first day of the first week %w - day of the week as a decimal, Sunday=0 %x - preferred date representation without the time %X - preferred time representation without the date %y - year without a century (range 00 to 99) %Y - year including the century %Z or %z - time zone or name or abbreviation %% - a literal % character
- 201. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Return Value This method does not return any value. Example The following example shows the usage of strftime() method. #!/usr/bin/python import time t = (2009, 2, 17, 17, 3, 38, 1, 48, 0) t = time.mktime(t) print time.strftime("%b %d %Y %H:%M:%S", time.gmtime(t)) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Feb 18 2009 00:03:38 time.strptime(str,fmt='%a %b %d %H:%M:%S %Y') Description The method strptime() parses a string representing a time according to a format. The return value is a struct_time as returned by gmtime() or localtime(). The format parameter uses the same directives as those used by strftime(); it defaults to "%a %b %d %H:%M:%S %Y" which matches the formatting returned by ctime(). If string cannot be parsed according to format, or if it has excess data after parsing, ValueError is raised. Syntax Following is the syntax for strptime() method: time.strptime(string[, format]) Parameters string -- This is the time in string format which would be parsed based on the given format. format -- This is the directive which would be used to parse the given string. The following directives can be embedded in the format string: Directive %a - abbreviated weekday name %A - full weekday name %b - abbreviated month name %B - full month name %c - preferred date and time representation %C - century number (the year divided by 100, range 00 to 99) %d - day of the month (01 to 31) %D - same as %m/%d/%y %e - day of the month (1 to 31) %g - like %G, but without the century
- 202. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning %G - 4-digit year corresponding to the ISO week number (see %V). %h - same as %b %H - hour, using a 24-hour clock (00 to 23) %I - hour, using a 12-hour clock (01 to 12) %j - day of the year (001 to 366) %m - month (01 to 12) %M - minute %n - newline character %p - either am or pm according to the given time value %r - time in a.m. and p.m. notation %R - time in 24 hour notation %S - second %t - tab character %T - current time, equal to %H:%M:%S %u - weekday as a number (1 to 7), Monday=1. Warning: In Sun Solaris Sunday=1 %U - week number of the current year, starting with the first Sunday as the first day of the first week %V - The ISO 8601 week number of the current year (01 to 53), where week 1 is the first week that has at least 4 days in the current year, and with Monday as the first day of the week %W - week number of the current year, starting with the first Monday as the first day of the first week %w - day of the week as a decimal, Sunday=0 %x - preferred date representation without the time %X - preferred time representation without the date %y - year without a century (range 00 to 99) %Y - year including the century %Z or %z - time zone or name or abbreviation %% - a literal % character Return Value This return value is struct_time as returned by gmtime() or localtime(). Example The following example shows the usage of strptime() method. #!/usr/bin/python import time struct_time = time.strptime("30 Nov 00", "%d %b %y") print "returned tuple: %s " % struct_time Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: returned tuple: (2000, 11, 30, 0, 0, 0, 3, 335, -1) time.time( ) Description The method time() returns the time as a floating point number expressed in seconds since the epoch, in UTC. Note: Even though the time is always returned as a floating point number, not all systems provide time with a better precision than 1 second. While this function normally returns non-decreasing values, it can return a lower value than a previous call if the system clock has been set back between the two calls.
- 203. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Syntax Following is the syntax for time() method: time.time() Parameters NA Return Value This method returns the time as a floating point number expressed in seconds since the epoch, in UTC. Example The following example shows the usage of time() method. #!/usr/bin/python import time print "time.time(): %f " % time.time() print time.localtime( time.time() ) print time.asctime( time.localtime(time.time()) ) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: time.time(): 1234892919.655932 time.struct_time(tm_year=2009, tm_mon=2, tm_mday=17, tm_hour=10, tm_min=48, tm_sec=39, tm_wday=1, tm_yday=48, tm_isdst=0) Tue Feb 17 10:48:39 2009 time.tzset() Description The method tzset() resets the time conversion rules used by the library routines. The environment variable TZ specifies how this is done. The standard format of the TZ environment variable is (whitespace added for clarity): std offset [dst [offset [,start[/time], end[/time]]]] std and dst: Three or more alphanumerics giving the timezone abbreviations. These will be propagated into time.tzname. offset: The offset has the form: .hh[:mm[:ss]]. This indicates the value added the local time to arrive at UTC. If preceded by a '-', the timezone is east of the Prime Meridian; otherwise, it is west. If no offset follows dst, summer time is assumed to be one hour ahead of standard time. start[/time], end[/time]: Indicates when to change to and back from DST. The format of the start and end dates are one of the following: Jn: The Julian day n (1 <= n <= 365). Leap days are not counted, so in all years February 28 is day 59 and March 1 is day 60. n: The zero-based Julian day (0 <= n <= 365). Leap days are counted, and it is possible to refer to February 29. Mm.n.d: The d'th day (0 <= d <= 6) or week n of month m of the year (1 <= n <= 5, 1 <= m <= 12, where week 5 means 'the last d day in month m' which may occur in either the fourth or the fifth week). Week 1 is the first week in which the d'th day occurs. Day zero is Sunday.
- 204. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning time: This has the same format as offset except that no leading sign ('-' or '+') is allowed. The default, if time is not given, is 02:00:00. Syntax Following is the syntax for tzset() method: time.tzset() Parameters NA Return Value This method does not return any value. Example The following example shows the usage of tzset() method. #!/usr/bin/python import time import os os.environ['TZ'] = 'EST+05EDT,M4.1.0,M10.5.0' time.tzset() print time.strftime('%X %x %Z') os.environ['TZ'] = 'AEST-10AEDT-11,M10.5.0,M3.5.0' time.tzset() print time.strftime('%X %x %Z') Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: 13:00:40 02/17/09 EST 05:00:40 02/18/09 AEDT There are following two important attributes available with time module: SN Attribute with Description 1 time.timezone Attribute time.timezone is the offset in seconds of the local time zone (without DST) from UTC (>0 in the Americas; <=0 in most of Europe, Asia, Africa). 2 time.tzname Attribute time.tzname is a pair of locale-dependent strings, which are the names of the local time zone without and with DST, respectively. The calendar Module The calendar module supplies calendar-related functions, including functions to print a text calendar for a given month or year. By default, calendar takes Monday as the first day of the week and Sunday as the last one. To change this, call calendar.setfirstweekday() function.
- 205. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Here is a list of functions available with the calendar module: SN Function with Description 1 calendar.calendar(year,w=2,l=1,c=6) Returns a multiline string with a calendar for year year formatted into three columns separated by c spaces. w is the width in characters of each date; each line has length 21*w+18+2*c. l is the number of lines for each week. 2 calendar.firstweekday( ) Returns the current setting for the weekday that starts each week. By default, when calendar is first imported, this is 0, meaning Monday. 3 calendar.isleap(year) Returns True if year is a leap year; otherwise, False. 4 calendar.leapdays(y1,y2) Returns the total number of leap days in the years within range(y1,y2). 5 calendar.month(year,month,w=2,l=1) Returns a multiline string with a calendar for month month of year year, one line per week plus two header lines. w is the width in characters of each date; each line has length 7*w+6. l is the number of lines for each week. 6 calendar.monthcalendar(year,month) Returns a list of lists of ints. Each sublist denotes a week. Days outside month month of year year are set to 0; days within the month are set to their day-of-month, 1 and up. 7 calendar.monthrange(year,month) Returns two integers. The first one is the code of the weekday for the first day of the month month in year year; the second one is the number of days in the month. Weekday codes are 0 (Monday) to 6 (Sunday); month numbers are 1 to 12. 8 calendar.prcal(year,w=2,l=1,c=6) Like print calendar.calendar(year,w,l,c). 9 calendar.prmonth(year,month,w=2,l=1) Like print calendar.month(year,month,w,l). 10 calendar.setfirstweekday(weekday) Sets the first day of each week to weekday code weekday. Weekday codes are 0 (Monday) to 6 (Sunday). 11 calendar.timegm(tupletime) The inverse of time.gmtime: accepts a time instant in time-tuple form and returns the same instant as a floating-point number of seconds since the epoch. 12 calendar.weekday(year,month,day) Returns the weekday code for the given date. Weekday codes are 0 (Monday) to 6 (Sunday); month numbers are 1 (January) to 12 (December). Other Modules & Functions: If you are intereste d, then here you would find a list of other important modules and functions to play with date & time in Python: The datetime Module The pytz Module The dateutil Module
- 206. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Python Function Afunction is a block of organized, reusable code that is used to perform a single, related action. Functions provide better modularity for your application and a high degree of code reusing. As you already know, Python gives you many built-in functions like print(), etc., but you can also create your own functions. These functions are called user-defined functions. Defining a Function You can define functions to provide the required functionality. Here are simple rules to define a function in Python. Function blocks begin with the keyword def followed by the function name and parentheses ( ( ) ). Any input parameters or arguments should be placed within these parentheses. You can also define parameters inside these parentheses. The first statement of a function can be an optional statement - the documentation string of the function or docstring. The code block within every function starts with a colon (:) and is indented. The statement return [expression] exits a function, optionally passing back an expression to the caller. A return statement with no arguments is the same as return None. Syntax: def functionname( parameters ): "function_docstring" function_suite return [expression] By default, parameters have a positional behavior and you need to inform them in the same order that they were defined. Example: Here is the simplest form of a Python function. This function takes a string as input parameter and prints it on standard screen. def printme( str ): CHAPTER 14
- 207. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning "This prints a passed string into this function" print str return Calling a Function Defining a function only gives it a name, specifies the parameters that are to be included in the function and structures the blocks of code. Once the basic structure of a function is finalized, you can execute it by calling it from another function or directly from the Python prompt. Following is the example to call printme() function: #!/usr/bin/python # Function definition is here def printme( str ): "This prints a passed string into this function" print str; return; # Now you can call printme function printme("I'm first call to user defined function!"); printme("Again second call to the same function"); When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: I'm first call to user defined function! Again second call to the same function Pass by reference vs value All parameters (arguments) in the Python language are passed by reference. It means if you change what a parameter refers to within a function, the change also reflects back in the calling function. For example: #!/usr/bin/python # Function definition is here def changeme( mylist ): "This changes a passed list into this function" mylist.append([1,2,3,4]); print "Values inside the function: ", mylist return # Now you can call changeme function mylist = [10,20,30]; changeme( mylist ); print "Values outside the function: ", mylist Here, we are maintaining reference of the passed object and appending values in the same object. So, this would produce the following result: Values inside the function: [10, 20, 30, [1, 2, 3, 4]] Values outside the function: [10, 20, 30, [1, 2, 3, 4]] There is one more example where argument is being passed by reference and the reference is being overwritten inside the called function
- 208. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning #!/usr/bin/python # Function definition is here def changeme( mylist ): "This changes a passed list into this function" mylist = [1,2,3,4]; # This would assign new reference in mylist print "Values inside the function: ", mylist return # Now you can call changeme function mylist = [10,20,30]; changeme( mylist ); print "Values outside the function: ", mylist The parameter mylist is local to the function changeme. Changing mylist within the function does not affect mylist. The function accomplishes nothing and finally this would produce the following result: Values inside the function: [1, 2, 3, 4] Values outside the function: [10, 20, 30] Function Arguments: You can call a function by using the following types of formal arguments: Required arguments Keyword arguments Default arguments Variable-length arguments Required arguments: Required arguments are the arguments passed to a function in correct positional order. Here, the number of arguments in the function call should match exactly with the function definition. To call the function printme(), you definitely need to pass one argument, otherwise it would give a syntax error as follows: #!/usr/bin/python # Function definition is here def printme( str ): "This prints a passed string into this function" print str; return; # Now you can call printme function printme(); When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: Traceback (most recent call last): File "test.py", line 11, in <module> printme();
- 209. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning TypeError: printme() takes exactly 1 argument (0 given) Keyword arguments: Keyword arguments are related to the function calls. When you use keyword arguments in a function call, the caller identifies the arguments by the parameter name. This allows you to skip arguments or place them out of order because the Python interpreter is able to use the keywords provided to match the values with parameters. You can also make keyword calls to the printme() function in the following ways: #!/usr/bin/python # Function definition is here def printme( str ): "This prints a passed string into this function" print str; return; # Now you can call printme function printme( str = "My string"); When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: My string Following example gives more clear picture. Note, here order of the parameter does not matter. #!/usr/bin/python # Function definition is here def printinfo( name, age ): "This prints a passed info into this function" print "Name: ", name; print "Age ", age; return; # Now you can call printinfo function printinfo( age=50, name="miki" ); When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: Name: miki Age 50 Default arguments: A default argument is an argument that assumes a default value if a value is not provided in the function call for that argument. Following example gives an idea on default arguments, it would print default age if it is not passed: #!/usr/bin/python # Function definition is here def printinfo( name, age = 35 ): "This prints a passed info into this function" print "Name: ", name; print "Age ", age;
- 210. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning return; # Now you can call printinfo function printinfo( age=50, name="miki" ); printinfo( name="miki" ); When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: Name: miki Age 50 Name: miki Age 35 Variable-length arguments: You may need to process a function for more arguments than you specified while defining the function. These arguments are called variable-length arguments and are not named in the function definition, unlike required and default arguments. The general syntax for a function with non-keyword variable arguments is this: def functionname([formal_args,] *var_args_tuple ): "function_docstring" function_suite return [expression] An asterisk (*) is placed before the variable name that will hold the values of all nonkeyword variable arguments. This tuple remains empty if no additional arguments are specified during the function call. Following is a simple example: #!/usr/bin/python # Function definition is here def printinfo( arg1, *vartuple ): "This prints a variable passed arguments" print "Output is: " print arg1 for var in vartuple: print var return; # Now you can call printinfo function printinfo( 10 ); printinfo( 70, 60, 50 ); When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: Output is: 10 Output is: 70 60 50 The Anonymous Functions: You can use the lambda keyword to create small anonymous functions. These functions are called anonymous because they are not declared in the standard manner by using the def keyword.
- 211. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Lambda forms can take any number of arguments but return just one value in the form of an expression. They cannot contain commands or multiple expressions. An anonymous function cannot be a direct call to print because lambda requires an expression. Lambda functions have their own local namespace and cannot access variables other than those in their parameter list and those in the global namespace. Although it appears that lambda's are a one-line version of a function, they are not equivalent to inline statements in C or C++, whose purpose is by passing function stack allocation during invocation for performance reasons. Syntax: The syntax of lambda functions contains only a single statement, which is as follows: lambda [arg1 [,arg2,.....argn]]:expression Following is the example to show how lambda form of function works: #!/usr/bin/python # Function definition is here sum = lambda arg1, arg2: arg1 + arg2; # Now you can call sum as a function print "Value of total : ", sum( 10, 20 ) print "Value of total : ", sum( 20, 20 ) When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: Value of total : 30 Value of total : 40 The return Statement: The statement return [expression] exits a function, optionally passing back an expression to the caller. A return statement with no arguments is the same as return None. All the above examples are not returning any value, but if you like you can return a value from a function as follows: #!/usr/bin/python # Function definition is here def sum( arg1, arg2 ): # Add both the parameters and return them." total = arg1 + arg2 print "Inside the function : ", total return total; # Now you can call sum function total = sum( 10, 20 ); print "Outside the function : ", total When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:
- 212. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Inside the function : 30 Outside the function : 30 Scope of Variables: All variables in a program may not be accessible at all locations in that program. This depends on where you have declared a variable. The scope of a variable determines the portion of the program where you can access a particular identifier. There are two basic scopes of variables in Python: Global variables Local variables Global vs. Local variables: Variables that are defined inside a function body have a local scope, and those defined outside have a global scope. This means that local variables can be accessed only inside the function in which they are declared, whereas global variables can be accessed throughout the program body by all functions. When you call a function, the variables declared inside it are brought into scope. Following is a simple example: #!/usr/bin/python total = 0; # This is global variable. # Function definition is here def sum( arg1, arg2 ): # Add both the parameters and return them." total = arg1 + arg2; # Here total is local variable. print "Inside the function local total : ", total return total; # Now you can call sum function sum( 10, 20 ); print "Outside the function global total : ", total When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: Inside the function local total : 30 Outside the function global total : 0
- 213. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Python Modules Amodule allows you to logically organize your Python code. Grouping related code into a module makes the code easier to understand and use. A module is a Python object with arbitrarily named attributes that you can bind and reference. Simply, a module is a file consisting of Python code. A module can define functions, classes and variables. A module can also include runnable code. Example: The Python code for a module named aname normally resides in a file named aname.py. Here's an example of a simple module, hello.py def print_func( par ): print "Hello : ", par return The import Statement: You can use any Python source file as a module by executing an import statement in some other Python source file. The import has the following syntax: import module1[, module2[,... moduleN] When the interpreter encounters an import statement, it imports the module if the module is present in the search path. A search path is a list of directories that the interpreter searches before importing a module. For example, to import the module hello.py, you need to put the following command at the top of the script: #!/usr/bin/python # Import module hello import hello # Now you can call defined function that module as follows hello.print_func("Zara") When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: Hello : Zara CHAPTER 15
- 214. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning A module is loaded only once, regardless of the number of times it is imported. This prevents the module execution from happening over and over again if multiple imports occur. The from...import Statement Python's from statement lets you import specific attributes from a module into the current namespace. The from...import has the following syntax: from modname import name1[, name2[, ... nameN]] For example, to import the function fibonacci from the module fib, use the following statement: from fib import fibonacci This statement does not import the entire module fib into the current namespace; it just introduces the item fibonacci from the module fib into the global symbol table of the importing module. The from...import * Statement: It is also possible to import all names from a module into the current namespace by using the following import statement: from modname import * This provides an easy way to import all the items from a module into the current namespace; however, this statement should be used sparingly. Locating Modules: When you import a module, the Python interpreter searches for the module in the following sequences: The current directory. If the module isn't found, Python then searches each directory in the shell variable PYTHONPATH. If all else fails, Python checks the default path. On UNIX, this default path is normally /usr/local/lib/python/. The module search path is stored in the system module sys as the sys.path variable. The sys.path variable contains the current directory, PYTHONPATH, and the installation-dependent default. The PYTHONPATH Variable: The PYTHONPATH is an environment variable, consisting of a list of directories. The syntax of PYTHONPATH is the same as that of the shell variable PATH. Here is a typical PYTHONPATH from a Windows system: set PYTHONPATH=c:python20lib; And here is a typical PYTHONPATH from a UNIX system: set PYTHONPATH=/usr/local/lib/python
- 215. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Namespaces and Scoping: Variables are names (identifiers) that map to objects. A namespace is a dictionary of variable names (keys) and their corresponding objects (values). A Python statement can access variables in a local namespace and in the global namespace. If a local and a global variable have the same name, the local variable shadows the global variable. Each function has its own local namespace. Class methods follow the same scoping rule as ordinary functions. Python makes educated guesses on whether variables are local or global. It assumes that any variable assigned a value in a function is local. Therefore, in order to assign a value to a global variable within a function, you must first use the global statement. The statement global VarName tells Python that VarName is a global variable. Python stops searching the local namespace for the variable. For example, we define a variable Money in the global namespace. Within the function Money, we assign Money a value, therefore Python assumes Money as a local variable. However, we accessed the value of the local variable Money before setting it, so an UnboundLocalError is the result. Uncommenting the global statement fixes the problem. #!/usr/bin/python Money = 2000 def AddMoney(): # Uncomment the following line to fix the code: # global Money Money = Money + 1 print Money AddMoney() print Money The dir( ) Function: The dir() built-in function returns a sorted list of strings containing the names defined by a module. The list contains the names of all the modules, variables and functions that are defined in a module. Following is a simple example: #!/usr/bin/python # Import built-in module math import math content = dir(math) print content; When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: ['__doc__', '__file__', '__name__', 'acos', 'asin', 'atan', 'atan2', 'ceil', 'cos', 'cosh', 'degrees', 'e', 'exp', 'fabs', 'floor', 'fmod', 'frexp', 'hypot', 'ldexp', 'log', 'log10', 'modf', 'pi', 'pow', 'radians', 'sin', 'sinh',
- 216. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning 'sqrt', 'tan', 'tanh'] Here, the special string variable __name__ is the module's name, and __file__ is the filename from which the module was loaded. The globals() and locals() Functions: The globals() and locals() functions can be used to return the names in the global and local namespaces depending on the location from where they are called. If locals() is called from within a function, it will return all the names that can be accessed locally from that function. If globals() is called from within a function, it will return all the names that can be accessed globally from that function. The return type of both these functions is dictionary. Therefore, names can be extracted using the keys() function. The reload() Function: When the module is imported into a script, the code in the top-level portion of a module is executed only once. Therefore, if you want to reexecute the top-level code in a module, you can use the reload() function. The reload() function imports a previously imported module again. The syntax of the reload() function is this: reload(module_name) Here, module_name is the name of the module you want to reload and not the string containing the module name. For example, to reload hello module, do the following: reload(hello) Packages in Python: A package is a hierarchical file directory structure that defines a single Python application environment that consists of modules and subpackages and sub-subpackages, and so on. Consider a file Pots.py available in Phone directory. This file has following line of source code: #!/usr/bin/python def Pots(): print "I'm Pots Phone" Similar way, we have another two files having different functions with the same name as above: Phone/Isdn.py file having function Isdn() Phone/G3.py file having function G3() Now, create one more file __init__.py in Phone directory: Phone/__init__.py To make all of your functions available when you've imported Phone, you need to put explicit import statements in __init__.py as follows:
- 217. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning from Pots import Pots from Isdn import Isdn from G3 import G3 After you've added these lines to __init__.py, you have all of these classes available when you've imported the Phone package. #!/usr/bin/python # Now import your Phone Package. import Phone Phone.Pots() Phone.Isdn() Phone.G3() When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: I'm Pots Phone I'm 3G Phone I'm ISDN Phone In the above example, we have taken example of a single functions in each file, but you can keep multiple functions in your files. You can also define different Python classes in those files and then you can create your packages out of those classes.
- 218. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Python Files I/O This chapter will cover all the basic I/O functions available in Python. For more functions, please refer to standard Python documentation. Printing to the Screen: The simplest way to produce output is using the print statement where you can pass zero or more expressions separated by commas. This function converts the expressions you pass into a string and writes the result to standard output as follows: #!/usr/bin/python print "Python is really a great language,", "isn't it?"; This would produce the following result on your standard screen: Python is really a great language, isn't it? Reading Keyboard Input: Python provides two built-in functions to read a line of text from standard input, which by default comes from the keyboard. These functions are: raw_input input The raw_input Function: The raw_input([prompt]) function reads one line from standard input and returns it as a string (removing the trailing newline). #!/usr/bin/python str = raw_input("Enter your input: "); print "Received input is : ", str This would prompt you to enter any string and it would display same string on the screen. When I typed "Hello Python!", its output is like this: Enter your input: Hello Python CHAPTER 16
- 219. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Received input is : Hello Python The input Function: The input([prompt]) function is equivalent to raw_input, except that it assumes the input is a valid Python expression and returns the evaluated result to you. #!/usr/bin/python str = input("Enter your input: "); print "Received input is : ", str This would produce the following result against the entered input: Enter your input: [x*5 for x in range(2,10,2)] Recieved input is : [10, 20, 30, 40] Opening and Closing Files: Until now, you have been reading and writing to the standard input and output. Now, we will see how to play with actual data files. Python provides basic functions and methods necessary to manipulate files by default. You can do your most of the file manipulation using a file object. The open Function: Before you can read or write a file, you have to open it using Python's built-in open() function. This function creates a file object, which would be utilized to call other support methods associated with it. SYNTAX: file object = open(file_name [, access_mode][, buffering]) Here is paramters' detail: file_name: The file_name argument is a string value that contains the name of the file that you want to access. access_mode: The access_mode determines the mode in which the file has to be opened, i.e., read, write, append, etc. A complete list of possible values is given below in the table. This is optional parameter and the default file access mode is read (r). buffering: If the buffering value is set to 0, no buffering will take place. If the buffering value is 1, line buffering will be performed while accessing a file. If you specify the buffering value as an integer greater than 1, then buffering action will be performed with the indicated buffer size. If negative, the buffer size is the system default(default behavior). Here is a list of the different modes of opening a file: Modes Description R Opens a file for reading only. The file pointer is placed at the beginning of the file. This is the default mode. Rb Opens a file for reading only in binary format. The file pointer is placed at the beginning of the file. This is the default mode. r+ Opens a file for both reading and writing. The file pointer will be at the beginning of the file. rb+ Opens a file for both reading and writing in binary format. The file pointer will be at the beginning of the file.
- 220. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning W Opens a file for writing only. Overwrites the file if the file exists. If the file does not exist, creates a new file for writing. Wb Opens a file for writing only in binary format. Overwrites the file if the file exists. If the file does not exist, creates a new file for writing. w+ Opens a file for both writing and reading. Overwrites the existing file if the file exists. If the file does not exist, creates a new file for reading and writing. wb+ Opens a file for both writing and reading in binary format. Overwrites the existing file if the file exists. If the file does not exist, creates a new file for reading and writing. A Opens a file for appending. The file pointer is at the end of the file if the file exists. That is, the file is in the append mode. If the file does not exist, it creates a new file for writing. Ab Opens a file for appending in binary format. The file pointer is at the end of the file if the file exists. That is, the file is in the append mode. If the file does not exist, it creates a new file for writing. a+ Opens a file for both appending and reading. The file pointer is at the end of the file if the file exists. The file opens in the append mode. If the file does not exist, it creates a new file for reading and writing. ab+ Opens a file for both appending and reading in binary format. The file pointer is at the end of the file if the file exists. The file opens in the append mode. If the file does not exist, it creates a new file for reading and writing. The file object attributes: Once a file is opened and you have one file object, you can get various information related to that file. Here is a list of all attributes related to file object: Attribute Description file.closed Returns true if file is closed, false otherwise. file.mode Returns access mode with which file was opened. file.name Returns name of the file. file.softspace Returns false if space explicitly required with print, true otherwise. EXAMPLE: #!/usr/bin/python # Open a file fo = open("foo.txt", "wb") print "Name of the file: ", fo.name print "Closed or not : ", fo.closed print "Opening mode : ", fo.mode print "Softspace flag : ", fo.softspace This would produce the following result: Name of the file: foo.txt Closed or not : False Opening mode : wb Softspace flag : 0
- 221. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning The close() Method: The close() method of a file object flushes any unwritten information and closes the file object, after which no more writing can be done. Python automatically closes a file when the reference object of a file is reassigned to another file. It is a good practice to use the close() method to close a file. SYNTAX: fileObject.close(); EXAMPLE: #!/usr/bin/python # Open a file fo = open("foo.txt", "wb") print "Name of the file: ", fo.name # Close opened file fo.close() This would produce the following result: Name of the file: foo.txt Reading and Writing Files: The file object provides a set of access methods to make our lives easier. We would see how to use read() and write() methods to read and write files. The write() Method: The write() method writes any string to an open file. It is important to note that Python strings can have binary data and not just text. The write() method does not add a newline character ('n') to the end of the string: SYNTAX: fileObject.write(string); Here, passed parameter is the content to be written into the opened file. EXAMPLE: #!/usr/bin/python # Open a file fo = open("foo.txt", "wb") fo.write( "Python is a great language.nYeah its great!!n"); # Close opened file fo.close()
- 222. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning The above method would create foo.txt file and would write given content in that file and finally it would close that file. If you would open this file, it would have following content: Python is a great language. Yeah its great!! The read() Method: The read() method reads a string from an open file. It is important to note that Python strings can have binary data and not just text. SYNTAX: fileObject.read([count]); Here, passed parameter is the number of bytes to be read from the opened file. This method starts reading from the beginning of the file and if count is missing, then it tries to read as much as possible, maybe until the end of file. EXAMPLE: Let's take a file foo.txt, which we have created above. #!/usr/bin/python # Open a file fo = open("foo.txt", "r+") str = fo.read(10); print "Read String is : ", str # Close opened file fo.close() This would produce the following result: Read String is : Python is File Positions: The tell() method tells you the current position within the file; in other words, the next read or write will occur at that many bytes from the beginning of the file. The seek(offset[, from]) method changes the current file position. The offset argument indicates the number of bytes to be moved. The from argument specifies the reference position from where the bytes are to be moved. If from is set to 0, it means use the beginning of the file as the reference position and 1 means use the current position as the reference position and if it is set to 2 then the end of the file would be taken as the reference position. EXAMPLE: Let's take a file foo.txt, which we have created above. #!/usr/bin/python # Open a file fo = open("foo.txt", "r+") str = fo.read(10); print "Read String is : ", str
- 223. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning # Check current position position = fo.tell(); print "Current file position : ", position # Reposition pointer at the beginning once again position = fo.seek(0, 0); str = fo.read(10); print "Again read String is : ", str # Close opened file fo.close() This would produce the following result: Read String is : Python is Current file position : 10 Again read String is : Python is Renaming and Deleting Files: Python os module provides methods that help you perform file-processing operations, such as renaming and deleting files. To use this module you need to import it first and then you can call any related functions. The rename() Method: The rename() method takes two arguments, the current filename and the new filename. SYNTAX: os.rename(current_file_name, new_file_name) EXAMPLE: Following is the example to rename an existing file test1.txt: #!/usr/bin/python import os # Rename a file from test1.txt to test2.txt os.rename( "test1.txt", "test2.txt" ) The remove() Method: You can use the remove() method to delete files by supplying the name of the file to be deleted as the argument. SYNTAX: os.remove(file_name) EXAMPLE: Following is the example to delete an existing file test2.txt: #!/usr/bin/python import os # Delete file test2.txt
- 224. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning os.remove("text2.txt") Directories in Python: All files are contained within various directories, and Python has no problem handling these too. The os module has several methods that help you create, remove and change directories. The mkdir() Method: You can use the mkdir() method of the os module to create directories in the current directory. You need to supply an argument to this method which contains the name of the directory to be created. SYNTAX: os.mkdir("newdir") EXAMPLE: Following is the example to create a directory test in the current directory: #!/usr/bin/python import os # Create a directory "test" os.mkdir("test") The chdir() Method: You can use the chdir() method to change the current directory. The chdir() method takes an argument, which is the name of the directory that you want to make the current directory. SYNTAX: os.chdir("newdir") EXAMPLE: Following is the example to go into "/home/newdir" directory: #!/usr/bin/python import os # Changing a directory to "/home/newdir" os.chdir("/home/newdir") The getcwd() Method: The getcwd() method displays the current working directory. SYNTAX: os.getcwd() EXAMPLE: Following is the example to give current directory:
- 225. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning #!/usr/bin/python import os # This would give location of the current directory os.getcwd() The rmdir() Method: The rmdir() method deletes the directory, which is passed as an argument in the method. Before removing a directory, all the contents in it should be removed. SYNTAX: os.rmdir('dirname') EXAMPLE: Following is the example to remove "/tmp/test" directory. It is required to give fully qualified name of the directory, otherwise it would search for that directory in the current directory. #!/usr/bin/python import os # This would remove "/tmp/test" directory. os.rmdir( "/tmp/test" ) File & Directory Related Methods: There are three important sources, which provide a wide range of utility methods to handle and manipulate files & directories on Windows and Unix operating systems. They are as follows: File Object Methods: The file object provides functions to manipulate files. OS Object Methods: This provides methods to process files as well as directories. File Object Methods A file object is created using open function and here is a list of functions, which can be called on this object: SN Methods with Description 1 file.close() Closes the file. A closed file cannot be read or written any more. 2 file.flush() Flushes the internal buffer, like stdio's fflush. This may be a no-op on some file-like objects. 3 file.fileno() Returns the integer file descriptor that is used by the underlying implementation to request I/O operations from the operating system. 4 file.isatty() Returns True if the file is connected to a tty(-like) device, else False. 5 file.next() Returns the next line from the file each time it is being called. 6 file.read([size])
- 226. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Reads at most size bytes from the file (less if the read hits EOF before obtaining size bytes). 7 file.readline([size]) Reads one entire line from the file. A trailing newline character is kept in the string. 8 file.readlines([sizehint]) Reads until EOF using readline() and return a list containing the lines. If the optional sizehint argument is present, instead of reading up to EOF, whole lines totalling approximately sizehint bytes (possibly after rounding up to an internal buffer size) are read. 9 file.seek(offset[, whence]) Sets the file's current position. 10 file.tell() Returns the file's current position 11 file.truncate([size]) Truncates the file's size. If the optional size argument is present, the file is truncated to (at most) that size. 12 file.write(str) Writes a string to the file. There is no return value. 13 file.writelines(sequence) Writes a sequence of strings to the file. The sequence can be any iterable object producing strings, typically a list of strings. file.close() Description The method close() closes the opened file. A closed file cannot be read or written any more. Any operation, which requires that the file be opened will raise a ValueError after the file has been closed. Calling close() more than once is allowed. Python automatically closes a file when the reference object of a file is reassigned to another file. It is a good practice to use the close() method to close a file. Syntax Following is the syntax for close() method: fileObject.close(); Parameters NA Return Value This method does not return any value. Example The following example shows the usage of close() method. #!/usr/bin/python # Open a file
- 227. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning fo = open("foo.txt", "wb") print "Name of the file: ", fo.name # Close opened file fo.close() Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Name of the file: foo.txt file.flush() Description The method flush() flushes the internal buffer, like stdio's fflush. This may be a no-op on some file-like objects. Python automatically flushes the files when closing them. But you may want to flush the data before closing any file. Syntax Following is the syntax for flush() method: fileObject.flush(); Parameters NA Return Value This method does not return any value. Example The following example shows the usage of flush() method. #!/usr/bin/python # Open a file fo = open("foo.txt", "wb") print "Name of the file: ", fo.name # Here it does nothing, but you can call it with read operation. fo.flush() # Close opened file fo.close() Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Name of the file: foo.txt
- 228. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning file.fileno() Description The method fileno() returns the integer file descriptor that is used by the underlying implementation to request I/O operations from the operating system. Syntax Following is the syntax for fileno() method: fileObject.fileno(); Parameters NA Return Value This method returns the integer file descriptor. Example The following example shows the usage of fileno() method. #!/usr/bin/python # Open a file fo = open("foo.txt", "wb") print "Name of the file: ", fo.name fid = fo.fileno() print "File Descriptor: ", fid # Close opened file fo.close() Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Name of the file: foo.txt File Descriptor: 3 file.isatty() Description The method isatty() returns True if the file is connected (is associated with a terminal device) to a tty(-like) device, else False. Syntax Following is the syntax for isatty() method: fileObject.isatty();
- 229. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Parameters NA Return Value This method returns true if the file is connected (is associated with a terminal device) to a tty(-like) device, else false. Example The following example shows the usage of isatty() method. #!/usr/bin/python # Open a file fo = open("foo.txt", "wb") print "Name of the file: ", fo.name ret = fo.isatty() print "Return value : ", ret # Close opened file fo.close() Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Name of the file: foo.txt Return value : False file.next() Description The method next() is used when a file is used as an iterator, typically in a loop, the next() method is called repeatedly. This method returns the next input line, or raises StopIteration when EOF is hit. Combining next() method with other file methods like readline() does not work right. However, usingseek() to reposition the file to an absolute position will flush the read-ahead buffer. Syntax Following is the syntax for next() method: fileObject.next(); Parameters NA Return Value This method returns the next input line. Example The following example shows the usage of next() method.
- 230. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning #!/usr/bin/python # Open a file fo = open("foo.txt", "r") print "Name of the file: ", fo.name # Assuming file has following 5 lines # This is 1st line # This is 2nd line # This is 3rd line # This is 4th line # This is 5th line for index in range(5): line = fo.next() print "Line No %d - %s" % (index, line) # Close opened file fo.close() Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Name of the file: foo.txt Line No 0 - This is 1st line Line No 1 - This is 2nd line Line No 2 - This is 3rd line Line No 3 - This is 4th line Line No 4 - This is 5th line file.read([size]) Description The method read() reads at most size bytes from the file. If the read hits EOF before obtaining size bytes, then it reads only available bytes. Syntax Following is the syntax for read() method: fileObject.read( size ); Parameters size -- This is the number of bytes to be read from the file. Return Value This method returns the bytes read in string. Example The following example shows the usage of read() method. #!/usr/bin/python # Open a file fo = open("foo.txt", "r")
- 231. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning print "Name of the file: ", fo.name # Assuming file has following 5 lines # This is 1st line # This is 2nd line # This is 3rd line # This is 4th line # This is 5th line line = fo.read(10) print "Read Line: %s" % (line) # Close opened file fo.close() Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Name of the file: foo.txt Read Line: This is 1s file.readline([size]) Description The method readline() reads one entire line from the file. A trailing newline character is kept in the string. If the size argument is present and non-negative, it is a maximum byte count including the trailing newline and an incomplete line may be returned. An empty string is returned only when EOF is encountered immediately. Syntax Following is the syntax for readline() method: fileObject.readline( size ); Parameters size -- This is the number of bytes to be read from the file. Return Value This method returns the line read from the file. Example The following example shows the usage of readline() method. #!/usr/bin/python # Open a file fo = open("foo.txt", "r") print "Name of the file: ", fo.name # Assuming file has following 5 lines # This is 1st line # This is 2nd line # This is 3rd line
- 232. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning # This is 4th line # This is 5th line line = fo.readline() print "Read Line: %s" % (line) line = fo.readline(5) print "Read Line: %s" % (line) # Close opened file fo.close() Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Name of the file: foo.txt Read Line: This is 1st line Read Line: This file.readlines([sizehint]) Description The method readlines() reads until EOF using readline() and returns a list containing the lines. If the optional sizehint argument is present, instead of reading up to EOF, whole lines totalling approximately sizehint bytes (possibly after rounding up to an internal buffer size) are read. Syntax Following is the syntax for readlines() method: fileObject.readlines( sizehint ); Parameters sizehint -- This is the number of bytes to be read from the file. Return Value This method returns a list containing the lines. Example The following example shows the usage of readlines() method. #!/usr/bin/python # Open a file fo = open("foo.txt", "r") print "Name of the file: ", fo.name # Assuming file has following 5 lines # This is 1st line # This is 2nd line # This is 3rd line # This is 4th line # This is 5th line
- 233. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning line = fo.readlines() print "Read Line: %s" % (line) line = fo.readlines(2) print "Read Line: %s" % (line) # Close opened file fo.close() Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Name of the file: foo.txt Read Line: ['This is 1st linen', 'This is 2nd linen', 'This is 3rd linen', 'This is 4th linen', 'This is 5th linen'] Read Line: [] file.seek(offset[, whence]) Description The method seek() sets the file's current position at the offset. The whence argument is optional and defaults to 0, which means absolute file positioning, other values are 1 which means seek relative to the current position and 2 means seek relative to the file's end. There is no return value. Note that if the file is opened for appending using either 'a' or 'a+', any seek() operations will be undone at the next write. If the file is only opened for writing in append mode using 'a', this method is essentially a no-op, but it remains useful for files opened in append mode with reading enabled (mode 'a+'). If the file is opened in text mode using 't', only offsets returned by tell() are legal. Use of other offsets causes undefined behavior. Note that not all file objects are seekable. Syntax Following is the syntax for seek() method: fileObject.seek(offset[, whence]) Parameters offset -- This is the position of the read/write pointer within the file. whence -- This is optional and defaults to 0 which means absolute file positioning, other values are 1 which means seek relative to the current position and 2 means seek relative to the file's end. Return Value This method does not return any value. Example The following example shows the usage of seek() method.
- 234. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning #!/usr/bin/python # Open a file fo = open("foo.txt", "r") print "Name of the file: ", fo.name # Assuming file has following 5 lines # This is 1st line # This is 2nd line # This is 3rd line # This is 4th line # This is 5th line line = fo.readline() print "Read Line: %s" % (line) # Again set the pointer to the beginning fo.seek(0, 0) line = fo.readline() print "Read Line: %s" % (line) # Close opened file fo.close() Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Name of the file: foo.txt Read Line: This is 1st line Read Line: This is 1st line file.tell() Description The method tell() returns the current position of the file read/write pointer within the file. Syntax Following is the syntax for tell() method: fileObject.tell() Parameters NA Return Value This method returns the current position of the file read/write pointer within the file. Example The following example shows the usage of tell() method. #!/usr/bin/python # Open a file
- 235. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning fo = open("foo.txt", "r") print "Name of the file: ", fo.name # Assuming file has following 5 lines # This is 1st line # This is 2nd line # This is 3rd line # This is 4th line # This is 5th line line = fo.readline() print "Read Line: %s" % (line) # Get the current position of the file. pos = fo.tell() print "Current Position: %d" % (pos) # Close opened file fo.close() Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Name of the file: foo.txt Read Line: This is 1st line Current Position: 17 file.truncate([size]) Description The method truncate() truncates the file's size. If the optional size argument is present, the file is truncated to (at most) that size.. The size defaults to the current position. The current file position is not changed. Note that if a specified size exceeds the file's current size, the result is platform-dependent. Note: This method would not work in case file is opened in read-only mode. Syntax Following is the syntax for truncate() method: fileObject.truncate( [ size ]) Parameters size -- If this optional argument is present, the file is truncated to (at most) that size. Return Value This method does not return any value. Example The following example shows the usage of truncate() method. #!/usr/bin/python
- 236. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning # Open a file fo = open("foo.txt", "rw+") print "Name of the file: ", fo.name # Assuming file has following 5 lines # This is 1st line # This is 2nd line # This is 3rd line # This is 4th line # This is 5th line line = fo.readline() print "Read Line: %s" % (line) # Now truncate remaining file. fo.truncate() # Try to read file now line = fo.readline() print "Read Line: %s" % (line) # Close opened file fo.close() Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Name of the file: foo.txt Read Line: This is 1st line Read Line: file.write(str) Description The method write() writes a string str to the file. There is no return value. Due to buffering, the string may not actually show up in the file until the flush() or close() method is called. Syntax Following is the syntax for write() method: fileObject.write( str ) Parameters str -- This is the String to be written in the file. Return Value This method does not return any value. Example The following example shows the usage of write() method.
- 237. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning #!/usr/bin/python # Open a file fo = open("foo.txt", "rw+") print "Name of the file: ", fo.name # Assuming file has following 5 lines # This is 1st line # This is 2nd line # This is 3rd line # This is 4th line # This is 5th line str = "This is 6th line" # Write a line at the end of the file. fo.seek(0, 2) line = fo.write( str ) # Now read complete file from beginning. fo.seek(0,0) for index in range(6): line = fo.next() print "Line No %d - %s" % (index, line) # Close opened file fo.close() Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Name of the file: foo.txt Line No 0 - This is 1st line Line No 1 - This is 2nd line Line No 2 - This is 3rd line Line No 3 - This is 4th line Line No 4 - This is 5th line Line No 5 - This is 6th line file.writelines(sequence) Description The method writelines() writes a sequence of strings to the file. The sequence can be any iterable object producing strings, typically a list of strings. There is no return value. Syntax Following is the syntax for writelines() method: fileObject.writelines( sequence ) Parameters sequence -- This is the Sequence of the strings.
- 238. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Return Value This method does not return any value. Example The following example shows the usage of writelines() method. #!/usr/bin/python # Open a file fo = open("foo.txt", "rw+") print "Name of the file: ", fo.name # Assuming file has following 5 lines # This is 1st line # This is 2nd line # This is 3rd line # This is 4th line # This is 5th line seq = ["This is 6th linen", "This is 7th line"] # Write sequence of lines at the end of the file. fo.seek(0, 2) line = fo.writelines( seq ) # Now read complete file from beginning. fo.seek(0,0) for index in range(7): line = fo.next() print "Line No %d - %s" % (index, line) # Close opened file fo.close() Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Name of the file: foo.txt Line No 0 - This is 1st line Line No 1 - This is 2nd line Line No 2 - This is 3rd line Line No 3 - This is 4th line Line No 4 - This is 5th line Line No 5 - This is 6th line Line No 6 - This is 7th line
- 239. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning OS Object Methods The os module provides a big range of useful methods to manipulate files and directories. Most of the useful methods are listed here: SN Methods with Description 1 os.access(path, mode) Use the real uid/gid to test for access to path. 2 os.chdir(path) Change the current working directory to path 3 os.chflags(path, flags) Set the flags of path to the numeric flags. 4 os.chmod(path, mode) Change the mode of path to the numeric mode. 5 os.chown(path, uid, gid) Change the owner and group id of path to the numeric uid and gid. 6 os.chroot(path) Change the root directory of the current process to path. 7 os.close(fd) Close file descriptor fd. 8 os.closerange(fd_low, fd_high) Close all file descriptors from fd_low (inclusive) to fd_high (exclusive), ignoring errors. 9 os.dup(fd) Return a duplicate of file descriptor fd. 10 os.dup2(fd, fd2) Duplicate file descriptor fd to fd2, closing the latter first if necessary. 11 os.fchdir(fd) Change the current working directory to the directory represented by the file descriptor fd. 12 os.fchmod(fd, mode) Change the mode of the file given by fd to the numeric mode. 13 os.fchown(fd, uid, gid) Change the owner and group id of the file given by fd to the numeric uid and gid. 14 os.fdatasync(fd) Force write of file with filedescriptor fd to disk. 15 os.fdopen(fd[, mode[, bufsize]]) Return an open file object connected to the file descriptor fd. 16 os.fpathconf(fd, name) Return system configuration information relevant to an open file. name specifies the configuration value to retrieve. 17 os.fstat(fd) Return status for file descriptor fd, like stat(). 18 os.fstatvfs(fd) Return information about the filesystem containing the file associated with file descriptor fd, like statvfs().
- 240. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning 19 os.fsync(fd) Force write of file with filedescriptor fd to disk. 20 os.ftruncate(fd, length) Truncate the file corresponding to file descriptor fd, so that it is at most length bytes in size. 21 os.getcwd() Return a string representing the current working directory. 22 os.getcwdu() Return a Unicode object representing the current working directory. 23 os.isatty(fd) Return True if the file descriptor fd is open and connected to a tty(-like) device, else False. 24 os.lchflags(path, flags) Set the flags of path to the numeric flags, like chflags(), but do not follow symbolic links. 25 os.lchmod(path, mode) Change the mode of path to the numeric mode. 26 os.lchown(path, uid, gid) Change the owner and group id of path to the numeric uid and gid. This function will not follow symbolic links. 27 os.link(src, dst) Create a hard link pointing to src named dst. 28 os.listdir(path) Return a list containing the names of the entries in the directory given by path. 29 os.lseek(fd, pos, how) Set the current position of file descriptor fd to position pos, modified by how. 30 os.lstat(path) Like stat(), but do not follow symbolic links. 31 os.major(device) Extract the device major number from a raw device number. 32 os.makedev(major, minor) Compose a raw device number from the major and minor device numbers. 33 os.makedirs(path[, mode]) Recursive directory creation function. 34 os.minor(device) Extract the device minor number from a raw device number . 35 os.mkdir(path[, mode]) Create a directory named path with numeric mode mode. 36 os.mkfifo(path[, mode]) Create a FIFO (a named pipe) named path with numeric mode mode. The default mode is 0666 (octal). 37 os.mknod(filename[, mode=0600, device]) Create a filesystem node (file, device special file or named pipe) named filename. 38 os.open(file, flags[, mode]) Open the file file and set various flags according to flags and possibly its mode according to mode. 39 os.openpty() Open a new pseudo-terminal pair. Return a pair of file descriptors (master, slave) for the pty and
- 241. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning the tty, respectively. 40 os.pathconf(path, name) Return system configuration information relevant to a named file. 41 os.pipe() Create a pipe. Return a pair of file descriptors (r, w) usable for reading and writing, respectively. 42 os.popen(command[, mode[, bufsize]]) Open a pipe to or from command. 43 os.read(fd, n) Read at most n bytes from file descriptor fd. Return a string containing the bytes read. If the end of the file referred to by fd has been reached, an empty string is returned. 44 os.readlink(path) Return a string representing the path to which the symbolic link points. 45 os.remove(path) Remove the file path. 46 os.removedirs(path) Remove directories recursively. 47 os.rename(src, dst) Rename the file or directory src to dst. 48 os.renames(old, new) Recursive directory or file renaming function. 49 os.rmdir(path) Remove the directory path 50 os.stat(path) Perform a stat system call on the given path. 51 os.stat_float_times([newvalue]) Determine whether stat_result represents time stamps as float objects. 52 os.statvfs(path) Perform a statvfs system call on the given path. 53 os.symlink(src, dst) Create a symbolic link pointing to src named dst. 54 os.tcgetpgrp(fd) Return the process group associated with the terminal given by fd (an open file descriptor as returned by open()). 55 os.tcsetpgrp(fd, pg) Set the process group associated with the terminal given by fd (an open file descriptor as returned by open()) to pg. 56 os.tempnam([dir[, prefix]]) Return a unique path name that is reasonable for creating a temporary file. 57 os.tmpfile() Return a new file object opened in update mode (w+b). 58 os.tmpnam() Return a unique path name that is reasonable for creating a temporary file. 59 os.ttyname(fd) Return a string which specifies the terminal device associated with file descriptor fd. If fd is not
- 242. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning associated with a terminal device, an exception is raised. 60 os.unlink(path) Remove the file path. 61 os.utime(path, times) Set the access and modified times of the file specified by path. 62 os.walk(top[, topdown=True[, onerror=None[, followlinks=False]]]) Generate the file names in a directory tree by walking the tree either top-down or bottom-up. 63 os.write(fd, str) Write the string str to file descriptor fd. Return the number of bytes actually written. os.access(path, mode) Description The method access() uses the real uid/gid to test for access to path. Most operations will use the effective uid/gid, therefore this routine can be used in a suid/sgid environment to test if the invoking user has the specified access to path.It returns True if access is allowed, False if not. Syntax Following is the syntax for access() method: os.access(path, mode); Parameters path -- This is the path which would be tested for existence or any access. mode -- This should be F_OK to test the existence of path, or it can be the inclusive OR of one or more of R_OK, W_OK, and X_OK to test permissions. os.F_OK: Value to pass as the mode parameter of access() to test the existence of path. os.R_OK: Value to include in the mode parameter of access() to test the readability of path. os.W_OK Value to include in the mode parameter of access() to test the writability of path. os.X_OK Value to include in the mode parameter of access() to determine if path can be executed. Return Value This method returns True if access is allowed, False if not. Example The following example shows the usage of access() method. #!/usr/bin/python import os, sys # Assuming /tmp/foo.txt exists and has read/write permissions. ret = os.access("/tmp/foo.txt", os.F_OK) print "F_OK - return value %s"% ret
- 243. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning ret = os.access("/tmp/foo.txt", os.R_OK) print "R_OK - return value %s"% ret ret = os.access("/tmp/foo.txt", os.W_OK) print "W_OK - return value %s"% ret ret = os.access("/tmp/foo.txt", os.X_OK) print "X_OK - return value %s"% ret Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: F_OK - return value True R_OK - return value True W_OK - return value True X_OK - return value False os.chdir(path) Description The method chdir() changes the current working directory to the given path.It returns None in all the cases. Syntax Following is the syntax for chdir() method: os.chdir(path) Parameters path -- This is complete path of the directory to be changed to a new location. Return Value This method does not return any value. Example The following example shows the usage of chdir() method. #!/usr/bin/python import os path = "/usr/tmp" # Check current working directory. retval = os.getcwd() print "Current working directory %s" % retval
- 244. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning # Now change the directory os.chdir( path ) # Check current working directory. retval = os.getcwd() print "Directory changed successfully %s" % retval Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Current working directory /usr Directory changed successfully /usr/tmp os.chflags(path, flags) Description The method chflags() sets the flags of path to the numeric flags. The flags may take a combination (bitwise OR) of the various values described below. Note: This method is available Python version 2.6 onwards. Most of the flags can be changed by super-user only. Syntax Following is the syntax for chflags() method: os.chflags(path, flags) Parameters path -- This is complete path of the directory to be changed to a new location. flags -- The flags specified are formed by OR'ing the following values: so.UF_NODUMP: Do not dump the file. so.UF_IMMUTABLE: The file may not be changed. so.UF_APPEND: The file may only be appended to. so.UF_NOUNLINK: The file may not be renamed or deleted. so.UF_OPAQUE: The directory is opaque when viewed through a union stack. so.SF_ARCHIVED: The file may be archived. so.SF_IMMUTABLE: The file may not be changed. so.SF_APPEND: The file may only be appended to. so.SF_NOUNLINK: The file may not be renamed or deleted. so.SF_SNAPSHOT: The file is a snapshot file. Return Value This method does not return any value. Example The following example shows the usage of chflags() method.
- 245. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning #!/usr/bin/python import os path = "/tmp/foo.txt" # Set a flag so that file may not be renamed or deleted. flags = os.SF_NOUNLINK retval = os.chflags( path, flags) print "Return Value: %s" % retval Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Return Value : None os.chmod(path, mode) Description The method chmod() changes the mode of path to the passed numeric mode. The mode may take one of the following values or bitwise ORed combinations of them: stat.S_ISUID: Set user ID on execution. stat.S_ISGID: Set group ID on execution. stat.S_ENFMT: Record locking enforced. stat.S_ISVTX: Save text image after execution. stat.S_IREAD: Read by owner. stat.S_IWRITE: Write by owner. stat.S_IEXEC: Execute by owner. stat.S_IRWXU: Read, write, and execute by owner. stat.S_IRUSR: Read by owner. stat.S_IWUSR: Write by owner. stat.S_IXUSR: Execute by owner. stat.S_IRWXG: Read, write, and execute by group. stat.S_IRGRP: Read by group. stat.S_IWGRP: Write by group. stat.S_IXGRP: Execute by group. stat.S_IRWXO: Read, write, and execute by others. stat.S_IROTH: Read by others. stat.S_IWOTH: Write by others. stat.S_IXOTH: Execute by others. Syntax Following is the syntax for chmod() method: os.chmod(path, mode); Parameters path -- This is the path for which mode would be set. mode -- This may take one of the above mentioned values or bitwise ORed combinations of them. Return Value This method does not return any value.
- 246. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Example The following example shows the usage of chmod() method: #!/usr/bin/python import os, sys, stat # Assuming /tmp/foo.txt exists, Set a file execute by the group. os.chmod("/tmp/foo.txt", stat.S_IXGRP) # Set a file write by others. os.chmod("/tmp/foo.txt", stat.S_IWOTH) print "Changed mode successfully!!" Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Changed mode successfully!! os.chown(path, uid, gid) Description The method chown() changes the owner and group id of path to the numeric uid and gid. To leave one of the ids unchanged, set it to -1.To set ownership, you would need super user privilege.. Syntax Following is the syntax for chown() method: os.chown(path, uid, gid); Parameters path -- This is the path for which owner id and group id need to be setup. uid -- This is Owner ID to be set for the file. gid -- This is Group ID to be set for the file. Return Value This method does not return any value. Example The following example shows the usage of chown() method. #!/usr/bin/python import os, sys # Assuming /tmp/foo.txt exists. # To set owner ID 100 following has to be done. os.chown("/tmp/foo.txt", 100, -1) print "Changed ownership successfully!!"
- 247. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Changed ownership successfully!! os.chroot(path) Description The method chroot() changes the root directory of the current process to the given path.To use this method, you would need super user privilege. Syntax Following is the syntax for chroot() method: os.chroot(path); Parameters path -- This is the path which would be set as root for the current process. Return Value This method does not return any value. Example The following example shows the usage of chroot() method. #!/usr/bin/python import os, sys # To set the current root path to /tmp/user os.chroot("/tmp/usr") print "Changed root path successfully!!" Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Changed root path successfully!! os.close(fd) Description The method close() closes the associated with file descriptor fd. Syntax Following is the syntax for close() method: os.close(fd); Parameters fd -- This is the file descriptor of the file.
- 248. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Return Value This method does not return any value. Example The following example shows the usage of close() method. #!/usr/bin/python import os, sys # Open a file fd = os.open( "foo.txt", os.O_RDWR|os.O_CREAT ) # Write one string os.write(fd, "This is test") # Close opened file os.close( fd ) print "Closed the file successfully!!" Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Closed the file successfully!! os.closerange(fd_low, fd_high) Description The method closerange() closes all file descriptors from fd_low (inclusive) to fd_high (exclusive), ignoring errors.This method is introduced in Python version 2.6. Syntax Following is the syntax for closerange() method: os.closerange(fd_low, fd_high); Parameters fd_low -- This is the Lowest file descriptor to be closed. fd_high -- This is the Highest file descriptor to be closed. This function is equivalent to: for fd in xrange(fd_low, fd_high): try: os.close(fd) except OSError: pass Return Value This method does not return any value.
- 249. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Example The following example shows the usage of closerange() method. #!/usr/bin/python import os, sys # Open a file fd = os.open( "foo.txt", os.O_RDWR|os.O_CREAT ) # Write one string os.write(fd, "This is test") # Close a single opened file os.closerange( fd, fd) print "Closed the file successfully!!" This would create given file foo.txt and then write given content in that file.This will produce the following result: Closed the file successfully!! os.dup(fd) Description The method dup() returns a duplicate of file descriptor fd which can be used in place of original descriptor. Syntax Following is the syntax for dup() method: os.dup(fd); Parameters fd -- This is the original file descriptor. Return Value This method returns a duplicate of file descriptor. Example The following example shows the usage of dup() method. #!/usr/bin/python import os, sys # Open a file fd = os.open( "foo.txt", os.O_RDWR|os.O_CREAT ) # Get one duplicate file descriptor d_fd = os.dup( fd ) # Write one string using duplicate fd
- 250. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning os.write(d_fd, "This is test") # Close a single opened file os.closerange( fd, d_fd) print "Closed all the files successfully!!" Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Closed all the files successfully!! os.dup2(fd, fd2) Description The method dup2() duplicates file descriptor fd to fd2, closing the latter first if necessary. Note: New file description would be assigned only when it is available. In the following example given below, 1000 would be assigned as a duplicate fd in case when 1000 is available. Syntax Following is the syntax for dup2() method: os.dup2(fd, fd2); Parameters fd -- This is File descriptor to be duplicated. fd2 -- This is Duplicate file descriptor. Return Value This method returns a duplicate of file descriptor. Example The following example shows the usage of dup2() method. #!/usr/bin/python import os, sys # Open a file fd = os.open( "foo.txt", os.O_RDWR|os.O_CREAT ) # Write one string os.write(fd, "This is test") # Now duplicate this file descriptor as 1000 fd2 = 1000 os.dup2(fd, fd2); # Now read this file from the beginning using fd2. os.lseek(fd2, 0, 0) str = os.read(fd2, 100) print "Read String is : ", str # Close opened file os.close( fd )
- 251. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning print "Closed the file successfully!!" Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Read String is : This is test Closed the file successfully!! os.fchdir(fd) Description The method fchdir() change the current working directory to the directory represented by the file descriptor fd. The descriptor must refer to an opened directory, not an open file. Syntax Following is the syntax for fchdir() method: os.fchdir(fd); Parameters fd -- This is Directory descriptor. Return Value This method does not return any value. Example The following example shows the usage of fchdir() method. #!/usr/bin/python import os, sys # First go to the "/var/www/html" directory os.chdir("/var/www/html" ) # Print current working directory print "Current working dir : %s" % os.getcwd() # Now open a directory "/tmp" fd = os.open( "/tmp", os.O_RDONLY ) # Use os.fchdir() method to change the dir os.fchdir(fd) # Print current working directory print "Current working dir : %s" % os.getcwd() # Close opened directory. os.close( fd ) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Current working dir : /var/www/html
- 252. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Current working dir : /tmp os.fchmod(fd, mode) Description The method fchmod() changes the mode of the file given by fd to the numeric mode. The mode may take one of the following values or bitwise ORed combinations of them: Note: This method is available from Python 2.6 onwards. stat.S_ISUID: Set user ID on execution. stat.S_ISGID: Set group ID on execution. stat.S_ENFMT: Record locking enforced. stat.S_ISVTX: Save text image after execution. stat.S_IREAD: Read by owner. stat.S_IWRITE: Write by owner. stat.S_IEXEC: Execute by owner. stat.S_IRWXU: Read, write, and execute by owner. stat.S_IRUSR: Read by owner. stat.S_IWUSR: Write by owner. stat.S_IXUSR: Execute by owner. stat.S_IRWXG: Read, write, and execute by group. stat.S_IRGRP: Read by group. stat.S_IWGRP: Write by group. stat.S_IXGRP: Execute by group. stat.S_IRWXO: Read, write, and execute by others. stat.S_IROTH: Read by others. stat.S_IWOTH: Write by others. stat.S_IXOTH: Execute by others. Syntax Following is the syntax for fchmod() method: os.fchmod(fd, mode); Parameters fd -- This is the file descriptor for which mode would be set. mode -- This may take one of the above mentioned values or bitwise ORed combinations of them. Return Value This method does not return any value. Example The following example shows the usage of fchmod() method. #!/usr/bin/python import os, sys, stat
- 253. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning # Now open a file "/tmp/foo.txt" fd = os.open( "/tmp", os.O_RDONLY ) # Set a file execute by the group. os.fchmod( fd, stat.S_IXGRP) # Set a file write by others. os.fchmod(fd, stat.S_IWOTH) print "Changed mode successfully!!" # Close opened file. os.close( fd ) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Changed mode successfully!! os.fchown(fd, uid, gid) Description The method fchown() changes the owner and group id of the file given by fd to the numeric uid and gid. To leave one of the ids unchanged, set it to -1. Note:This method is available Python 2.6 onwards. Syntax Following is the syntax for fchown() method: os.fchown(fd, uid, gid); Parameters fd -- This is the file descriptor for which owner id and group id need to be set up. uid -- This is Owner ID to be set for the file. gid -- This is Group ID to be set for the file. Return Value This method does not return any value. Example The following example shows the usage of fchown() method.
- 254. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning #!/usr/bin/python import os, sys, stat # Now open a file "/tmp/foo.txt" fd = os.open( "/tmp", os.O_RDONLY ) # Set the user Id to 100 for this file. os.fchown( fd, 100, -1) # Set the group Id to 50 for this file. os.fchown( fd, -1, 50) print "Changed ownership successfully!!" # Close opened file. os.close( fd ) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Changed ownership successfully!! os.fdatasync(fd) Description The method fdatasync() forces write of file with filedescriptor fd to disk. This does not force update of metadata. If you want to flush your buffer then you can use this method. Syntax Following is the syntax for fdatasync() method: os.fdatasync(fd); Parameters fd -- This is the file descriptor for which data to be written. Return Value This method does not return any value. Example The following example shows the usage of fdatasync() method.
- 255. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning #!/usr/bin/python import os, sys # Open a file fd = os.open( "foo.txt", os.O_RDWR|os.O_CREAT ) # Write one string os.write(fd, "This is test") # Now you can use fdatasync() method. # Infact here you would not be able to see its effect. os.fdatasync(fd) # Now read this file from the beginning. os.lseek(fd, 0, 0) str = os.read(fd, 100) print "Read String is : ", str # Close opened file os.close( fd ) print "Closed the file successfully!!" Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Read String is : This is test Closed the file successfully!! os.fdopen(fd[, mode[, bufsize]]) Description The method fdopen() returns an open file object connected to the file descriptor fd. Then you can perform all the defined functions on file object. Syntax Following is the syntax for fdopen() method os.fdopen(fd, [, mode[, bufsize]]); Parameters fd -- This is the file descriptor for which a file object is to be returned. mode -- This optional argument is a string indicating how the file is to be opened. The most commonly-used values of mode are 'r' for reading, 'w' for writing (truncating the file if it already exists), and 'a' for appending. bufsize -- This optional argument specifies the file's desired buffer size: 0 means unbuffered, 1 means line buffered, any other positive value means use a buffer of (approximately) that size. Return Value This method returns an open file object connected to the file descriptor. Example The following example shows the usage of fdopen() method.
- 256. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning #!/usr/bin/python import os, sys # Open a file fd = os.open( "foo.txt", os.O_RDWR|os.O_CREAT ) # Now get a file object for the above file. fo = os.fdopen(fd, "w+") # Tell the current position print "Current I/O pointer position :%d" % fo.tell() # Write one string fo.write( "Python is a great language.nYeah its great!!n"); # Now read this file from the beginning. os.lseek(fd, 0, 0) str = os.read(fd, 100) print "Read String is : ", str # Tell the current position print "Current I/O pointer position :%d" % fo.tell() # Close opened file fo.close() print "Closed the file successfully!!" Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Current I/O pointer position :0 Read String is : This is testPython is a great language. Yeah its great!! Current I/O pointer position :45 Closed the file successfully!! os.fpathconf(fd, name) Description The method fpathconf() returns system configuration information relevant to an open file.This variable is very similar to unix system call fpathconf() and accept the similar arguments. Syntax Following is the syntax for fpathconf() method: os.fpathconf(fd, name) Parameters fd -- This is the file descriptor for which system configuration information is to be returned. name -- This specifies the configuration value to retrieve; it may be a string, which is the name of a defined system value; these names are specified in a number of standards (POSIX.1, Unix 95, Unix 98, and others). The names known to the host operating system are given in theos.pathconf_names dictionary.
- 257. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Return Value This method returns system configuration information relevant to an open file. Example The following example shows the usage of fpathconf() method. #!/usr/bin/python import os, sys # Open a file fd = os.open( "foo.txt", os.O_RDWR|os.O_CREAT ) print "%s" % os.pathconf_names # Now get maximum number of links to the file. no = os.fpathconf(fd, 'PC_LINK_MAX') print "Maximum number of links to the file. :%d" % no # Now get maximum length of a filename no = os.fpathconf(fd, 'PC_NAME_MAX') print "Maximum length of a filename :%d" % no # Close opened file os.close( fd) print "Closed the file successfully!!" Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: {'PC_MAX_INPUT': 2, 'PC_VDISABLE': 8, 'PC_SYNC_IO': 9, 'PC_SOCK_MAXBUF': 12, 'PC_NAME_MAX': 3, 'PC_MAX_CANON': 1, 'PC_PRIO_IO': 11, 'PC_CHOWN_RESTRICTED': 6, 'PC_ASYNC_IO': 10, 'PC_NO_TRUNC': 7, 'PC_FILESIZEBITS': 13, 'PC_LINK_MAX': 0, 'PC_PIPE_BUF': 5, 'PC_PATH_MAX': 4} Maximum number of links to the file. :127 Maximum length of a filename :255 Closed the file successfully!! os.fstat(fd) Description The method fstat() returns information about a file associated with the fd. Here is the structure returned by fstat method: st_dev: ID of device containing file st_ino: inode number st_mode: protection st_nlink: number of hard links st_uid: user ID of owner st_gid: group ID of owner st_rdev: device ID (if special file) st_size: total size, in bytes st_blksize: blocksize for filesystem I/O
- 258. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning st_blocks: number of blocks allocated st_atime: time of last access st_mtime: time of last modification st_ctime: time of last status change Syntax Following is the syntax for fstat() method: os.fstat(fd) Parameters fd -- This is the file descriptor for which system information is to be returned. Return Value This method returns information about a file associated with the fd. Example The following example shows the usage of chdir() method. #!/usr/bin/python import os, sys # Open a file fd = os.open( "foo.txt", os.O_RDWR|os.O_CREAT ) # Now get the touple info = os.fstat(fd) print "File Info :", info # Now get uid of the file print "UID of the file :%d" % info.st_uid # Now get gid of the file print "GID of the file :%d" % info.st_gid # Close opened file os.close( fd) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: File Info : (33261, 3753776L, 103L, 1, 0, 0, 102L, 1238783197, 1238786767, 1238786767) UID of the file :0 GID of the file :0 os.fstatvfs(fd)
- 259. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Description The method fstatvfs() returns information about the file system containing the file associated with file descriptor fd. This returns the following sturcture: f_bsize: file system block size f_frsize: fragment size f_blocks: size of fs in f_frsize units f_bfree: free blocks f_bavail: free blocks for non-root f_files: inodes f_ffree: free inodes f_favail: free inodes for non-root f_fsid: file system ID f_flag: mount flags f_namemax: maximum filename length Syntax Following is the syntax for fstatvfs() method: os.fstatvfs(fd) Parameters fd -- This is the file descriptor for which system information is to be returned. Return Value This method returns information about the file system containing the file associated. Example The following example shows the usage of fstatvfs() method. #!/usr/bin/python import os, sys # Open a file fd = os.open( "foo.txt", os.O_RDWR|os.O_CREAT ) # Now get the touple info = os.fstatvfs(fd) print "File Info :", info # Now get maximum filename length print "Maximum filename length :%d" % info.f_namemax: # Now get free blocks print "Free blocks :%d" % info.f_bfree # Close opened file os.close( fd) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: File Info : (4096, 4096, 2621440L, 1113266L, 1113266L,
- 260. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning 8929602L, 8764252L, 8764252L, 0, 255) Maximum filename length :255 Free blocks :1113266 os.fsync(fd) Description The method fsync() forces write of file with file descriptor fd to disk. If you're starting with a Python file object f, first do f.flush(), and then do os.fsync(f.fileno()), to ensure that all internal buffers associated with f are written to disk. Syntax Following is the syntax for fsync() method: os.fsync(fd) Parameters fd -- This is the file descriptor for buffer sync is required. Return Value This method does not return any value. Example The following example shows the usage of fsync() method. #!/usr/bin/python import os, sys # Open a file fd = os.open( "foo.txt", os.O_RDWR|os.O_CREAT ) # Write one string os.write(fd, "This is test") # Now you can use fsync() method. # Infact here you would not be able to see its effect. os.fsync(fd) # Now read this file from the beginning os.lseek(fd, 0, 0) str = os.read(fd, 100) print "Read String is : ", str # Close opened file os.close( fd ) print "Closed the file successfully!!" Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Read String is : This is test Closed the file successfully!!
- 261. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning os.ftruncate(fd, length) Description The method ftruncate() truncates the file corresponding to file descriptor fd, so that it is at most length bytes in size. Syntax Following is the syntax for ftruncate() method: os.ftruncate(fd, length) Parameters fd -- This is the file descriptor, which needs to be truncated. length -- This is the length of the file where file needs to be truncated. Return Value This method does not return any value. Example The following example shows the usage of ftruncate() method. #!/usr/bin/python import os, sys # Open a file fd = os.open( "foo.txt", os.O_RDWR|os.O_CREAT ) # Write one string os.write(fd, "This is test - This is test") # Now you can use ftruncate() method. os.ftruncate(fd, 10) # Now read this file from the beginning. os.lseek(fd, 0, 0) str = os.read(fd, 100) print "Read String is : ", str # Close opened file os.close( fd ) print "Closed the file successfully!!" Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Read String is : This is te Closed the file successfully!! os.getcwd()
- 262. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Description The method getcwd() returns current working directory of a process. Syntax Following is the syntax for getcwd() method: os.chdir(path) Parameters NA Return Value This method returns current working directory of a process. Example The following example shows the usage of getcwd() method. #!/usr/bin/python import os, sys # First go to the "/var/www/html" directory os.chdir("/var/www/html" ) # Print current working directory print "Current working dir : %s" % os.getcwd() # Now open a directory "/tmp" fd = os.open( "/tmp", os.O_RDONLY ) # Use os.fchdir() method to change the dir os.fchdir(fd) # Print current working directory print "Current working dir : %s" % os.getcwd() # Close opened directory. os.close( fd ) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Current working dir : /var/www/html Current working dir : /tmp os.getcwdu() Description The method getcwdu() returns a unicode object representing the current working directory. Syntax Following is the syntax for getcwdu() method:
- 263. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning os.getcwdu() Parameters NA Return Value This method returns a unicode object representing the current working directory. Example The following example shows the usage of getcwdu() method. #!/usr/bin/python import os, sys # First go to the "/var/www/html" directory os.chdir("/var/www/html" ) # Print current working directory print "Current working dir : %s" % os.getcwdu() # Now open a directory "/tmp" fd = os.open( "/tmp", os.O_RDONLY ) # Use os.fchdir() method to change the dir os.fchdir(fd) # Print current working directory print "Current working dir : %s" % os.getcwdu() # Close opened directory. os.close( fd ) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Current working dir : /var/www/html Current working dir : /tmp os.isatty(fd) Description The method isatty()returns True if the file descriptor fd is open and connected to a tty(-like) device, else False. Syntax Following is the syntax for isatty() method: os.isatty( fd ) Parameters fd -- This is the file descriptor for which association needs to be checked.
- 264. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Return Value This method returns True if the file descriptor fd is open and connected to a tty(-like) device, else False. Example The following example shows the usage of isatty() method. #!/usr/bin/python import os, sys # Open a file fd = os.open( "foo.txt", os.O_RDWR|os.O_CREAT ) # Write one string os.write(fd, "This is test") # Now use isatty() to check the file. ret = os.isatty(fd) print "Returned value is: ", ret # Close opened file os.close( fd ) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Returned value is: False os.lchflags(path, flags) Description The method lchflags() sets the flags of path to the numeric flags. This method does not follow symbolic links unlike chflags() method. Here, flags may take a combination (bitwise OR) of the following values (as defined in the stat module): UF_NODUMP: Do not dump the file. UF_IMMUTABLE: The file may not be changed. UF_APPEND: The file may only be appended to. UF_NOUNLINK: The file may not be renamed or deleted. UF_OPAQUE: The directory is opaque when viewed through a union stack. SF_ARCHIVED: The file may be archived. SF_IMMUTABLE: The file may not be changed.
- 265. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning SF_APPEND: The file may only be appended to. SF_NOUNLINK: The file may not be renamed or deleted. SF_SNAPSHOT: The file is a snapshot file. Note: This method has been introduced in Python 2.6 Syntax Following is the syntax for lchflags() method: os.lchflags(path, flags) Parameters path -- This is the file path for which flags to be set. flags -- This could be a combination (bitwise OR) of the above defined flags values. Return Value This method does not return any value. Example The following example shows the usage of lchflags() method. #!/usr/bin/python import os, sys # Open a file path = "/var/www/html/foo.txt" fd = os.open( path, os.O_RDWR|os.O_CREAT ) # Close opened file os.close( fd ) # Now change the file flag. ret = os.lchflags(path, os.UF_IMMUTABLE ) print "Changed file flag successfully!!" Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Changed file flag successfully!! os.lchmod(path, mode) Description The method lchmod() changes the mode of path to the numeric mode. If path is a symlink, this affects the symlink rather than the target. The mode may take one of the following values or bitwise ORed combinations of them: stat.S_ISUID: Set user ID on execution. stat.S_ISGID: Set group ID on execution. stat.S_ENFMT: Record locking enforced.
- 266. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning stat.S_ISVTX: Save text image after execution. stat.S_IREAD: Read by owner. stat.S_IWRITE: Write by owner. stat.S_IEXEC: Execute by owner. stat.S_IRWXU: Read, write, and execute by owner. stat.S_IRUSR: Read by owner. stat.S_IWUSR: Write by owner. stat.S_IXUSR: Execute by owner. stat.S_IRWXG: Read, write, and execute by group. stat.S_IRGRP: Read by group. stat.S_IWGRP: Write by group. stat.S_IXGRP: Execute by group. stat.S_IRWXO: Read, write, and execute by others. stat.S_IROTH: Read by others. stat.S_IWOTH: Write by others. stat.S_IXOTH: Execute by others. Note:This method has been introduced in Python 2.6 Syntax Following is the syntax for lchmod() method: os.lchmod(path, mode) Parameters path -- This is the file path for which mode to be set. mode -- This may take one of the above mentioned values or bitwise ORed combinations of them. Return Value This method does not return any value. Example The following example shows the usage of lchmod() method. #!/usr/bin/python import os, sys # Open a file path = "/var/www/html/foo.txt" fd = os.open( path, os.O_RDWR|os.O_CREAT ) # Close opened file os.close( fd ) # Now change the file mode. # Set a file execute by group. os.lchmod( path, stat.S_IXGRP) # Set a file write by others. os.lchmod("/tmp/foo.txt", stat.S_IWOTH) print "Changed mode successfully!!"
- 267. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: print "Changed mode successfully!!" os.lchown(path, uid, gid) Description The method lchown() changes the owner and group id of path to the numeric uid and gid. This function will not follow symbolic links. To leave one of the ids unchanged, set it to -1. . Syntax Following is the syntax for lchown() method: os.lchown(path, uid, gid) Parameters path -- This is the file path for which ownership to be set. uid -- This is the Owner ID to be set for the file. gid -- This is the Group ID to be set for the file. Return Value This method does not return any value. Example The following example shows the usage of lchown() method. #!/usr/bin/python import os, sys # Open a file path = "/var/www/html/foo.txt" fd = os.open( path, os.O_RDWR|os.O_CREAT ) # Close opened file os.close( fd ) # Now change the file ownership. # Set a file owner ID os.lchown( path, 500, -1) # Set a file group ID os.lchown( path, -1, 500) print "Changed ownership successfully!!" Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: print "Changed ownership successfully!!" os.link(src, dst)
- 268. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Description The method link() creates a hard link pointing to src named dst. This method is very useful to create a copy of existing file. Syntax Following is the syntax for link() method: os.link(src, dst) Parameters src -- This is the source file path for which hard link would be created. dest -- This is the target file path where hard link would be created. Return Value This method does not return any value. Example The following example shows the usage of link() method. #!/usr/bin/python import os, sys # Open a file path = "/var/www/html/foo.txt" fd = os.open( path, os.O_RDWR|os.O_CREAT ) # Close opened file os.close( fd ) # Now create another copy of the above file. dst = "/tmp/foo.txt" os.link( path, dst) print "Created hard link successfully!!" This would produce following result: print "Created hard link successfully!!" os.listdir(path) Description The method listdir() returns a list containing the names of the entries in the directory given by path. The list is in arbitrary order. It does not include the special entries '.' and '..' even if they are present in the directory. Syntax Following is the syntax for listdir() method: os.listdir(path)
- 269. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Parameters path -- This is the directory, which needs to be explored. Return Value This method returns a list containing the names of the entries in the directory given by path. Example The following example shows the usage of listdir() method. #!/usr/bin/python import os, sys # Open a file path = "/var/www/html/" dirs = os.listdir( path ) # This would print all the files and directories for file in dirs: print file Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: test.htm stamp faq.htm _vti_txt robots.txt itemlisting resumelisting writing_effective_resume.htm advertisebusiness.htm papers resume os.lseek(fd, pos, how) Description The method lseek() sets the current position of file descriptor fd to the given position pos, modified byhow. Syntax Following is the syntax for lseek() method: os.lseek(fd, pos, how) Parameters fd -- This is the file descriptor, which needs to be processed. pos -- This is the position in the file with respect to given parameter how. You give os.SEEK_SET or 0 to set the position relative to the beginning of the file, os.SEEK_CUR or 1 to set it relative to the current position; os.SEEK_END or 2 to set it relative to the end of the file. how -- This is the reference point with-in the file. os.SEEK_SET or 0 means beginning of the file, os.SEEK_CUR or 1 means the current position and os.SEEK_END or 2 means end of the file.
- 270. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Return Value This method does not return any value. Example The following example shows the usage of lseek() method. #!/usr/bin/python import os, sys # Open a file fd = os.open( "foo.txt", os.O_RDWR|os.O_CREAT ) # Write one string os.write(fd, "This is test") # Now you can use fsync() method. # Infact here you would not be able to see its effect. os.fsync(fd) # Now read this file from the beginning os.lseek(fd, 0, 0) str = os.read(fd, 100) print "Read String is : ", str # Close opened file os.close( fd ) print "Closed the file successfully!!" Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Read String is : This is test Closed the file successfully!! os.lstat(path) Description The method lstat() is very similar to fstat() and returns the information about a file, but do not follow symbolic links. This is an alias for fstat() on platforms that do not support symbolic links, such as Windows. Here is the structure returned by lstat method: st_dev: ID of device containing file st_ino: inode number st_mode: protection st_nlink: number of hard links st_uid: user ID of owner st_gid: group ID of owner st_rdev: device ID (if special file) st_size: total size, in bytes st_blksize: blocksize for filesystem I/O st_blocks: number of blocks allocated st_atime: time of last access st_mtime: time of last modification
- 271. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning st_ctime: time of last status change Syntax Following is the syntax for lstat() method: os.lstat(path) Parameters path -- This is the file for which information would be returned. Return Value This method returns the information about a file. Example The following example shows the usage of lstat() method. #!/usr/bin/python import os, sys # Open a file path = "/var/www/html/foo.txt" fd = os.open( path, os.O_RDWR|os.O_CREAT ) # Close opened file os.close( fd ) # Now get the touple info = os.lstat(path) print "File Info :", info # Now get uid of the file print "UID of the file :%d" % info.st_uid # Now get gid of the file print "GID of the file :%d" % info.st_gid Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: File Info : (33261, 3450178L, 103L, 1, 500, 500, 0L, 1238866944, 1238866944, 1238948312) UID of the file :500 GID of the file :500 os.major(device)
- 272. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Description The method major() extracts the device major number from a raw device number (usually the st_dev or st_rdev field from stat). Syntax Following is the syntax for major() method: os.major(device) Parameters device -- This is a raw device number (usually the st_dev or st_rdev field from stat). Return Value This method returns the device major number. Example The following example shows the usage of major() method. #!/usr/bin/python import os, sys path = "/var/www/html/foo.txt" # Now get the touple info = os.lstat(path) # Get major and minor device number major_dnum = os.major(info.st_dev) minor_dnum = os.minor(info.st_dev) print "Major Device Number :", major_dnum print "Minor Device Number :", minor_dnum Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Major Device Number : 0 Minor Device Number : 103 os.makedev(major, minor) Description The method makedev() composes a raw device number from the major and minor device numbers. Syntax Following is the syntax for makedev() method: os.makedev(major, minor)
- 273. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Parameters major -- This is Major device number. minor -- This is Minor device number. Return Value This method returns the device number. Example The following example shows the usage of makedev() method. #!/usr/bin/python import os, sys path = "/var/www/html/foo.txt" # Now get the touple info = os.lstat(path) # Get major and minor device number major_dnum = os.major(info.st_dev) minor_dnum = os.minor(info.st_dev) print "Major Device Number :", major_dnum print "Minor Device Number :", minor_dnum # Make a device number dev_num = os.makedev(major_dnum, minor_dnum) print "Device Number :", dev_num Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Major Device Number : 0 Minor Device Number : 103 Device Number : 103 os.makedirs(path[, mode]) Description The method makedirs() is recursive directory creation function. Like mkdir(), but makes all intermediate-level directories needed to contain the leaf directory. Syntax Following is the syntax for makedirs() method: os.makedirs(path[, mode]) Parameters path -- This is the path, which needs to be created recursively. mode -- This is the Mode of the directories to be given.
- 274. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Return Value This method does not return any value. Example The following example shows the usage of makedirs() method. #!/usr/bin/python import os, sys # Path to be created path = "/tmp/home/monthly/daily" os.makedirs( path, 0755 ); print "Path is created" Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Path is created os.minor(device) Description The method minor() extracts the device minor number from a raw device number (usually the st_dev or st_rdev field from stat). Syntax Following is the syntax for minor() method: os.minor(device) Parameters device -- This is a raw device number (usually the st_dev or st_rdev field from stat). Return Value This method returns the device minor number. Example The following example shows the usage of minor() method. #!/usr/bin/python import os, sys path = "/var/www/html/foo.txt" # Now get the touple info = os.lstat(path) # Get major and minor device number major_dnum = os.major(info.st_dev)
- 275. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning minor_dnum = os.minor(info.st_dev) print "Major Device Number :", major_dnum print "Minor Device Number :", minor_dnum Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Major Device Number : 0 Minor Device Number : 103 os.mkdir(path[, mode]) Description The method mkdir() create a directory named path with numeric mode mode. The default mode is 0777 (octal). On some systems, mode is ignored. Where it is used, the current umask value is first masked out. Syntax Following is the syntax for mkdir() method: os.mkdir(path[, mode]) Parameters path -- This is the path, which needs to be created. mode -- This is the mode of the directories to be given. Return Value This method does not return any value. Example The following example shows the usage of mkdir() method. #!/usr/bin/python import os, sys # Path to be created path = "/tmp/home/monthly/daily/hourly" os.mkdir( path, 0755 ); print "Path is created" Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Path is created
- 276. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning os.mkfifo(path[, mode]) Description The method mkfifo() creates a FIFO named path with numeric mode. The default mode is 0666 (octal).The current umask value is first masked out. Syntax Following is the syntax for mkfifo() method: os.mkfifo(path[, mode]) Parameters path -- This is the path, which needs to be created. mode -- This is the mode of the named path to be given. Return Value This method does not return any value. Example The following example shows the usage of mkfifo() method. # !/usr/bin/python import os, sys # Path to be created path = "/tmp/hourly" os.mkfifo( path, 0644 ) print "Path is created" Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Path is created os.mknod(filename[, mode=0600, device]) Description The method mknod() creates a filesystem node (file, device special file or named pipe) named filename. Syntax Following is the syntax for mknod() method: os.mknod(filename[, mode=0600[, device=0]])
- 277. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Parameters filename -- This is the filesystem node to be created. mode -- The mode specifies both the permissions to use and the type of node to be created combined (bitwise OR) with one of the values stat.S_IFREG, stat.S_IFCHR, stat.S_IFBLK, and stat.S_IFIFO. They can be ORed base don requirement. device -- This is the device special file created and its optional to provide. Return Value This method does not return any value. Example The following example shows the usage of mknod() method. # !/usr/bin/python import os import stat filename = '/tmp/tmpfile' mode = 0600|stat.S_IRUSR # filesystem node specified with different modes os.mknod(filename, mode) Let us compile and run the above program, this will create a simple file in /tmp directory with a name tmpfile: -rw-------. 1 root root 0 Apr 30 02:38 tmpfile os.open(file, flags[, mode]) Description The method open() opens the file file and set various flags according to flags and possibly its mode according to mode.The default mode is 0777 (octal), and the current umask value is first masked out. Syntax Following is the syntax for open() method: os.open(file, flags[, mode]); Parameters file -- File name to be opened. flags -- The following constants are options for the flags. They can be combined using the bitwise OR operator |. Some of them are not available on all platforms. os.O_RDONLY: open for reading only os.O_WRONLY: open for writing only os.O_RDWR : open for reading and writing
- 278. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning os.O_NONBLOCK: do not block on open os.O_APPEND: append on each write os.O_CREAT: create file if it does not exist os.O_TRUNC: truncate size to 0 os.O_EXCL: error if create and file exists os.O_SHLOCK: atomically obtain a shared lock os.O_EXLOCK: atomically obtain an exclusive lock os.O_DIRECT: eliminate or reduce cache effects os.O_FSYNC : synchronous writes os.O_NOFOLLOW: do not follow symlinks mode -- This work in similar way as it works for chmod() method. Return Value This method returns the file descriptor for the newly opened file. Example The following example shows the usage of open() method. #!/usr/bin/python import os, sys # Open a file fd = os.open( "foo.txt", os.O_RDWR|os.O_CREAT ) # Write one string os.write(fd, "This is test") # Close opened file os.close( fd ) print "Closed the file successfully!!" This would create given file foo.txt and then would write given content in that file and would produce the following result: Closed the file successfully!! os.openpty() Description The method openpty() opens a pseudo-terminal pair and returns a pair of file descriptors(master,slave) for the pty & the tty respectively. Syntax Following is the syntax for openpty() method: os.openpty() Parameters
- 279. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning NA Return Value This method returns a pair of file descriptors i.e., master and slave. Example The following example shows the usage of openpty() method. # !/usr/bin/python import os # master for pty, slave for tty m,s = os.openpty() print m print s # showing terminal name s = os.ttyname(s) print m print s Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: 3 4 3 /dev/pty0 os.pathconf(path, name) Description The method pathconf( ) returns system configuration information relevant to a named file. Syntax Following is the syntax for pathconf() method: os.pathconf(path, name) Parameters path -- This is the file path. name -- This specifies the configuration value to retrieve; it may be a string which is the name of a defined system value; these names are specified in a number of standards (POSIX.1, Unix 95, Unix 98, and others). The names known to the host operating system are given in theos.pathconf_names dictionary. Return Value This method returns system configuration information of a file. Example The following example shows the usage of pathconf() method. #!/usr/bin/python
- 280. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning import os, sys print "%s" % os.pathconf_names # Retrieve maximum length of a filename no = os.pathconf('a2.py', 'PC_NAME_MAX') print "Maximum length of a filename :%d" % no # Retrieve file size no = os.pathconf('a2.py', 'PC_FILESIZEBITS') print "file size in bits :%d" % no Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: {'PC_MAX_INPUT': 2, 'PC_VDISABLE': 8, 'PC_SYNC_IO': 9, 'PC_SOCK_MAXBUF': 12, 'PC_NAME_MAX': 3, 'PC_MAX_CANON': 1, 'PC_PRIO_IO': 11, 'PC_CHOWN_RESTRICTED': 6, 'PC_ASYNC_IO': 10, 'PC_NO_TRUNC': 7, 'PC_FILESIZEBITS': 13, 'PC_LINK_MAX': 0, 'PC_PIPE_BUF': 5, 'PC_PATH_MAX': 4} Maximum length of a filename :255 file size in bits : 64 os.pipe() Description The method pipe() creates a pipe and returns a pair of file descriptors (r, w) usable for reading and writing, respectively Syntax Following is the syntax for pipe() method: os.pipe() Parameters NA Return Value This method returns a pair of file descriptors. Example The following example shows the usage of pipe() method. #!/usr/bin/python import os, sys print "The child will write text to a pipe and " print "the parent will read the text written by child..." # file descriptors r, w for reading and writing r, w = os.pipe() processid = os.fork()
- 281. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning if processid: # This is the parent process # Closes file descriptor w os.close(w) r = os.fdopen(r) print "Parent reading" str = r.read() print "text =", str sys.exit(0) else: # This is the child process os.close(r) w = os.fdopen(w, 'w') print "Child writing" w.write("Text written by child...") w.close() print "Child closing" sys.exit(0) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: The child will write text to a pipe and the parent will read the text written by child... Parent reading Child writing Child closing text = Text written by child... os.popen(command[, mode[, bufsize]]) Description The method popen() opens a pipe to or from command.The return value is an open file object connected to the pipe, which can be read or written depending on whether mode is 'r' (default) or 'w'.The bufsize argument has the same meaning as in open() function. Syntax Following is the syntax for popen() method: os.popen(command[, mode[, bufsize]]) Parameters command -- This is command used. mode -- This is the Mode can be 'r'(default) or 'w'. bufsize -- If the buffering value is set to 0, no buffering will take place. If the buffering value is 1, line buffering will be performed while accessing a file. If you specify the buffering value as an integer greater than 1, then buffering action will be performed with the indicated buffer size. If negative, the buffer size is the system default(default behavior). Return Value This method returns an open file object connected to the pipe. Example The following example shows the usage of popen() method.
- 282. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning # !/usr/bin/python import os, sys # using command mkdir a = 'mkdir nwdir' b = os.popen(a,'r',1) print b Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: open file 'mkdir nwdir', mode 'r' at 0x81614d0 os.read(fd, n) Description The method read() read at most n bytes from file desciptor fd, return a string containing the bytes read. If the end of file referred to by fd has been reached, an empty string is returned. Syntax Following is the syntax for read() method: os.read(fd,n) Parameters fd -- This is the file descriptor of the file. n -- These are n bytes from file descriptor fd. Return Value This method returns a string containing the bytes read. Example The following example shows the usage of read() method. # !/usr/bin/python import os, sys # Open a file fd = os.open("f1.txt",os.O_RDWR) # Reading text ret = os.read(fd,12) print ret # Close opened file os.close(fd) print "Closed the file successfully!!" Let us compile and run the above program, this will print the contents of file f1.txt:
- 283. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning This is test Closed the file successfully!! os.readlink(path) Description The method readlink() returns a string representing the path to which the symbolic link points. It may return an absolute or relative pathname. Syntax Following is the syntax for readlink() method: os.readlink(path) Parameters path -- This is the path or symblic link for which we are going to find source of the link. Return Value This method return a string representing the path to which the symbolic link points. Example The following example shows the usage of readlink() method. # !/usr/bin/python import os src = '/usr/bin/python' dst = '/tmp/python' # This creates a symbolic link on python in tmp directory os.symlink(src, dst) # Now let us use readlink to display the source of the link. path = os.readlink( dst ) print path Let us compile and run the above program, this will create a symblic link to /usr/bin/python and later it will read the source of the symbolic link using readlink() call. Before running this program, make sure you do not have /tmp/python already available. /usr/bin/python os.remove(path) Description The method remove() removes the file path. If the path is a directory, OSError is raised. Syntax Following is the syntax for remove() method: os.remove(path)
- 284. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Parameters path -- This is the path, which is to be removed. Return Value This method does not return any value. Example The following example shows the usage of remove() method. # !/usr/bin/python import os, sys # listing directories print "The dir is: %s" %os.listdir(os.getcwd()) # removing os.remove("aa.txt") # listing directories after removing path print "The dir after removal of path : %s" %os.listdir(os.getcwd()) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: The dir is: [ 'a1.txt','aa.txt','resume.doc','a3.py','tutorialsdir','amrood.admin' ] The dir after removal of path : [ 'a1.txt','resume.doc','a3.py','tutorialsdir','amrood.admin' ] os.removedirs(path) Description The method removedirs() removes dirs recursively. If the leaf directory is succesfully removed, removedirs tries to successively remove every parent directory displayed in path. Syntax Following is the syntax for removedirs() method: os.removedirs(path) Parameters path -- This is the path of the directory, which needs to be removed. Return Value This method does not return any value. Example The following example shows the usage of removedirs() method. # !/usr/bin/python
- 285. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning import os, sys # listing directories print "The dir is: %s" %os.listdir(os.getcwd()) # removing os.removedirs("/tutorialsdir") # listing directories after removing directory print "The dir after removal is:" %os.listdir(os.getcwd()) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: The dir is: [ 'a1.txt','resume.doc','a3.py','tutorialsdir','amrood.admin' ] The dir after removal is: [ 'a1.txt','resume.doc','a3.py','amrood.admin' ] os.rename(src, dst) Description The method rename() renames the file or directory src to dst.If dst is a file or directory(already present),OSError will be raised. Syntax Following is the syntax for rename() method: os.rename(src, dst) Parameters src -- This is the actual name of the file or directory. dst -- This is the new name of the file or directory. Return Value This method does not return any value. Example The following example shows the usage of rename() method. # !/usr/bin/python import os, sys # listing directories print "The dir is: %s"%os.listdir(os.getcwd()) # renaming directory ''tutorialsdir" os.rename("tutorialsdir","tutorialsdirectory") print "Successfully renamed." # listing directories after renaming "tutorialsdir" print "the dir is: %s" %os.listdir(os.getcwd())
- 286. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: The dir is: [ 'a1.txt','resume.doc','a3.py','tutorialsdir','amrood.admin' ] Successfully renamed. The dir is: [ 'a1.txt','resume.doc','a3.py','tutorialsdirectory','amrood.admin' ] os.renames(old, new) Description The method renames() is recursive directory or file renaming function. It does the same functioning as os.rename(), but it also moves a file to a directory, or a whole tree of directories, that do not exist. Syntax Following is the syntax for renames() method: os.renames(old, new) Parameters old -- This is the actual name of the file or directory to be renamed. new -- This is the new name of the file or directory.It can even include a file to a directory, or a whole tree of directories, that do not exist. Return Value This method does not return any value. Example The following example shows the usage of renames() method. # !/usr/bin/python import os, sys print "Current directory is: %s" %os.getcwd() # listing directories print "The dir is: %s"%os.listdir(os.getcwd()) # renaming file "aa1.txt" os.renames("aa1.txt","newdir/aanew.txt") print "Successfully renamed." # listing directories after renaming and moving "aa1.txt" print "The dir is: %s" %os.listdir(os.getcwd()) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Current directory is: /tmp The dir is: [ 'a1.txt','resume.doc','a3.py','aa1.txt','Administrator','amrood.admin' ] Successfully renamed. The dir is:
- 287. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning [ 'a1.txt','resume.doc','a3.py','Administrator','amrood.admin' ] The file aa1.txt is not visible here, as it is been moved to newdir and renamed as aanew.txt. The directory newdir and its contents are shown below: [ 'aanew.txt' ] os.rmdir(path) Description The method rmdir() removes the directory path. It works only when the directory is empty, else OSErroris raised. Syntax Following is the syntax for rmdir() method: os.rmdir(path) Parameters path -- This is the path of the directory, which needs to be removed. Return Value This method does not return any value. Example The following example shows the usage of rmdir() method. # !/usr/bin/python import os, sys # listing directories print "the dir is: %s" %os.listdir(os.getcwd()) # removing path os.rmdir("mydir") # listing directories after removing directory path print "the dir is:" %os.listdir(os.getcwd()) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: the dir is: [ 'a1.txt','resume.doc','a3.py','mydir','Administrator','amrood.admin' ] os.rmdir("mydir") OSError: [Errno 90] Directory not empty: 'mydir' The error is coming as 'mydir' directory is not empty. If 'mydir' is an empty directory, then this would produce following result: the dir is: [ 'a1.txt','resume.doc','a3.py','mydir','Administrator','amrood.admin' ] the dir is:
- 288. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning [ 'a1.txt','resume.doc','a3.py','Administrator','amrood.admin' ] os.stat(path) Description The method stat() performs a stat system call on the given path. Syntax Following is the syntax for stat() method: os.stat(path) Parameters path -- This is the path, whose stat information is required. Return Value Here is the list of members of stat structure: st_mode: protection bits. st_ino: inode number. st_dev: device. st_nlink: number of hard links. st_uid: user id of owner. st_gid: group id of owner. st_size: size of file, in bytes. st_atime: time of most recent access. st_mtime: time of most recent content modification. st_ctime: time of most recent metadata change. Example The following example shows the usage of stat() method. # !/usr/bin/python import os, sys # showing stat information of file "a2.py" statinfo = os.stat('a2.py') print statinfo Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: posix.stat_result(st_mode=33188, st_ino=3940649674337682L, st_dev=277923425L, st _nlink=1, st_uid=400, st_gid=401, st_size=335L, st_atime=1330498089, st_mtime=13 30498089, st_ctime=1330498089) os.stat_float_times([newvalue])
- 289. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Description The method stat_float_times() determines whether stat_result represents time stamps as float objects. Syntax Following is the syntax for stat_float_times() method: os.stat_float_times([newvalue]) Parameters newvalue -- If newvalue is True, future calls to stat() return floats, if it is False, future calls return ints. If newvalue is not mentioned, it returns the current settings. Return Value This method returns true or false. Example The following example shows the usage of stat_float_times() method. # !/usr/bin/python import os, sys # stat information statinfo = os.stat('a2.py') print statinfo statinfo = os.stat_float_times() print statinfo Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: posix.stat_result(st_mode=33188, st_ino=3940649674337682L, st_dev=277923425L, st_nlink=1, st_uid=400, st_gid=401, st_size=335L, st_atime=1330498089, st_mtime=13 30498089, st_ctime=1330498089) True os.statvfs(path) Description The method statvfs() performs a statvfs system call on the given path. Syntax Following is the syntax for statvfs() method: os.statvfs(path)
- 290. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Parameters path -- This is the path whose statvfs information is required. Return Value Here is the list of members of statvfs structure: f_bsize: preferred file system block size. f_frsize: fundamental file system block size. f_blocks: total number of blocks in the filesystem. f_bfree: total number of free blocks. f_bavail: free blocks available to non-super user. f_files: total number of file nodes. f_ffree: total number of free file nodes. f_favail: free nodes available to non-super user. f_flag: system dependent. f_namemax: maximum file name length. Example The following example shows the usage of statvfs() method. # !/usr/bin/python import os, sys # showing statvfs information of file "a1.py" stinfo = os.statvfs('a1.py') print stinfo Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: posix.statvfs_result(f_bsize=4096, f_frsize=4096, f_blocks=1909350L, f_bfree=1491513L, f_bavail=1394521L, f_files=971520L, f_ffree=883302L, f_fvail=883302L, f_flag=0, f_namemax=255) os.symlink(src, dst) Description The method symlink() creates a symbolic link dst pointing to src. Syntax Following is the syntax for symlink() method: os.symlink(src, dst) Parameters src -- This is the source. dest -- This is the destination, which didn't exist previously.
- 291. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Return Value This method does not return any value. Example The following example shows the usage of symlink() method. #!/usr/bin/python import os src = '/usr/bin/python' dst = '/tmp/python' # This creates a symbolic link on python in tmp directory os.symlink(src, dst) print "symlink created" Let us compile and run the above program, this will create s symbolic link in /tmp directory which will be as follows: lrwxrwxrwx. 1 root root 15 Apr 30 03:00 python -> /usr/bin/python os.tcgetpgrp(fd) Description The method tcgetpgrp() returns the process group associated with the terminal given by fd (an open file descriptor as returned by os.open()) Syntax Following is the syntax for tcgetpgrp() method: os.tcgetpgrp(fd) Parameters fd -- This is the file descriptor. Return Value This method returns the process group. Example The following example shows the usage of tcgetpgrp() method. # !/usr/bin/python import os, sys # Showing current directory print "Current working dir :%s" %os.getcwd() # Changing dir to /dev/tty
- 292. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning fd = os.open("/dev/tty",os.O_RDONLY) f = os.tcgetpgrp(fd) # Showing the process group print "the process group associated is: " print f os.close(fd) print "Closed the file successfully!!" Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Current working dir is :/tmp the process group associated is: 2670 Closed the file successfully!! os.tcsetpgrp(fd, pg) Description The method tcsetpgrp() sets the process group associated with the terminal given by fd (an open file descriptor as returned by os.open()) to pg. Syntax Following is the syntax for tcsetpgrp() method: os.tcsetpgrp(fd, pg) Parameters fd -- This is the file descriptor. pg -- This set the process group to pg. Return Value This method does not return any value. Example The following example shows the usage of tcsetpgrp() method. # !/usr/bin/python import os, sys # Showing current directory print "Current working dir :%s" %os.getcwd() # Changing dir to /dev/tty fd = os.open("/dev/tty",os.O_RDONLY) f = os.tcgetpgrp(fd) # Showing the process group print "the process group associated is: " print f
- 293. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning # Setting the process group os.tcsetpgrp(fd,2672) print "done" os.close(fd) print "Closed the file successfully!!" Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Current working dir is :/tmp the process group associated is: 2672 done Closed the file successfully!! os.tempnam([dir[, prefix]]) Description The method tempnam() returns a unique path name that is reasonable for creating a temporary file. Syntax Following is the syntax for tempnam() method: os.tempnam(dir, prefix) Parameters dir -- This is the dir where the temporary filename will be created. prefix -- This is the prefix of the generated temporary filename. Return Value This method returns a unique path. Example The following example shows the usage of tempnam() method. # !/usr/bin/python import os, sys # prefix is tuts1 of the generated file tmpfn = os.tempnam('/tmp/tutorialsdir,'tuts1') print "This is the unique path:" print tmpfn Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: This is the unique path: /tmp/tutorialsdir/tuts1IbAco8
- 294. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning os.tmpfile() Description The method tmpfile() returns a new temporary file object opened in update mode (w+b). The file has no directory entries associated with it and will be deleted automatically once there are no file descriptors. Syntax Following is the syntax for tmpfile() method: os.tmpfile Parameters NA Return Value This method returns a new temporary file object Example The following example shows the usage of tmpfile() method. # !/usr/bin/python import os # The file has no directory entries associated with it and will be # deleted automatically once there are no file descriptors. tmpfile = os.tmpfile() tmpfile.write('Temporary newfile is here.....') tmpfile.seek(0) print tmpfile.read() tmpfile.close Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Temporary newfile is here..... os.tmpnam() Description The method tmpnam() returns a unique path name that is reasonable for creating a temporary file. Syntax Following is the syntax for tmpnam() method: os.tmpnam()
- 295. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Parameters NA Return Value This method returns a unique path name. Example The following example shows the usage of tmpnam() method. # !/usr/bin/python import os, sys # Temporary file generated in current directory tmpfn = os.tmpnam() print "This is the unique path:" print tmpfn Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: This is the unique path: /tmp/fileUFojpd os.ttyname(fd) Description The method ttyname() returns a string, which specifies the terminal device associated with fd. If fd is not associated with a terminal device, an exception is raised. Syntax Following is the syntax for ttyname() method: os.ttyname(fd) Parameters fd -- This is the file descriptor. Return Value This method returns a string which specifies the terminal device. Example The following example shows the usage of ttyname() method. # !/usr/bin/python import os, sys # Showing current directory print "Current working dir :%s" %os.getcwd()
- 296. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning # Changing dir to /dev/tty fd = os.open("/dev/tty",os.O_RDONLY) p = os.ttyname(fd) print "the terminal device associated is: " print p print "done!!" os.close(fd) print "Closed the file successfully!!" Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: Current working dir is :/tmp the terminal device associated is: /dev/tty done!! Closed the file successfully!! os.unlink(path) Description The method unlink() removes(delete) the file path. If the path is a directory, OSError is raised. Syntax Following is the syntax for unlink() method: os.unlink(path) Parameters path -- This is the path, which is to be removed. Return Value This method does not return any value. Example The following example shows the usage of unlink() method. # !/usr/bin/python import os, sys # listing directories print "The dir is: %s" %os.listdir(os.getcwd()) os.unlink("aa.txt") # listing directories after removing path print "The dir after removal of path : %s" %os.listdir(os.getcwd()) Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result:
- 297. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning The dir is: [ 'a1.txt','aa.txt','resume.doc','a3.py','tutorialsdir','amrood.admin' ] The dir after removal of path : [ 'a1.txt','resume.doc','a3.py','tutorialsdir','amrood.admin' ] os.utime(path, times) Description The method utime() sets the access and modified times of the file specified by path. Syntax Following is the syntax for utime() method: os.utime(path, times) Parameters path -- This is the path of the file. times -- This is the file access and modified time. If times is none, then the file access and modified times are set to the current time. The parameter times consists of row in the form of (atime, mtime) i.e., (accesstime, modifiedtime). Return Value This method does not return any value. Example The following example shows the usage of utime() method. # !/usr/bin/python import os, sys # Showing stat information of file stinfo = os.stat('a2.py') print stinfo # Using os.stat to recieve atime and mtime of file print "access time of a2.py: %s" %stinfo.st_atime print "modified time of a2.py: %s" %stinfo.st_mtime # Modifying atime and mtime os.utime("a2.py",(1330712280, 1330712292)) print "done!!" Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: posix.stat_result(st_mode=33188, st_ino=3940649674337682L, st_dev=277923425L, st _nlink=1, st_uid=400, st_gid=401, st_size=335L, st_atime=1330498070, st_mtime=13 30498074, st_ctime=1330498065) access time of a2.py: 1330498070 modified time of a2.py: 1330498074 done!!
- 298. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning os.walk(top[, topdown=True[, onerror=None[, followlinks=False]]]) Description The method walk() generates the file names in a directory tree by walking the tree either top-down or bottom-up. Syntax Following is the syntax for walk() method: os.walk(top[, topdown=True[, onerror=None[, followlinks=False]]]) Parameters top -- Each directory rooted at directory, yields 3-tuples, i.e., (dirpath, dirnames, filenames) topdown -- If optional argument topdown is True or not specified, directories are scanned from top-down. If topdown is set to False, directories are scanned from bottom-up. onerror -- This can show error to continue with the walk, or raise the exception to abort the walk. followlinks -- This visits directories pointed to by symlinks, if set to true. Return Value This method does not return any value. Example The following example shows the usage of walk() method. # !/usr/bin/python import os for root, dirs, files in os.walk(".", topdown=False): for name in files: print(os.path.join(root, name)) for name in dirs: print(os.path.join(root, name)) Let us compile and run the above program, this will scan all the directories and subdirectories bottom-to-up ./tmp/test.py ./.bash_logout ./amrood.tar.gz ./.emacs ./httpd.conf ./www.tar.gz ./mysql.tar.gz ./test.py ./.bashrc ./.bash_history ./.bash_profile ./tmp If you will change the value of topdown to True, then it will give you the following result: ./.bash_logout ./amrood.tar.gz ./.emacs
- 299. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning ./httpd.conf ./www.tar.gz ./mysql.tar.gz ./test.py ./.bashrc ./.bash_history ./.bash_profile ./tmp ./tmp/test.py os.write(fd, str) Description The method write() writes the string str to file descriptor fd. Return the number of bytes actually written. Syntax Following is the syntax for write() method: os.write(fd, str) Parameters fd -- This is the file descriptor. str -- This is the string to be written. Return Value This method returns the number of bytes actually written. Example The following example shows the usage of write() method. # !/usr/bin/python import os, sys # Open file fd = os.open("f1.txt",os.O_RDWR|os.CREAT) # Writing text ret = os.write(fd,"This is test") # ret consists of number of bytes written to f1.txt print "the number of bytes written: " print ret print "written successfully" # Close opened file os.close(fd) print "Closed the file successfully!!" Let us compile and run the above program, this will produce the following result: the number of bytes written: 12
- 300. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning written successfully Closed the file successfully!!
- 301. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Python Exceptions Python provides two very important features to handle any unexpected error in your Python programs and to add debugging capabilities in them: Exception Handling: Here is a list standard Exceptions available in Python: EXCEPTION NAME DESCRIPTION Exception Base class for all exceptions StopIteration Raised when the next() method of an iterator does not point to any object. SystemExit Raised by the sys.exit() function. StandardError Base class for all built-in exceptions except StopIteration and SystemExit. ArithmeticError Base class for all errors that occur for numeric calculation. OverflowError Raised when a calculation exceeds maximum limit for a numeric type. FloatingPointError Raised when a floating point calculation fails. ZeroDivisonError Raised when division or modulo by zero takes place for all numeric types. AssertionError Raised in case of failure of the Assert statement. AttributeError Raised in case of failure of attribute reference or assignment. EOFError Raised when there is no input from either the raw_input() or input() function and the end of file is reached. ImportError Raised when an import statement fails. KeyboardInterrupt Raised when the user interrupts program execution, usually by pressing Ctrl+c. LookupError Base class for all lookup errors. IndexError Raised when an index is not found in a sequence. KeyError Raised when the specified key is not found in the dictionary. CHAPTER 17
- 302. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning NameError Raised when an identifier is not found in the local or global namespace. UnboundLocalError Raised when trying to access a local variable in a function or method but no value has been assigned to it. EnvironmentError Base class for all exceptions that occur outside the Python environment. IOError Raised when an input/ output operation fails, such as the print statement or the open() function when trying to open a file that does not exist. OSError Raised for operating systemrelated errors. SyntaxError Raised when there is an error in Python syntax. IndentationError Raised when indentation is not specified properly. SystemError Raised when the interpreter finds an internal problem, but when this error is encountered the Python interpreter does not exit. SystemExit Raised when Python interpreter is quit by using the sys.exit() function. If not handled in the code, causes the interpreter to exit. TypeError Raised when an operation or function is attempted that is invalid for the specified data type. ValueError Raised when the built-in function for a data type has the valid type of arguments, but the arguments have invalid values specified. RuntimeError Raised when a generated error does not fall into any category. NotImplementedError Raised when an abstract method that needs to be implemented in an inherited class is not actually implemented. Assertions: An assertion is a sanity-check that you can turn on or turn off when you are done with your testing of the program. The easiest way to think of an assertion is to liken it to a raise-if statement (or to be more accurate, a raise-if-not statement). An expression is tested, and if the result comes up false, an exception is raised. Assertions are carried out by the assert statement, the newest keyword to Python, introduced in version 1.5. Programmers often place assertions at the start of a function to check for valid input, and after a function call to check for valid output. The assert Statement: When it encounters an assert statement, Python evaluates the accompanying expression, which is hopefully true. If the expression is false, Python raises an AssertionError exception. The syntax for assert is: assert Expression[, Arguments]
- 303. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning If the assertion fails, Python uses ArgumentExpression as the argument for the AssertionError. AssertionError exceptions can be caught and handled like any other exception using the try-except statement, but if not handled, they will terminate the program and produce a traceback. Example: Here is a function that converts a temperature from degrees Kelvin to degrees Fahrenheit. Since zero degrees Kelvin is as cold as it gets, the function bails out if it sees a negative temperature: #!/usr/bin/python def KelvinToFahrenheit(Temperature): assert (Temperature >= 0),"Colder than absolute zero!" return ((Temperature-273)*1.8)+32 print KelvinToFahrenheit(273) print int(KelvinToFahrenheit(505.78)) print KelvinToFahrenheit(-5) When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: 32.0 451 Traceback (most recent call last): File "test.py", line 9, in <module> print KelvinToFahrenheit(-5) File "test.py", line 4, in KelvinToFahrenheit assert (Temperature >= 0),"Colder than absolute zero!" AssertionError: Colder than absolute zero! What is Exception? An exception is an event, which occurs during the execution of a program, that disrupts the normal flow of the program's instructions. In general, when a Python script encounters a situation that it can't cope with, it raises an exception. An exception is a Python object that represents an error. When a Python script raises an exception, it must either handle the exception immediately otherwise it would terminate and come out. Handling an exception: If you have some suspicious code that may raise an exception, you can defend your program by placing the suspicious code in a try: block. After the try: block, include an except: statement, followed by a block of code which handles the problem as elegantly as possible. SYNTAX: Here is simple syntax of try....except...else blocks: try: You do your operations here; ...................... except ExceptionI: If there is ExceptionI, then execute this block. except ExceptionII: If there is ExceptionII, then execute this block. ...................... else: If there is no exception then execute this block.
- 304. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Here are few important points about the above-mentioned syntax: A single try statement can have multiple except statements. This is useful when the try block contains statements that may throw different types of exceptions. You can also provide a generic except clause, which handles any exception. After the except clause(s), you can include an else-clause. The code in the else-block executes if the code in the try: block does not raise an exception. The else-block is a good place for code that does not need the try: block's protection. EXAMPLE: Here is simple example, which opens a file and writes the content in the file and comes out gracefully because there is no problem at all: #!/usr/bin/python try: fh = open("testfile", "w") fh.write("This is my test file for exception handling!!") except IOError: print "Error: can't find file or read data" else: print "Written content in the file successfully" fh.close() This will produce the following result: Written content in the file successfully EXAMPLE: Here is one more simple example, which tries to open a file where you do not have permission to write in the file, so it raises an exception: #!/usr/bin/python try: fh = open("testfile", "w") fh.write("This is my test file for exception handling!!") except IOError: print "Error: can't find file or read data" else: print "Written content in the file successfully" This will produce the following result: Error: can't find file or read data The except clause with no exceptions: You can also use the except statement with no exceptions defined as follows: try:
- 305. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning You do your operations here; ...................... except: If there is any exception, then execute this block. ...................... else: If there is no exception then execute this block. This kind of a try-except statement catches all the exceptions that occur. Using this kind of try-except statement is not considered a good programming practice though, because it catches all exceptions but does not make the programmer identify the root cause of the problem that may occur. The except clause with multiple exceptions: You can also use the same except statement to handle multiple exceptions as follows: try: You do your operations here; ...................... except(Exception1[, Exception2[,...ExceptionN]]]): If there is any exception from the given exception list, then execute this block. ...................... else: If there is no exception then execute this block. The try-finally clause: You can use a finally: block along with a try: block. The finally block is a place to put any code that must execute, whether the try-block raised an exception or not. The syntax of the try-finally statement is this: try: You do your operations here; ...................... Due to any exception, this may be skipped. finally: This would always be executed. ...................... Note that you can provide except clause(s), or a finally clause, but not both. You can not use else clause as well along with a finally clause. EXAMPLE: #!/usr/bin/python try: fh = open("testfile", "w") fh.write("This is my test file for exception handling!!") finally: print "Error: can't find file or read data" If you do not have permission to open the file in writing mode, then this will produce the following result: Error: can't find file or read data Same example can be written more cleanly as follows:
- 306. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning #!/usr/bin/python try: fh = open("testfile", "w") try: fh.write("This is my test file for exception handling!!") finally: print "Going to close the file" fh.close() except IOError: print "Error: can't find file or read data" When an exception is thrown in the try block, the execution immediately passes to the finally block. After all the statements in the finally block are executed, the exception is raised again and is handled in the except statements if present in the next higher layer of the try-except statement. Argument of an Exception: An exception can have an argument, which is a value that gives additional information about the problem. The contents of the argument vary by exception. You capture an exception's argument by supplying a variable in the except clause as follows: try: You do your operations here; ...................... except ExceptionType, Argument: You can print value of Argument here... If you are writing the code to handle a single exception, you can have a variable follow the name of the exception in the except statement. If you are trapping multiple exceptions, you can have a variable follow the tuple of the exception. This variable will receive the value of the exception mostly containing the cause of the exception. The variable can receive a single value or multiple values in the form of a tuple. This tuple usually contains the error string, the error number, and an error location. EXAMPLE: Following is an example for a single exception: #!/usr/bin/python # Define a function here. def temp_convert(var): try: return int(var) except ValueError, Argument: print "The argument does not contain numbersn", Argument # Call above function here. temp_convert("xyz"); This would produce the following result: The argument does not contain numbers invalid literal for int() with base 10: 'xyz'
- 307. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Raising an exceptions: You can raise exceptions in several ways by using the raise statement. The general syntax for the raise statement. SYNTAX: raise [Exception [, args [, traceback]]] Here, Exception is the type of exception (for example, NameError) and argument is a value for the exception argument. The argument is optional; if not supplied, the exception argument is None. The final argument, traceback, is also optional (and rarely used in practice), and if present, is the traceback object used for the exception. EXAMPLE: An exception can be a string, a class or an object. Most of the exceptions that the Python core raises are classes, with an argument that is an instance of the class. Defining new exceptions is quite easy and can be done as follows: def functionName( level ): if level < 1: raise "Invalid level!", level # The code below to this would not be executed # if we raise the exception Note: In order to catch an exception, an "except" clause must refer to the same exception thrown either class object or simple string. For example, to capture above exception, we must write our except clause as follows: try: Business Logic here... except "Invalid level!": Exception handling here... else: Rest of the code here... User-Defined Exceptions: Python also allows you to create your own exceptions by deriving classes from the standard built-in exceptions. Here is an example related to RuntimeError. Here, a class is created that is subclassed from RuntimeError. This is useful when you need to display more specific information when an exception is caught. In the try block, the user-defined exception is raised and caught in the except block. The variable e is used to create an instance of the class Networkerror. class Networkerror(RuntimeError): def __init__(self, arg): self.args = arg So once you defined above class, you can raise your exception as follows: try: raise Networkerror("Bad hostname") except Networkerror,e: print e.args
- 308. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Python Classes/Objects Python has been an object-oriented language from day one. Because of this, creating and using classes and objects are downright easy. This chapter helps you become an expert in using Python's object-oriented programming support. If you don't have any previous experience with object-oriented (OO) programming, you may want to consult an introductory course on it or at least a tutorial of some sort so that you have a grasp of the basic concepts. However, here is small introduction of Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) to bring you at speed: Overview of OOP Terminology Class: A user-defined prototype for an object that defines a set of attributes that characterize any object of the class. The attributes are data members (class variables and instance variables) and methods, accessed via dot notation. Class variable: A variable that is shared by all instances of a class. Class variables are defined within a class but outside any of the class's methods. Class variables aren't used as frequently as instance variables are. Data member: A class variable or instance variable that holds data associated with a class and its objects. Function overloading: The assignment of more than one behavior to a particular function. The operation performed varies by the types of objects (arguments) involved. Instance variable: A variable that is defined inside a method and belongs only to the current instance of a class. Inheritance : The transfer of the characteristics of a class to other classes that are derived from it. Instance: An individual object of a certain class. An object obj that belongs to a class Circle, for example, is an instance of the class Circle. Instantiation : The creation of an instance of a class. Method : A special kind of function that is defined in a class definition. Object : A unique instance of a data structure that's defined by its class. An object comprises both data members (class variables and instance variables) and methods. Operator overloading: The assignment of more than one function to a particular operator. Creating Classes: The class statement creates a new class definition. The name of the class immediately follows the keyword class followed by a colon as follows: class ClassName: 'Optional class documentation string' CHAPTER 18
- 309. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning class_suite The class has a documentation string, which can be accessed via ClassName.__doc__. The class_suite consists of all the component statements defining class members, data attributes and functions. EXAMPLE: Following is the example of a simple Python class: class Employee: 'Common base class for all employees' empCount = 0 def __init__(self, name, salary): self.name = name self.salary = salary Employee.empCount += 1 def displayCount(self): print "Total Employee %d" % Employee.empCount def displayEmployee(self): print "Name : ", self.name, ", Salary: ", self.salary The variable empCount is a class variable whose value would be shared among all instances of a this class. This can be accessed as Employee.empCount from inside the class or outside the class. The first method __init__() is a special method, which is called class constructor or initialization method that Python calls when you create a new instance of this class. You declare other class methods like normal functions with the exception that the first argument to each method is self. Python adds the self argument to the list for you; you don't need to include it when you call the methods. Creating instance objects: To create instances of a class, you call the class using class name and pass in whatever arguments its __init__ method accepts. "This would create first object of Employee class" emp1 = Employee("Zara", 2000) "This would create second object of Employee class" emp2 = Employee("Manni", 5000) Accessing attributes: You access the object's attributes using the dot operator with object. Class variable would be accessed using class name as follows: emp1.displayEmployee() emp2.displayEmployee() print "Total Employee %d" % Employee.empCount Now, putting all the concepts together: #!/usr/bin/python class Employee:
- 310. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning 'Common base class for all employees' empCount = 0 def __init__(self, name, salary): self.name = name self.salary = salary Employee.empCount += 1 def displayCount(self): print "Total Employee %d" % Employee.empCount def displayEmployee(self): print "Name : ", self.name, ", Salary: ", self.salary "This would create first object of Employee class" emp1 = Employee("Zara", 2000) "This would create second object of Employee class" emp2 = Employee("Manni", 5000) emp1.displayEmployee() emp2.displayEmployee() print "Total Employee %d" % Employee.empCount When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: Name : Zara ,Salary: 2000 Name : Manni ,Salary: 5000 Total Employee 2 You can add, remove or modify attributes of classes and objects at any time: emp1.age = 7 # Add an 'age' attribute. emp1.age = 8 # Modify 'age' attribute. del emp1.age # Delete 'age' attribute. Instead of using the normal statements to access attributes, you can use following functions: The getattr(obj, name[, default]) : to access the attribute of object. The hasattr(obj,name) : to check if an attribute exists or not. The setattr(obj,name,value) : to set an attribute. If attribute does not exist, then it would be created. The delattr(obj, name) : to delete an attribute. hasattr(emp1, 'age') # Returns true if 'age' attribute exists getattr(emp1, 'age') # Returns value of 'age' attribute setattr(emp1, 'age', 8) # Set attribute 'age' at 8 delattr(empl, 'age') # Delete attribute 'age' Built-In Class Attributes: Every Python class keeps following built-in attributes and they can be accessed using dot operator like any other attribute: __dict__ : Dictionary containing the class's namespace. __doc__ : Class documentation string or None if undefined. __name__: Class name. __module__: Module name in which the class is defined. This attribute is "__main__" in interactive mode. __bases__ : A possibly empty tuple containing the base classes, in the order of their occurrence in the base class list. For the above class let's try to access all these attributes:
- 311. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning print "Employee.__doc__:", Employee.__doc__ print "Employee.__name__:", Employee.__name__ print "Employee.__module__:", Employee.__module__ print "Employee.__bases__:", Employee.__bases__ print "Employee.__dict__:", Employee.__dict__ When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: Employee.__doc__: Common base class for all employees Employee.__name__: Employee Employee.__module__: __main__ Employee.__bases__: () Employee.__dict__: {'__module__': '__main__', 'displayCount': <function displayCount at 0xb7c84994>, 'empCount': 2, 'displayEmployee': <function displayEmployee at 0xb7c8441c>, '__doc__': 'Common base class for all employees', '__init__': <function __init__ at 0xb7c846bc>} Destroying Objects (Garbage Collection): Python deletes unneeded objects (built-in types or class instances) automatically to free memory space. The process by which Python periodically reclaims blocks of memory that no longer are in use is termed garbage collection. Python's garbage collector runs during program execution and is triggered when an object's reference count reaches zero. An object's reference count changes as the number of aliases that point to it changes. An object's reference count increases when it's assigned a new name or placed in a container (list, tuple or dictionary). The object's reference count decreases when it's deleted with del, its reference is reassigned, or its reference goes out of scope. When an object's reference count reaches zero, Python collects it automatically. a = 40 # Create object <40> b = a # Increase ref. count of <40> c = [b] # Increase ref. count of <40> del a # Decrease ref. count of <40> b = 100 # Decrease ref. count of <40> c[0] = -1 # Decrease ref. count of <40> You normally won't notice when the garbage collector destroys an orphaned instance and reclaims its space. But a class can implement the special method __del__(), called a destructor, that is invoked when the instance is about to be destroyed. This method might be used to clean up any nonmemory resources used by an instance. EXAMPLE: This __del__() destructor prints the class name of an instance that is about to be destroyed: #!/usr/bin/python class Point: def __init( self, x=0, y=0): self.x = x self.y = y def __del__(self): class_name = self.__class__.__name__ print class_name, "destroyed" pt1 = Point() pt2 = pt1
- 312. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning pt3 = pt1 print id(pt1), id(pt2), id(pt3) # prints the ids of the obejcts del pt1 del pt2 del pt3 When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: 3083401324 3083401324 3083401324 Point destroyed Note: Ideally, you should define your classes in separate file, then you should import them in your main program file using import statement. Kindly check Python - Modules chapter for more details on importing modules and classes. Class Inheritance: Instead of starting from scratch, you can create a class by deriving it from a preexisting class by listing the parent class in parentheses after the new class name. The child class inherits the attributes of its parent class, and you can use those attributes as if they were defined in the child class. A child class can also override data members and methods from the parent. SYNTAX: Derived classes are declared much like their parent class; however, a list of base classes to inherit from are given after the class name: class SubClassName (ParentClass1[, ParentClass2, ...]): 'Optional class documentation string' class_suite EXAMPLE: #!/usr/bin/python class Parent: # define parent class parentAttr = 100 def __init__(self): print "Calling parent constructor" def parentMethod(self): print 'Calling parent method' def setAttr(self, attr): Parent.parentAttr = attr def getAttr(self): print "Parent attribute :", Parent.parentAttr class Child(Parent): # define child class def __init__(self): print "Calling child constructor" def childMethod(self): print 'Calling child method' c = Child() # instance of child
- 313. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning c.childMethod() # child calls its method c.parentMethod() # calls parent's method c.setAttr(200) # again call parent's method c.getAttr() # again call parent's method When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: Calling child constructor Calling child method Calling parent method Parent attribute : 200 Similar way, you can drive a class from multiple parent classes as follows: class A: # define your class A ..... class B: # define your calss B ..... class C(A, B): # subclass of A and B ..... You can use issubclass() or isinstance() functions to check a relationships of two classes and instances. The issubclass(sub, sup) boolean function returns true if the given subclass sub is indeed a subclass of the superclass sup. The isinstance(obj, Class) boolean function returns true if obj is an instance of class Class or is an instance of a subclass of Class Overriding Methods: You can always override your parent class methods. One reason for overriding parent's methods is because you may want special or different functionality in your subclass. EXAMPLE: #!/usr/bin/python class Parent: # define parent class def myMethod(self): print 'Calling parent method' class Child(Parent): # define child class def myMethod(self): print 'Calling child method' c = Child() # instance of child c.myMethod() # child calls overridden method When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: Calling child method Base Overloading Methods: Following table lists some generic functionality that you can override in your own classes:
- 314. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning SN Method, Description & Sample Call 1 __init__ ( self [,args...] ) Constructor (with any optional arguments) Sample Call : obj = className(args) 2 __del__( self ) Destructor, deletes an object Sample Call : dell obj 3 __repr__( self ) Evaluatable string representation Sample Call : repr(obj) 4 __str__( self ) Printable string representation Sample Call : str(obj) 5 __cmp__ ( self, x ) Object comparison Sample Call : cmp(obj, x) Overloading Operators: Suppose you've created a Vector class to represent two-dimensional vectors, what happens when you use the plus operator to add them? Most likely Python will yell at you. You could, however, define the __add__ method in your class to perform vector addition and then the plus operator would behave as per expectation: EXAMPLE: #!/usr/bin/python class Vector: def __init__(self, a, b): self.a = a self.b = b def __str__(self): return 'Vector (%d, %d)' % (self.a, self.b) def __add__(self,other): return Vector(self.a + other.a, self.b + other.b) v1 = Vector(2,10) v2 = Vector(5,-2) print v1 + v2 When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: Vector(7,8) Data Hiding: An object's attributes may or may not be visible outside the class definition. For these cases, you can name attributes with a double underscore prefix, and those attributes will not be directly visible to outsiders.
- 315. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning EXAMPLE: #!/usr/bin/python class JustCounter: __secretCount = 0 def count(self): self.__secretCount += 1 print self.__secretCount counter = JustCounter() counter.count() counter.count() print counter.__secretCount When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: 1 2 Traceback (most recent call last): File "test.py", line 12, in <module> print counter.__secretCount AttributeError: JustCounter instance has no attribute '__secretCount' Python protects those members by internally changing the name to include the class name. You can access such attributes as object._className__attrName. If you would replace your last line as following, then it would work for you: print counter._JustCounter__secretCount When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: 1 2 2
- 316. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Python Regular Expressions Aregular expression is a special sequence of characters that helps you match or find other strings or sets of strings, using a specialized syntax held in a pattern. Regular expressions are widely used in UNIX world. The module re provides full support for Perl-like regular expressions in Python. The re module raises the exception re.error if an error occurs while compiling or using a regular expression. We would cover two important functions, which would be used to handle regular expressions. But a small thing first: There are various characters, which would have special meaning when they are used in regular expression. To avoid any confusion while dealing with regular expressions, we would use Raw Strings as r'expression'. The match Function This function attempts to match RE pattern to string with optional flags. Here is the syntax for this function: re.match(pattern, string, flags=0) Here is the description of the parameters: Parameter Description Pattern This is the regular expression to be matched. String This is the string, which would be searched to match the pattern at the beginning of string. Flags You can specify different flags using bitwise OR (|). These are modifiers, which are listed in the table below. The re.match function returns a match object on success, None on failure. We would use group(num) or groups() function of match object to get matched expression. Match Object Methods Description group(num=0) This method returns entire match (or specific subgroup num) groups() This method returns all matching subgroups in a tuple (empty if there weren't any) CHAPTER 19
- 317. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning EXAMPLE: #!/usr/bin/python import re line = "Cats are smarter than dogs"; matchObj = re.match( r'(.*) are (.*?) .*', line, re.M|re.I) if matchObj: print "matchObj.group() : ", matchObj.group() print "matchObj.group(1) : ", matchObj.group(1) print "matchObj.group(2) : ", matchObj.group(2) else: print "No match!!" When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: matchObj.group(): Cats are matchObj.group(1) : Cats matchObj.group(2) : smarter The search Function This function searches for first occurrence of RE pattern within string with optional flags. Here is the syntax for this function: re.search(pattern, string, flags=0) Here is the description of the parameters: Parameter Description pattern This is the regular expression to be matched. string This is the string, which would be searched to match the pattern anywhere in the string. flags You can specify different flags using bitwise OR (|). These are modifiers, which are listed in the table below. The re.search function returns a match object on success, None on failure. We would use group(num) or groups() function of match object to get matched expression. Match Object Methods Description group(num=0) This method returns entire match (or specific subgroup num) groups() This method returns all matching subgroups in a tuple (empty if there weren't any) EXAMPLE: #!/usr/bin/python import re
- 318. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning line = "Cats are smarter than dogs"; matchObj = re.search( r'(.*) are (.*?) .*', line, re.M|re.I) if matchObj: print "matchObj.group() : ", matchObj.group() print "matchObj.group(1) : ", matchObj.group(1) print "matchObj.group(2) : ", matchObj.group(2) else: print "No match!!" When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: matchObj.group(): Cats are matchObj.group(1) : Cats matchObj.group(2) : smarter Matching vs Searching: Python offers two different primitive operations based on regular expressions: match checks for a match only at the beginning of the string, while search checks for a match anywhere in the string (this is what Perl does by default). EXAMPLE: #!/usr/bin/python import re line = "Cats are smarter than dogs"; matchObj = re.match( r'dogs', line, re.M|re.I) if matchObj: print "match --> matchObj.group() : ", matchObj.group() else: print "No match!!" matchObj = re.search( r'dogs', line, re.M|re.I) if matchObj: print "search --> matchObj.group() : ", matchObj.group() else: print "No match!!" When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: No match!! search --> matchObj.group() : dogs Search and Replace: Some of the most important re methods that use regular expressions is sub. SYNTAX: re.sub(pattern, repl, string, max=0) This method replaces all occurrences of the RE pattern in string with repl, substituting all occurrences unless max provided. This method would return modified string.
- 319. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning EXAMPLE: Following is the example: #!/usr/bin/python import re phone = "2004-959-559 #This is Phone Number" # Delete Python-style comments num = re.sub(r'#.*$', "", phone) print "Phone Num : ", num # Remove anything other than digits num = re.sub(r'D', "", phone) print "Phone Num : ", num When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: Phone Num : 2004-959-559 Phone Num : 2004959559 Regular-expression Modifiers - Option Flags Regular expression literals may include an optional modifier to control various aspects of matching. The modifiers are specified as an optional flag. You can provide multiple modifiers using exclusive OR (|), as shown previously and may be represented by one of these: Modifier Description re.I Performs case-insensitive matching. re.L Interprets words according to the current locale. This interpretation affects the alphabetic group (w and W), as well as word boundary behavior (b and B). re.M Makes $ match the end of a line (not just the end of the string) and makes ^ match the start of any line (not just the start of the string). re.S Makes a period (dot) match any character, including a newline. re.U Interprets letters according to the Unicode character set. This flag affects the behavior of w, W, b, B. re.X Permits "cuter" regular expression syntax. It ignores whitespace (except inside a set [] or when escaped by a backslash) and treats unescaped # as a comment marker. Regular-expression patterns: Except for control characters, (+ ? . * ^ $ ( ) [ ] { } | ), all characters match themselves. You can escape a control character by preceding it with a backslash. Following table lists the regular expression syntax that is available in Python: Pattern Description ^ Matches beginning of line.
- 320. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning $ Matches end of line. . Matches any single character except newline. Using m option allows it to match newline as well. [...] Matches any single character in brackets. [^...] Matches any single character not in brackets re* Matches 0 or more occurrences of preceding expression. re+ Matches 1 or more occurrence of preceding expression. re? Matches 0 or 1 occurrence of preceding expression. re{ n} Matches exactly n number of occurrences of preceding expression. re{ n,} Matches n or more occurrences of preceding expression. re{ n, m} Matches at least n and at most m occurrences of preceding expression. a| b Matches either a or b. (re) Groups regular expressions and remembers matched text. (?imx) Temporarily toggles on i, m, or x options within a regular expression. If in parentheses, only that area is affected. (?-imx) Temporarily toggles off i, m, or x options within a regular expression. If in parentheses, only that area is affected. (?: re) Groups regular expressions without remembering matched text. (?imx: re) Temporarily toggles on i, m, or x options within parentheses. (?-imx: re) Temporarily toggles off i, m, or x options within parentheses. (?#...) Comment. (?= re) Specifies position using a pattern. Doesn't have a range. (?! re) Specifies position using pattern negation. Doesn't have a range. (?> re) Matches independent pattern without backtracking. w Matches word characters. W Matches nonword characters. s Matches whitespace. Equivalent to [tnrf]. S Matches nonwhitespace. d Matches digits. Equivalent to [0-9]. D Matches nondigits. A Matches beginning of string. Z Matches end of string. If a newline exists, it matches just before newline.
- 321. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning z Matches end of string. G Matches point where last match finished. b Matches word boundaries when outside brackets. Matches backspace (0x08) when inside brackets. B Matches nonword boundaries. n, t, etc. Matches newlines, carriage returns, tabs, etc. 1...9 Matches nth grouped subexpression. 10 Matches nth grouped subexpression if it matched already. Otherwise refers to the octal representation of a character code. Regular-expressionExamples Literal characters: Example Description python Match "python". Character classes: Example Description [Pp]ython Match "Python" or "python" rub[ye] Match "ruby" or "rube" [aeiou] Match any one lowercase vowel [0-9] Match any digit; same as [0123456789] [a-z] Match any lowercase ASCII letter [A-Z] Match any uppercase ASCII letter [a-zA-Z0-9] Match any of the above [^aeiou] Match anything other than a lowercase vowel [^0-9] Match anything other than a digit Special Character Classes: Example Description . Match any character except newline d Match a digit: [0-9] D Match a nondigit: [^0-9]
- 322. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning s Match a whitespace character: [ trnf] S Match nonwhitespace: [^ trnf] w Match a single word character: [A-Za-z0-9_] W Match a nonword character: [^A-Za-z0-9_] Repetition Cases: Example Description ruby? Match "rub" or "ruby": the y is optional ruby* Match "rub" plus 0 or more ys ruby+ Match "rub" plus 1 or more ys d{3} Match exactly 3 digits d{3,} Match 3 or more digits d{3,5} Match 3, 4, or 5 digits Nongreedy repetition: This matches the smallest number of repetitions: Example Description <.*> Greedy repetition: matches "<python>perl>" <.*?> Nongreedy: matches "<python>" in "<python>perl>" Grouping with parentheses: Example Description Dd+ No group: + repeats d (Dd)+ Grouped: + repeats Dd pair ([Pp]ython(, )?)+ Match "Python", "Python, python, python", etc. Backreferences: This matches a previously matched group again: Example Description ([Pp])ython&1ails Match python&pails or Python&Pails (['"])[^1]*1 Single or double-quoted string. 1 matches whatever the 1st group matched . 2 matches whatever the 2nd group matched, etc.
- 323. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Alternatives: Example Description python|perl Match "python" or "perl" rub(y|le)) Match "ruby" or "ruble" Python(!+|?) "Python" followed by one or more ! or one ? Anchors: This needs to specify match position. Example Description ^Python Match "Python" at the start of a string or internal line Python$ Match "Python" at the end of a string or line APython Match "Python" at the start of a string PythonZ Match "Python" at the end of a string bPythonb Match "Python" at a word boundary brubB B is nonword boundary: match "rub" in "rube" and "ruby" but not alone Python(?=!) Match "Python", if followed by an exclamation point Python(?!!) Match "Python", if not followed by an exclamation point Special syntax with parentheses: Example Description R(?#comment) Matches "R". All the rest is a comment R(?i)uby Case-insensitive while matching "uby" R(?i:uby) Same as above rub(?:y|le)) Group only without creating 1 backreference
- 324. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Python CGI Programming What is CGI? It is a set of standards which in,clude: The Common Gateway Interface, or CGI, is a set of standards that define how information is exchanged between the web server and a custom script. The CGI specs are currently maintained by the NCSA and NCSA defines CGI is as follows: The Common Gateway Interface, or CGI, is a standard for external gateway programs to interface with information servers such as HTTP servers. The current version is CGI/1.1 and CGI/1.2 is under progress. Web Browsing To understand the concept of CGI, lets see what happens when we click a hyper link to browse a particular web page or URL. Your browser contacts the HTTP web server and demands for the URL i.e., filename. Web Server will parse the URL and will look for the filename in if it finds that file then sends it back to the browser, otherwise sends an error message indicating that you have requested a wrong file. Web browser takes response from web server and displays either the received file or error message. However, it is possible to set up the HTTP server so that whenever a file in a certain directory is requested that file is not sent back; instead it is executed as a program, and whatever that program outputs is sent back for your browser to display. This function is called the Common Gateway Interface or CGI and the programs are called CGI scripts. These CGI programs can be a Python Script, PERL Script, Shell Script, C or C++ program, etc. CHAPTER 20
- 325. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning CGI Architecture Diagram Web Server Support & Configuration Before you proceed with CGI Programming, make sure that your Web Server supports CGI and it is configured to handle CGI Programs. All the CGI Programs to be executed by the HTTP server are kept in a pre-configured directory. This directory is called CGI Directory and by convention it is named as /var/www/cgi-bin. By convention, CGI files will have extention as .cgi,ss but you can keep your files with python extension .py as well. By default, the Linux server is configured to run only the scripts in the cgi-bin directory in /var/www. If you want to specify any other directory to run your CGI scripts, comment the following lines in the httpd.conf file: <Directory "/var/www/cgi-bin"> AllowOverride None Options ExecCGI Order allow,deny Allow from all </Directory> <Directory "/var/www/cgi-bin"> Options All </Directory> Here, I assumed that you have Web Server up and running successfully and you are able to run any other CGI program like Perl or Shell, etc. First CGI Program Here is a simple link, which is linked to a CGI script called hello.py. This file is being kept in /var/www/cgi-bin directory and it has following content. Before running your CGI program, make sure you have change mode of file using chmod 755 hello.py UNIX command to make file executable. #!/usr/bin/python print "Content-type:text/htmlrnrn" print '<html>' print '<head>' print '<title>Hello Word - First CGI Program</title>' print '</head>' print '<body>' print '<h2>Hello Word! This is my first CGI program</h2>' print '</body>' print '</html>' If you click hello.py, then this produces the following output:
- 326. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Content-type:text/html Hello Word! This is my first CGI program This hello.py script is a simple Python script, which is writing its output on STDOUT file i.e., screen. There is one important and extra feature available which is first line to be printed Content-type:text/htmlrnrn. This line is sent back to the browser and specify the content type to be displayed on the browser screen. Now, you must have understood basic concept of CGI and you can write many complicated CGI programs using Python. This script can interact with any other exertnal system also to exchange information such as RDBMS. HTTP Header The line Content-type:text/htmlrnrn is part of HTTP header which is sent to the browser to understand the content. All the HTTP header will be in the following form: HTTP Field Name: Field Content For Example Content-type: text/htmlrnrn There are few other important HTTP headers, which you will use frequently in your CGI Programming. Header Description Content-type: A MIME string defining the format of the file being returned. Example is Content- type:text/html Expires: Date The date the information becomes invalid. This should be used by the browser to decide when a page needs to be refreshed. A valid date string should be in the format 01 Jan 1998 12:00:00 GMT. Location: URL The URL that should be returned instead of the URL requested. You can use this field to redirect a request to any HTML file. Last-modified: Date The date of last modification of the resource. Content-length: N The length, in bytes, of the data being returned. The browser uses this value to report the estimated download time for a file. Set-Cookie: String Set the cookie passed through the string CGI Environment Variables All the CGI program will have access to the following environment variables. These variables play an important role while writing any CGI program. Variable Name Description CONTENT_TYPE The data type of the content. Used when the client is sending attached content to the server. For example, file upload, etc. CONTENT_LENGTH The length of the query information. It's available only for POST requests. HTTP_COOKIE Returns the set cookies in the form of key & value pair. HTTP_USER_AGENT The User-Agent request-header field contains information about the user agent
- 327. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning originating the request. Its name of the web browser. PATH_INFO The path for the CGI script. QUERY_STRING The URL-encoded information that is sent with GET method request. REMOTE_ADDR The IP address of the remote host making the request. This can be useful for logging or for authentication purpose. REMOTE_HOST The fully qualified name of the host making the request. If this information is not available then REMOTE_ADDR can be used to get IR address. REQUEST_METHOD The method used to make the request. The most common methods are GET and POST. SCRIPT_FILENAME The full path to the CGI script. SCRIPT_NAME The name of the CGI script. SERVER_NAME The server's hostname or IP Address SERVER_SOFTWARE The name and version of the software the server is running. Here is small CGI program to list out all the CGI variables. Click this link to see the result Get Environment #!/usr/bin/python import os print "Content-type: text/htmlrnrn"; print "<font size=+1>Environment</font><br>"; for param in os.environ.keys(): print "<b>%20s</b>: %s<br>" % (param, os.environ[param]) GET and POST Methods You must have come across many situations when you need to pass some information from your browser to web server and ultimately to your CGI Program. Most frequently, browser uses two methods two pass this information to web server. These methods are GET Method and POST Method. Passing Information using GET method: The GET method sends the encoded user information appended to the page request. The page and the encoded information are separated by the ? character as follows: http://www.test.com/cgi-bin/hello.py?key1=value1&key2=value2 The GET method is the default method to pass information from browser to web server and it produces a long string that appears in your browser's Location:box. Never use GET method if you have password or other sensitive information to pass to the server. The GET method has size limtation: only 1024 characters can be sent in a request string. The GET method sends information using QUERY_STRING header and will be accessible in your CGI Program through QUERY_STRING environment variable. You can pass information by simply concatenating key and value pairs along with any URL or you can use HTML <FORM> tags to pass information using GET method. Simple URL Example : Get Method Here is a simple URL, which will pass two values to hello_get.py program using GET method.
- 328. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning /cgi-bin/hello_get.py?first_name=ZARA&last_name=ALI Below is hello_get.py script to handle input given by web browser. We are going to use cgi module, which makes it very easy to access passed information: #!/usr/bin/python # Import modules for CGI handling import cgi, cgitb # Create instance of FieldStorage form = cgi.FieldStorage() # Get data from fields first_name = form.getvalue('first_name') last_name = form.getvalue('last_name') print "Content-type:text/htmlrnrn" print "<html>" print "<head>" print "<title>Hello - Second CGI Program</title>" print "</head>" print "<body>" print "<h2>Hello %s %s</h2>" % (first_name, last_name) print "</body>" print "</html>" This would generate the following result: Content-type:text/html Hello ZARAALI Simple FORM Example: GET Method Here is a simple example which passes two values using HTML FORM and submit button. We are going to use same CGI script hello_get.py to handle this input. <form action="/cgi-bin/hello_get.py" method="get"> First Name: <input type="text" name="first_name"> <br /> Last Name: <input type="text" name="last_name" /> <input type="submit" value="Submit" /> </form> Here is the actual output of the above form. You enter First and Last Name and then click submit button to see the result. First Name: Last Name: Submit Passing Information using POST method: A generally more reliable method of passing information to a CGI program is the POST method. This packages the information in exactly the same way as GET methods, but instead of sending it as a text string after a ? in the URL it sends it as a separate message. This message comes into the CGI script in the form of the standard input.
- 329. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Below is same hello_get.py script, which handles GET as well as POST method. #!/usr/bin/python # Import modules for CGI handling import cgi, cgitb # Create instance of FieldStorage form = cgi.FieldStorage() # Get data from fields first_name = form.getvalue('first_name') last_name = form.getvalue('last_name') print "Content-type:text/htmlrnrn" print "<html>" print "<head>" print "<title>Hello - Second CGI Program</title>" print "</head>" print "<body>" print "<h2>Hello %s %s</h2>" % (first_name, last_name) print "</body>" print "</html>" Let us take again same example as above which passes two values using HTML FORM and submit button. We are going to use same CGI script hello_get.py to handle this input. <form action="/cgi-bin/hello_get.py" method="post"> First Name: <input type="text" name="first_name"><br /> Last Name: <input type="text" name="last_name" /> <input type="submit" value="Submit" /> </form> Here is the actual output of the above form. You enter First and Last Name and then click submit button to see the result. First Name: Last Name: Submit Passing Checkbox Data to CGI Program Checkboxes are used when more than one option is required to be selected. Here is example HTML code for a form with two checkboxes: <form action="/cgi-bin/checkbox.cgi" method="POST" target="_blank"> <input type="checkbox" name="maths" value="on" /> Maths <input type="checkbox" name="physics" value="on" /> Physics <input type="submit" value="Select Subject" /> </form> The result of this code is the following form: Maths Physics Select Subject
- 330. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Below is checkbox.cgi script to handle input given by web browser for checkbox button. #!/usr/bin/python # Import modules for CGI handling import cgi, cgitb # Create instance of FieldStorage form = cgi.FieldStorage() # Get data from fields if form.getvalue('maths'): math_flag = "ON" else: math_flag = "OFF" if form.getvalue('physics'): physics_flag = "ON" else: physics_flag = "OFF" print "Content-type:text/htmlrnrn" print "<html>" print "<head>" print "<title>Checkbox - Third CGI Program</title>" print "</head>" print "<body>" print "<h2> CheckBox Maths is : %s</h2>" % math_flag print "<h2> CheckBox Physics is : %s</h2>" % physics_flag print "</body>" print "</html>" Passing Radio Button Data to CGI Program Radio Buttons are used when only one option is required to be selected. Here is example HTML code for a form with two radio buttons: <form action="/cgi-bin/radiobutton.py" method="post" target="_blank"> <input type="radio" name="subject" value="maths" /> Maths <input type="radio" name="subject" value="physics" /> Physics <input type="submit" value="Select Subject" /> </form> The result of this code is the following form: Maths Physics Select Subject Below is radiobutton.py script to handle input given by web browser for radio button: #!/usr/bin/python # Import modules for CGI handling import cgi, cgitb # Create instance of FieldStorage form = cgi.FieldStorage()
- 331. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning # Get data from fields if form.getvalue('subject'): subject = form.getvalue('subject') else: subject = "Not set" print "Content-type:text/htmlrnrn" print "<html>" print "<head>" print "<title>Radio - Fourth CGI Program</title>" print "</head>" print "<body>" print "<h2> Selected Subject is %s</h2>" % subject print "</body>" print "</html>" Passing Text Area Data to CGI Program TEXTAREA element is used when multiline text has to be passed to the CGI Program. Here is example HTML code for a form with a TEXTAREA box: <form action="/cgi-bin/textarea.py" method="post" target="_blank"> <textarea name="textcontent" cols="40" rows="4"> Type your text here... </textarea> <input type="submit" value="Submit" /> </form> The result of this code is the following form: Submit Below is textarea.cgi script to handle input given by web browser: #!/usr/bin/python # Import modules for CGI handling import cgi, cgitb # Create instance of FieldStorage form = cgi.FieldStorage() # Get data from fields if form.getvalue('textcontent'): text_content = form.getvalue('textcontent') else: text_content = "Not entered" print "Content-type:text/htmlrnrn" print "<html>" print "<head>"; print "<title>Text Area - Fifth CGI Program</title>"
- 332. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning print "</head>" print "<body>" print "<h2> Entered Text Content is %s</h2>" % text_content print "</body>" Passing Drop Down Box Data to CGI Program Drop Down Box is used when we have many options available but only one or two will be selected. Here is example HTML code for a form with one drop down box: <form action="/cgi-bin/dropdown.py" method="post" target="_blank"> <select name="dropdown"> <option value="Maths" selected>Maths</option> <option value="Physics">Physics</option> </select> <input type="submit" value="Submit"/> </form> The result of this code is the following form: Maths Submit Below is dropdown.py script to handle input given by web browser: #!/usr/bin/python # Import modules for CGI handling import cgi, cgitb # Create instance of FieldStorage form = cgi.FieldStorage() # Get data from fields if form.getvalue('dropdown'): subject = form.getvalue('dropdown') else: subject = "Not entered" print "Content-type:text/htmlrnrn" print "<html>" print "<head>" print "<title>Dropdown Box - Sixth CGI Program</title>" print "</head>" print "<body>" print "<h2> Selected Subject is %s</h2>" % subject print "</body>" print "</html>" Using Cookies in CGI HTTP protocol is a stateless protocol. But for a commercial website, it is required to maintain session information among different pages. For example, one user registration ends after completing many pages. But how to maintain user's session information across all the web pages. In many situations, using cookies is the most efficient method of remembering and tracking preferences, purchases, commissions, and other information required for better visitor experience or site statistics.
- 333. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning How It Works? Your server sends some data to the visitor's browser in the form of a cookie. The browser may accept the cookie. If it does, it is stored as a plain text record on the visitor's hard drive. Now, when the visitor arrives at another page on your site, the cookie is available for retrieval. Once retrieved, your server knows/remembers what was stored. Cookies are a plain text data record of 5 variable-length fields: Expires : The date the cookie will expire. If this is blank, the cookie will expire when the visitor quits the browser. Domain : The domain name of your site. Path : The path to the directory or web page that sets the cookie. This may be blank if you want to retrieve the cookie from any directory or page. Secure : If this field contains the word "secure", then the cookie may only be retrieved with a secure server. If this field is blank, no such restriction exists. Name=Value : Cookies are set and retrieved in the form of key and value pairs. Setting up Cookies It is very easy to send cookies to browser. These cookies will be sent along with HTTP Header before to Content- type field. Assuming you want to set UserID and Password as cookies. So cookies setting will be done as follows: #!/usr/bin/python print "Set-Cookie:UserID=XYZ;rn" print "Set-Cookie:Password=XYZ123;rn" print "Set-Cookie:Expires=Tuesday, 31-Dec-2007 23:12:40 GMT";rn" print "Set-Cookie:Domain=www.tutorialspoint.com;rn" print "Set-Cookie:Path=/perl;n" print "Content-type:text/htmlrnrn" ...........Rest of the HTML Content.... From this example, you must have understood how to set cookies. We use Set-Cookie HTTP header to set cookies. Here, it is optional to set cookies attributes like Expires, Domain and Path. It is notable that cookies are set before sending magic line "Content-type:text/htmlrnrn. Retrieving Cookies It is very easy to retrieve all the set cookies. Cookies are stored in CGI environment variable HTTP_COOKIE and they will have following form: key1=value1;key2=value2;key3=value3.... Here is an example of how to retrieve cookies. #!/usr/bin/python # Import modules for CGI handling from os import environ import cgi, cgitb if environ.has_key('HTTP_COOKIE'): for cookie in map(strip, split(environ['HTTP_COOKIE'], ';')): (key, value ) = split(cookie, '='); if key == "UserID":
- 334. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning user_id = value if key == "Password": password = value print "User ID = %s" % user_id print "Password = %s" % password This will produce the following result for the cookies set by above script: User ID = XYZ Password = XYZ123 File Upload Example: To upload a file, the HTML form must have the enctype attribute set to multipart/form-data. The input tag with the file type will create a "Browse" button. <html> <body> <form enctype="multipart/form-data" action="save_file.py" method="post"> <p>File: <input type="file" name="filename" /></p> <p><input type="submit" value="Upload" /></p> </form> </body> </html> The result of this code is the following form: File: Upload Above example has been disabled intentionally to save people uploading file on our server, but you can try above code with your server. Here is the script save_file.py to handle file upload: #!/usr/bin/python import cgi, os import cgitb; cgitb.enable() form = cgi.FieldStorage() # Get filename here. fileitem = form['filename'] # Test if the file was uploaded if fileitem.filename: # strip leading path from file name to avoid # directory traversal attacks fn = os.path.basename(fileitem.filename) open('/tmp/' + fn, 'wb').write(fileitem.file.read()) message = 'The file "' + fn + '" was uploaded successfully'
- 335. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning else: message = 'No file was uploaded' print """ Content-Type: text/htmln <html> <body> <p>%s</p> </body> </html> """ % (message,) If you are running above script on Unix/Linux, then you would have to take care of replacing file separator as follows, otherwise on your windows machine above open() statement should work fine. fn = os.path.basename(fileitem.filename.replace("", "/" )) How To Raise a "File Download" Dialog Box? Sometimes, it is desired that you want to give option where a user will click a link and it will pop up a "File Download" dialogue box to the user instead of displaying actual content. This is very easy and will be achieved through HTTP header. This HTTP header will be different from the header mentioned in previous section. For example,if you want make a FileName file downloadable from a given link, then its syntax will be as follows: #!/usr/bin/python # HTTP Header print "Content-Type:application/octet-stream; name="FileName"rn"; print "Content-Disposition: attachment; filename="FileName"rnn"; # Actual File Content will go hear. fo = open("foo.txt", "rb") str = fo.read(); print str # Close opened file fo.close() Hope you enjoyed this tutorial. If yes, please send me your feedback at: Contact Us
- 336. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Python Database Access The Python standard for database interfaces is the Python DB-API. Most Python database interfaces adhere to this standard. You can choose the right database for your application. Python Database API supports a wide range of database servers: GadFly mSQL MySQL PostgreSQL Microsoft SQL Server 2000 Informix Interbase Oracle Sybase Here is the list of available Python database interfaces: Python Database Interfaces and APIs .You must download a separate DB API module for each database you need to access. For example, if you need to access an Oracle database as well as a MySQL database, you must download both the Oracle and the MySQL database modules. The DB API provides a minimal standard for working with databases using Python structures and syntax wherever possible. This API includes the following: Importing the API module. Acquiring a connection with the database. Issuing SQL statements and stored procedures. CHAPTER 21
- 337. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Closing the connection We would learn all the concepts using MySQL, so let's talk about MySQLdb module only. What is MySQLdb? MySQLdb is an interface for connecting to a MySQL database server from Python. It implements the Python Database API v2.0 and is built on top of the MySQL C API. How do I install the MySQLdb? Before proceeding, you make sure you have MySQLdb installed on your machine. Just type the following in your Python script and execute it: #!/usr/bin/python import MySQLdb If it produces the following result, then it means MySQLdb module is not installed: Traceback (most recent call last): File "test.py", line 3, in <module> import MySQLdb ImportError: No module named MySQLdb To install MySQLdb module, download it from MySQLdb Download page and proceed as follows: $ gunzip MySQL-python-1.2.2.tar.gz $ tar -xvf MySQL-python-1.2.2.tar $ cd MySQL-python-1.2.2 $ python setup.py build $ python setup.py install Note: Make sure you have root privilege to install above module. Database Connection: Before connecting to a MySQL database, make sure of the followings: You have created a database TESTDB. You have created a table EMPLOYEE in TESTDB. This table is having fields FIRST_NAME, LAST_NAME, AGE, SEX and INCOME. User ID "testuser" and password "test123" are set to access TESTDB. Python module MySQLdb is installed properly on your machine. You have gone through MySQL tutorial to understand MySQL Basics. EXAMPLE: Following is the example of connecting with MySQL database "TESTDB":
- 338. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning #!/usr/bin/python import MySQLdb # Open database connection db = MySQLdb.connect("localhost","testuser","test123","TESTDB" ) # prepare a cursor object using cursor() method cursor = db.cursor() # execute SQL query using execute() method. cursor.execute("SELECT VERSION()") # Fetch a single row using fetchone() method. data = cursor.fetchone() print "Database version : %s " % data # disconnect from server db.close() While running this script, it is producing the following result at my Linux machine: Database version : 5.0.45 If a connection is established with the datasource, then a Connection Object is returned and saved intodb for further use, otherwise db is set to None. Next, db object is used to create a cursor object, which in turn is used to execute SQL queries. Finally, before coming out, it ensures that database connection is closed and resources are released. Creating Database Table: Once a database connection is established, we are ready to create tables or records into the database tables using execute method of the created cursor. EXAMPLE: First, let's create Database table EMPLOYEE: #!/usr/bin/python import MySQLdb # Open database connection db = MySQLdb.connect("localhost","testuser","test123","TESTDB" ) # prepare a cursor object using cursor() method cursor = db.cursor() # Drop table if it already exist using execute() method. cursor.execute("DROP TABLE IF EXISTS EMPLOYEE") # Create table as per requirement sql = """CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE ( FIRST_NAME CHAR(20) NOT NULL, LAST_NAME CHAR(20), AGE INT, SEX CHAR(1), INCOME FLOAT )"""
- 339. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning cursor.execute(sql) # disconnect from server db.close() INSERT Operation: INSERT operation is required when you want to create your records into a database table. EXAMPLE: Following is the example, which executes SQL INSERT statement to create a record into EMPLOYEE table: #!/usr/bin/python import MySQLdb # Open database connection db = MySQLdb.connect("localhost","testuser","test123","TESTDB" ) # prepare a cursor object using cursor() method cursor = db.cursor() # Prepare SQL query to INSERT a record into the database. sql = """INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE(FIRST_NAME, LAST_NAME, AGE, SEX, INCOME) VALUES ('Mac', 'Mohan', 20, 'M', 2000)""" try: # Execute the SQL command cursor.execute(sql) # Commit your changes in the database db.commit() except: # Rollback in case there is any error db.rollback() # disconnect from server db.close() Above example can be written as follows to create SQL queries dynamically: #!/usr/bin/python import MySQLdb # Open database connection db = MySQLdb.connect("localhost","testuser","test123","TESTDB" ) # prepare a cursor object using cursor() method cursor = db.cursor() # Prepare SQL query to INSERT a record into the database. sql = "INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE(FIRST_NAME, LAST_NAME, AGE, SEX, INCOME) VALUES ('%s', '%s', '%d', '%c', '%d' )" % ('Mac', 'Mohan', 20, 'M', 2000) try: # Execute the SQL command cursor.execute(sql) # Commit your changes in the database
- 340. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning db.commit() except: # Rollback in case there is any error db.rollback() # disconnect from server db.close() EXAMPLE: Following code segment is another form of execution where you can pass parameters directly: .................................. user_id = "test123" password = "password" con.execute('insert into Login values("%s", "%s")' % (user_id, password)) .................................. READ Operation: READ Operation on any databasse means to fetch some useful information from the database. Once our database connection is established, we are ready to make a query into this database. We can use either fetchone() method to fetch single record or fetchall() method to fetech multiple values from a database table. fetchone(): This method fetches the next row of a query result set. A result set is an object that is returned when a cursor object is used to query a table. fetchall(): This method fetches all the rows in a result set. If some rows have already been extracted from the result set, the fetchall() method retrieves the remaining rows from the result set. rowcount: This is a read-only attribute and returns the number of rows that were affected by an execute() method. EXAMPLE: Following is the procedure to query all the records from EMPLOYEE table having salary more than 1000: #!/usr/bin/python import MySQLdb # Open database connection db = MySQLdb.connect("localhost","testuser","test123","TESTDB" ) # prepare a cursor object using cursor() method cursor = db.cursor() # Prepare SQL query to INSERT a record into the database. sql = "SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE INCOME > '%d'" % (1000) try: # Execute the SQL command cursor.execute(sql) # Fetch all the rows in a list of lists. results = cursor.fetchall() for row in results: fname = row[0] lname = row[1]
- 341. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning age = row[2] sex = row[3] income = row[4] # Now print fetched result print "fname=%s,lname=%s,age=%d,sex=%s,income=%d" % (fname, lname, age, sex, income ) except: print "Error: unable to fecth data" # disconnect from server db.close() This will produce the following result: fname=Mac, lname=Mohan, age=20, sex=M, income=2000 Update Operation: UPDATE Operation on any databasse means to update one or more records, which are already available in the database. Following is the procedure to update all the records having SEX as 'M'. Here, we will increase AGE of all the males by one year. EXAMPLE: #!/usr/bin/python import MySQLdb # Open database connection db = MySQLdb.connect("localhost","testuser","test123","TESTDB" ) # prepare a cursor object using cursor() method cursor = db.cursor() # Prepare SQL query to UPDATE required records sql = "UPDATE EMPLOYEE SET AGE = AGE + 1 WHERE SEX = '%c'" % ('M') try: # Execute the SQL command cursor.execute(sql) # Commit your changes in the database db.commit() except: # Rollback in case there is any error db.rollback() # disconnect from server db.close() DELETE Operation: DELETE operation is required when you want to delete some records from your database. Following is the procedure to delete all the records from EMPLOYEE where AGE is more than 20: EXAMPLE: #!/usr/bin/python
- 342. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning import MySQLdb # Open database connection db = MySQLdb.connect("localhost","testuser","test123","TESTDB" ) # prepare a cursor object using cursor() method cursor = db.cursor() # Prepare SQL query to DELETE required records sql = "DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE AGE > '%d'" % (20) try: # Execute the SQL command cursor.execute(sql) # Commit your changes in the database db.commit() except: # Rollback in case there is any error db.rollback() # disconnect from server db.close() Performing Transactions: Transactions are a mechanism that ensures data consistency. Transactions should have the following four properties: Atomicity: Either a transaction completes or nothing happens at all. Consistency: A transaction must start in a consistent state and leave the system in a consistent state. Isolation: Intermediate results of a transaction are not visible outside the current transaction. Durability: Once a transaction was committed, the effects are persistent, even after a system failure. The Python DB API 2.0 provides two methods to either commit or rollback a transaction. EXAMPLE: You already have seen how we have implemented transations. Here is again similar example: # Prepare SQL query to DELETE required records sql = "DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE AGE > '%d'" % (20) try: # Execute the SQL command cursor.execute(sql) # Commit your changes in the database db.commit() except: # Rollback in case there is any error db.rollback() COMMIT Operation: Commit is the operation, which gives a green signal to database to finalize the changes, and after this operation, no change can be reverted back. Here is a simple example to call commit method. db.commit()
- 343. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning ROLLBACK Operation: If you are not satisfied with one or more of the changes and you want to revert back those changes completely, then use rollback() method. Here is a simple example to call rollback() method. db.rollback() Disconnecting Database: To disconnect Database connection, use close() method. db.close() If the connection to a database is closed by the user with the close() method, any outstanding transactions are rolled back by the DB. However, instead of depending on any of DB lower level implementation details, your application would be better off calling commit or rollback explicitly. Handling Errors: There are many sources of errors. A few examples are a syntax error in an executed SQL statement, a connection failure, or calling the fetch method for an already canceled or finished statement handle. The DB API defines a number of errors that must exist in each database module. The following table lists these exceptions. Exception Description Warning Used for non-fatal issues. Must subclass StandardError. Error Base class for errors. Must subclass StandardError. InterfaceError Used for errors in the database module, not the database itself. Must subclass Error. DatabaseError Used for errors in the database. Must subclass Error. DataError Subclass of DatabaseError that refers to errors in the data. OperationalError Subclass of DatabaseError that refers to errors such as the loss of a connection to the database. These errors are generally outside of the control of the Python scripter. IntegrityError Subclass of DatabaseError for situations that would damage the relational integrity, such as uniqueness constraints or foreign keys. InternalError Subclass of DatabaseError that refers to errors internal to the database module, such as a cursor no longer being active. ProgrammingError Subclass of DatabaseError that refers to errors such as a bad table name and other things that can safely be blamed on you. NotSupportedError Subclass of DatabaseError that refers to trying to call unsupported functionality. Your Python scripts should handle these errors, but before using any of the above exceptions, make sure your MySQLdb has support for that exception. You can get more information about them by reading the DB API 2.0 specification.
- 344. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Python Networking Python provides two levels of access to network services. At a low level, you can access the basic socket support in the underlying operating system which allows you to implement clients and servers for both connection- oriented and connectionless protocols. Python also has libraries that provide higher-level access to specific application-level network protocols, such as FTP, HTTP, and so on. This tutorial gives you understanding on most famous concept in Networking - Socket Programming What are Sockets? Sockets are the endpoints of a bidirectional communications channel. Sockets may communicate within a process, between processes on the same machine, or between processes on different continents. Sockets may be implemented over a number of different channel types: Unix domain sockets, TCP, UDP, and so on. The socket library provides specific classes for handling the common transports as well as a generic interface for handling the rest. Sockets have their own vocabulary: Term Description domain The family of protocols that will be used as the transport mechanism. These values are constants such as AF_INET, PF_INET, PF_UNIX, PF_X25, and so on. type The type of communications between the two endpoints, typically SOCK_STREAM for connection-oriented protocols and SOCK_DGRAM for connectionless protocols. protocol Typically zero, this may be used to identify a variant of a protocol within a domain and type. hostname The identifier of a network interface: A string, which can be a host name, a dotted-quad address, or an IPV6 address in colon (and possibly dot) notation A string "<broadcast>", which specifies an INADDR_BROADCAST address. A zero-length string, which specifies INADDR_ANY, or An Integer, interpreted as a binary address in host byte order. port Each server listens for clients calling on one or more ports. A port may be a Fixnum port number, a string containing a port number, or the name of a service. CHAPTER 22
- 345. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning The socket Module: To create a socket, you must use the socket.socket() function available in socket module, which has the general syntax: s = socket.socket (socket_family, socket_type, protocol=0) Here is the description of the parameters: socket_family: This is either AF_UNIX or AF_INET, as explained earlier. socket_type: This is either SOCK_STREAM or SOCK_DGRAM. protocol: This is usually left out, defaulting to 0. Once you have socket object, then you can use required functions to create your client or server program. Following is the list of functions required: Server Socket Methods: Method Description s.bind() This method binds address (hostname, port number pair) to socket. s.listen() This method sets up and start TCP listener. s.accept() This passively accepts TCP client connection, waiting until connection arrives (blocking). Client Socket Methods: Method Description s.connect() This method actively initiates TCP server connection. General Socket Methods: Method Description s.recv() This method receives TCP message s.send() This method transmits TCP message s.recvfrom() This method receives UDP message s.sendto() This method transmits UDP message s.close() This method closes socket socket.gethostname() Returns the hostname. A Simple Server: To write Internet servers, we use the socket function available in socket module to create a socket object. A socket object is then used to call other functions to set up a socket server. Now, call bind(hostname, port function to specify a port for your service on the given host.
- 346. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Next, call the accept method of the returned object. This method waits until a client connects to the port you specified and then returns a connection object that represents the connection to that client. #!/usr/bin/python # This is server.py file import socket # Import socket module s = socket.socket() # Create a socket object host = socket.gethostname() # Get local machine name port = 12345 # Reserve a port for your service. s.bind((host, port)) # Bind to the port s.listen(5) # Now wait for client connection. while True: c, addr = s.accept() # Establish connection with client. print 'Got connection from', addr c.send('Thank you for connecting') c.close() # Close the connection A Simple Client: Now, we will write a very simple client program, which will open a connection to a given port 12345 and given host. This is very simple to create a socket client using Python's socket module function. The socket.connect(hosname, port ) opens a TCP connection to hostname on the port. Once you have a socket open, you can read from it like any IO object. When done, remember to close it, as you would close a file. The following code is a very simple client that connects to a given host and port, reads any available data from the socket, and then exits: #!/usr/bin/python # This is client.py file import socket # Import socket module s = socket.socket() # Create a socket object host = socket.gethostname() # Get local machine name port = 12345 # Reserve a port for your service. s.connect((host, port)) print s.recv(1024) s.close # Close the socket when done Now, run this server.py in background and then run above client.py to see the result. # Following would start a server in background. $ python server.py & # Once server is started run client as follows: $ python client.py This would produce the following result: Got connection from ('127.0.0.1', 48437) Thank you for connecting Python Internet modules A list of some important modules, which could be used in Python Network/Internet programming.
- 347. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Protocol Common function Port No Python module HTTP Web pages 80 httplib, urllib, xmlrpclib NNTP Usenet news 119 nntplib FTP File transfers 20 ftplib, urllib SMTP Sending email 25 smtplib POP3 Fetching email 110 poplib IMAP4 Fetching email 143 imaplib Telnet Command lines 23 telnetlib Gopher Document transfers 70 gopherlib, urllib Please check all the libraries mentioned above to work with FTP, SMTP, POP, and IMAP protocols. Further Readings: I have given you a quick start with Socket Programming. It's a big subject, so its recommended to go through the following link to find more details on: Unix Socket Programming. Python Socket Library and Modules.
- 348. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Python Sending Email Simple Mail Transfer Protocol(SMTP) is a protocol, which handles sending e-mail and routing e-mail between mail servers. Python provides smtplib module, which defines an SMTP client session object that can be used to send mail to any Internet machine with an SMTP or ESMTP listener daemon. Here is a simple syntax to create one SMTP object, which can later be used to send an e-mail: import smtplib smtpObj = smtplib.SMTP( [host [, port [, local_hostname]]] ) Here is the detail of the parameters: host: This is the host running your SMTP server. You can specify IP address of the host or a domain name like tutorialspoint.com. This is optional argument. port: If you are providing host argument, then you need to specify a port, where SMTP server is listening. Usually this port would be 25. local_hostname: If your SMTP server is running on your local machine, then you can specify justlocalhost as of this option. An SMTP object has an instance method called sendmail, which will typically be used to do the work of mailing a message. It takes three parameters: The sender - A string with the address of the sender. The receivers - A list of strings, one for each recipient. The message - A message as a string formatted as specified in the various RFCs. Example: Here is a simple way to send one e-mail using Python script. Try it once: #!/usr/bin/python import smtplib sender = '[email protected]' receivers = ['[email protected]'] message = """From: From Person <[email protected]> To: To Person <[email protected]> CHAPTER 23
- 349. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Subject: SMTP e-mail test This is a test e-mail message. """ try: smtpObj = smtplib.SMTP('localhost') smtpObj.sendmail(sender, receivers, message) print "Successfully sent email" except SMTPException: print "Error: unable to send email" Here, you have placed a basic e-mail in message, using a triple quote, taking care to format the headers correctly. An e-mail requires a From, To, and Subject header, separated from the body of the e-mail with a blank line. To send the mail you use smtpObj to connect to the SMTP server on the local machine and then use the sendmail method along with the message, the from address, and the destination address as parameters (even though the from and to addresses are within the e-mail itself, these aren't always used to route mail). If you're not running an SMTP server on your local machine, you can use smtplib client to communicate with a remote SMTP server. Unless you're using a webmail service (such as Hotmail or Yahoo! Mail), your e-mail provider will have provided you with outgoing mail server details that you can supply them, as follows: smtplib.SMTP('mail.your-domain.com', 25) Sending an HTML e-mail using Python: When you send a text message using Python, then all the content will be treated as simple text. Even if you will include HTML tags in a text message, it will be displayed as simple text and HTML tags will not be formatted according to HTML syntax. But Python provides option to send an HTML message as actual HTML message. While sending an e-mail message, you can specify a Mime version, content type and character set to send an HTML e-mail. EXAMPLE: Following is the example to send HTML content as an e-mail. Try it once: #!/usr/bin/python import smtplib message = """From: From Person <[email protected]> To: To Person <[email protected]> MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-type: text/html Subject: SMTP HTML e-mail test This is an e-mail message to be sent in HTML format <b>This is HTML message.</b> <h1>This is headline.</h1> """ try: smtpObj = smtplib.SMTP('localhost') smtpObj.sendmail(sender, receivers, message) print "Successfully sent email" except SMTPException:
- 350. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning print "Error: unable to send email" Sending Attachments as an e-mail: To send an e-mail with mixed content requires to set Content-type header to multipart/mixed. Then, text and attachment sections can be specified within boundaries. A boundary is started with two hyphens followed by a unique number, which can not appear in the message part of the e-mail. A final boundary denoting the e-mail's final section must also end with two hyphens. Attached files should be encoded with the pack("m") function to have base64 encoding before transmission. EXAMPLE: Following is the example, which will send a file /tmp/test.txt as an attachment. Try it once: #!/usr/bin/python import smtplib import base64 filename = "/tmp/test.txt" # Read a file and encode it into base64 format fo = open(filename, "rb") filecontent = fo.read() encodedcontent = base64.b64encode(filecontent) # base64 sender = '[email protected]' reciever = '[email protected]' marker = "AUNIQUEMARKER" body =""" This is a test email to send an attachement. """ # Define the main headers. part1 = """From: From Person <[email protected]> To: To Person <[email protected]> Subject: Sending Attachement MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: multipart/mixed; boundary=%s --%s """ % (marker, marker) # Define the message action part2 = """Content-Type: text/plain Content-Transfer-Encoding:8bit %s --%s """ % (body,marker) # Define the attachment section part3 = """Content-Type: multipart/mixed; name="%s" Content-Transfer-Encoding:base64 Content-Disposition: attachment; filename=%s %s --%s--
- 351. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning """ %(filename, filename, encodedcontent, marker) message = part1 + part2 + part3 try: smtpObj = smtplib.SMTP('localhost') smtpObj.sendmail(sender, reciever, message) print "Successfully sent email" except Exception: print "Error: unable to send email"
- 352. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Python Multithreading Running several threads is similar to running several different programs concurrently, but with the following benefits: Multiple threads within a process share the same data space with the main thread and can therefore share information or communicate with each other more easily than if they were separate processes. Threads sometimes called light-weight processes and they do not require much memory overhead; they care cheaper than processes. A thread has a beginning, an execution sequence, and a conclusion. It has an instruction pointer that keeps track of where within its context it is currently running. It can be pre-empted (interrupted) It can temporarily be put on hold (also known as sleeping) while other threads are running - this is called yielding. Starting a New Thread: To spawn another thread, you need to call following method available in thread module: thread.start_new_thread ( function, args[, kwargs] ) This method call enables a fast and efficient way to create new threads in both Linux and Windows. The method call returns immediately and the child thread starts and calls function with the passed list of agrs. When function returns, the thread terminates. Here, args is a tuple of arguments; use an empty tuple to call function without passing any arguments. kwargs is an optional dictionary of keyword arguments. EXAMPLE: #!/usr/bin/python import thread import time # Define a function for the thread def print_time( threadName, delay): CHAPTER 24
- 353. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning count = 0 while count < 5: time.sleep(delay) count += 1 print "%s: %s" % ( threadName, time.ctime(time.time()) ) # Create two threads as follows try: thread.start_new_thread( print_time, ("Thread-1", 2, ) ) thread.start_new_thread( print_time, ("Thread-2", 4, ) ) except: print "Error: unable to start thread" while 1: pass When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: Thread-1: Thu Jan 22 15:42:17 2009 Thread-1: Thu Jan 22 15:42:19 2009 Thread-2: Thu Jan 22 15:42:19 2009 Thread-1: Thu Jan 22 15:42:21 2009 Thread-2: Thu Jan 22 15:42:23 2009 Thread-1: Thu Jan 22 15:42:23 2009 Thread-1: Thu Jan 22 15:42:25 2009 Thread-2: Thu Jan 22 15:42:27 2009 Thread-2: Thu Jan 22 15:42:31 2009 Thread-2: Thu Jan 22 15:42:35 2009 Although it is very effective for low-level threading, but the thread module is very limited compared to the newer threading module. The Threading Module: The newer threading module included with Python 2.4 provides much more powerful, high-level support for threads than the thread module discussed in the previous section. The threading module exposes all the methods of the thread module and provides some additional methods: threading.activeCount(): Returns the number of thread objects that are active. threading.currentThread(): Returns the number of thread objects in the caller's thread control. threading.enumerate(): Returns a list of all thread objects that are currently active. In addition to the methods, the threading module has the Thread class that implements threading. The methods provided by the Thread class are as follows: run(): The run() method is the entry point for a thread. start(): The start() method starts a thread by calling the run method. join([time]): The join() waits for threads to terminate. isAlive(): The isAlive() method checks whether a thread is still executing. getName(): The getName() method returns the name of a thread. setName(): The setName() method sets the name of a thread. Creating Thread using Threading Module: To implement a new thread using the threading module, you have to do the following: Define a new subclass of the Thread class. Override the __init__(self [,args]) method to add additional arguments.
- 354. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Then, override the run(self [,args]) method to implement what the thread should do when started. Once you have created the new Thread subclass, you can create an instance of it and then start a new thread by invoking the start(), which will in turn call run() method. EXAMPLE: #!/usr/bin/python import threading import time exitFlag = 0 class myThread (threading.Thread): def __init__(self, threadID, name, counter): threading.Thread.__init__(self) self.threadID = threadID self.name = name self.counter = counter def run(self): print "Starting " + self.name print_time(self.name, self.counter, 5) print "Exiting " + self.name def print_time(threadName, delay, counter): while counter: if exitFlag: thread.exit() time.sleep(delay) print "%s: %s" % (threadName, time.ctime(time.time())) counter -= 1 # Create new threads thread1 = myThread(1, "Thread-1", 1) thread2 = myThread(2, "Thread-2", 2) # Start new Threads thread1.start() thread2.start() print "Exiting Main Thread" When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: Starting Thread-1 Starting Thread-2 Exiting Main Thread Thread-1: Thu Mar 21 09:10:03 2013 Thread-1: Thu Mar 21 09:10:04 2013 Thread-2: Thu Mar 21 09:10:04 2013 Thread-1: Thu Mar 21 09:10:05 2013 Thread-1: Thu Mar 21 09:10:06 2013 Thread-2: Thu Mar 21 09:10:06 2013 Thread-1: Thu Mar 21 09:10:07 2013 Exiting Thread-1 Thread-2: Thu Mar 21 09:10:08 2013 Thread-2: Thu Mar 21 09:10:10 2013 Thread-2: Thu Mar 21 09:10:12 2013 Exiting Thread-2
- 355. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Synchronizing Threads: The threading module provided with Python includes a simple-to-implement locking mechanism that will allow you to synchronize threads. A new lock is created by calling the Lock() method, which returns the new lock. The acquire(blocking) method of the new lock object would be used to force threads to run synchronously. The optional blocking parameter enables you to control whether the thread will wait to acquire the lock. If blocking is set to 0, the thread will return immediately with a 0 value if the lock cannot be acquired and with a 1 if the lock was acquired. If blocking is set to 1, the thread will block and wait for the lock to be released. The release() method of the the new lock object would be used to release the lock when it is no longer required. EXAMPLE: #!/usr/bin/python import threading import time class myThread (threading.Thread): def __init__(self, threadID, name, counter): threading.Thread.__init__(self) self.threadID = threadID self.name = name self.counter = counter def run(self): print "Starting " + self.name # Get lock to synchronize threads threadLock.acquire() print_time(self.name, self.counter, 3) # Free lock to release next thread threadLock.release() def print_time(threadName, delay, counter): while counter: time.sleep(delay) print "%s: %s" % (threadName, time.ctime(time.time())) counter -= 1 threadLock = threading.Lock() threads = [] # Create new threads thread1 = myThread(1, "Thread-1", 1) thread2 = myThread(2, "Thread-2", 2) # Start new Threads thread1.start() thread2.start() # Add threads to thread list threads.append(thread1) threads.append(thread2) # Wait for all threads to complete for t in threads: t.join() print "Exiting Main Thread" When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: Starting Thread-1 Starting Thread-2
- 356. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Thread-1: Thu Mar 21 09:11:28 2013 Thread-1: Thu Mar 21 09:11:29 2013 Thread-1: Thu Mar 21 09:11:30 2013 Thread-2: Thu Mar 21 09:11:32 2013 Thread-2: Thu Mar 21 09:11:34 2013 Thread-2: Thu Mar 21 09:11:36 2013 Exiting Main Thread Multithreaded Priority Queue: The Queue module allows you to create a new queue object that can hold a specific number of items. There are following methods to control the Queue: get(): The get() removes and returns an item from the queue. put(): The put adds item to a queue. qsize() : The qsize() returns the number of items that are currently in the queue. empty(): The empty( ) returns True if queue is empty; otherwise, False. full(): the full() returns True if queue is full; otherwise, False. EXAMPLE: #!/usr/bin/python import Queue import threading import time exitFlag = 0 class myThread (threading.Thread): def __init__(self, threadID, name, q): threading.Thread.__init__(self) self.threadID = threadID self.name = name self.q = q def run(self): print "Starting " + self.name process_data(self.name, self.q) print "Exiting " + self.name def process_data(threadName, q): while not exitFlag: queueLock.acquire() if not workQueue.empty(): data = q.get() queueLock.release() print "%s processing %s" % (threadName, data) else: queueLock.release() time.sleep(1) threadList = ["Thread-1", "Thread-2", "Thread-3"] nameList = ["One", "Two", "Three", "Four", "Five"] queueLock = threading.Lock() workQueue = Queue.Queue(10) threads = [] threadID = 1 # Create new threads for tName in threadList: thread = myThread(threadID, tName, workQueue)
- 357. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning thread.start() threads.append(thread) threadID += 1 # Fill the queue queueLock.acquire() for word in nameList: workQueue.put(word) queueLock.release() # Wait for queue to empty while not workQueue.empty(): pass # Notify threads it's time to exit exitFlag = 1 # Wait for all threads to complete for t in threads: t.join() print "Exiting Main Thread" When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: Starting Thread-1 Starting Thread-2 Starting Thread-3 Thread-1 processing One Thread-2 processing Two Thread-3 processing Three Thread-1 processing Four Thread-2 processing Five Exiting Thread-3 Exiting Thread-1 Exiting Thread-2 Exiting Main Thread
- 358. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Python XML Processing What is XML? The Extensible Markup Language (XML) is a markup language much like HTML or SGML. This is recommended by the World Wide Web Consortium and available as an open standard. XML is a portable, open source language that allows programmers to develop applications that can be read by other applications, regardless of operating system and/or developmental language. XML is extremely useful for keeping track of small to medium amounts of data without requiring a SQL-based backbone. XML Parser Architectures and APIs: The Python standard library provides a minimal but useful set of interfaces to work with XML. The two most basic and broadly used APIs to XML data are the SAX and DOM interfaces. Simple API for XML (SAX) : Here, you register callbacks for events of interest and then let the parser proceed through the document. This is useful when your documents are large or you have memory limitations, it parses the file as it reads it from disk and the entire file is never stored in memory. Document Object Model (DOM) API : This is a World Wide Web Consortium recommendation wherein the entire file is read into memory and stored in a hierarchical (tree-based) form to represent all the features of an XML document. SAX obviously can't process information as fast as DOM can when working with large files. On the other hand, using DOM exclusively can really kill your resources, especially if used on a lot of small files. SAX is read-only, while DOM allows changes to the XML file. Since these two different APIs literally complement each other, there is no reason why you can't use them both for large projects. For all our XML code examples, let's use a simple XML file movies.xml as an input: <collection shelf="New Arrivals"> <movie title="Enemy Behind"> <type>War, Thriller</type> <format>DVD</format> <year>2003</year> <rating>PG</rating> <stars>10</stars> CHAPTER 25
- 359. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning <description>Talk about a US-Japan war</description> </movie> <movie title="Transformers"> <type>Anime, Science Fiction</type> <format>DVD</format> <year>1989</year> <rating>R</rating> <stars>8</stars> <description>A schientific fiction</description> </movie> <movie title="Trigun"> <type>Anime, Action</type> <format>DVD</format> <episodes>4</episodes> <rating>PG</rating> <stars>10</stars> <description>Vash the Stampede!</description> </movie> <movie title="Ishtar"> <type>Comedy</type> <format>VHS</format> <rating>PG</rating> <stars>2</stars> <description>Viewable boredom</description> </movie> </collection> Parsing XML with SAX APIs: SAX is a standard interface for event-driven XML parsing. Parsing XML with SAX generally requires you to create your own ContentHandler by subclassing xml.sax.ContentHandler. Your ContentHandler handles the particular tags and attributes of your flavor(s) of XML. A ContentHandler object provides methods to handle various parsing events. Its owning parser calls ContentHandler methods as it parses the XML file. The methods startDocument and endDocument are called at the start and the end of the XML file. The method characters(text) is passed character data of the XML file via the parameter text. The ContentHandler is called at the start and end of each element. If the parser is not in namespace mode, the methods startElement(tag, attributes) and endElement(tag) are called; otherwise, the corresponding methods startElementNS and endElementNS are called. Here, tag is the element tag, and attributes is an Attributes object. Here are other important methods to understand before proceeding: The make_parser Method: Following method creates a new parser object and returns it. The parser object created will be of the first parser type the system finds. xml.sax.make_parser( [parser_list] ) Here is the detail of the parameters: parser_list: The optional argument consisting of a list of parsers to use which must all implement the make_parser method. The parse Method: Following method creates a SAX parser and uses it to parse a document.
- 360. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning xml.sax.parse( xmlfile, contenthandler[, errorhandler]) Here is the detail of the parameters: xmlfile: This is the name of the XML file to read from. contenthandler: This must be a ContentHandler object. errorhandler: If specified, errorhandler must be a SAX ErrorHandler object. The parseString Method: There is one more method to create a SAX parser and to parse the specified XML string. xml.sax.parseString(xmlstring, contenthandler[, errorhandler]) Here is the detail of the parameters: xmlstring: This is the name of the XML string to read from. contenthandler: This must be a ContentHandler object. errorhandler: If specified, errorhandler must be a SAX ErrorHandler object. EXAMPLE: #!/usr/bin/python import xml.sax class MovieHandler( xml.sax.ContentHandler ): def __init__(self): self.CurrentData = "" self.type = "" self.format = "" self.year = "" self.rating = "" self.stars = "" self.description = "" # Call when an element starts def startElement(self, tag, attributes): self.CurrentData = tag if tag == "movie": print "*****Movie*****" title = attributes["title"] print "Title:", title # Call when an elements ends def endElement(self, tag): if self.CurrentData == "type": print "Type:", self.type elif self.CurrentData == "format": print "Format:", self.format elif self.CurrentData == "year": print "Year:", self.year elif self.CurrentData == "rating": print "Rating:", self.rating elif self.CurrentData == "stars": print "Stars:", self.stars elif self.CurrentData == "description": print "Description:", self.description
- 361. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning self.CurrentData = "" # Call when a character is read def characters(self, content): if self.CurrentData == "type": self.type = content elif self.CurrentData == "format": self.format = content elif self.CurrentData == "year": self.year = content elif self.CurrentData == "rating": self.rating = content elif self.CurrentData == "stars": self.stars = content elif self.CurrentData == "description": self.description = content if ( __name__ == "__main__"): # create an XMLReader parser = xml.sax.make_parser() # turn off namepsaces parser.setFeature(xml.sax.handler.feature_namespaces, 0) # override the default ContextHandler Handler = MovieHandler() parser.setContentHandler( Handler ) parser.parse("movies.xml") This would produce the following result: *****Movie***** Title: Enemy Behind Type: War, Thriller Format: DVD Year: 2003 Rating: PG Stars: 10 Description: Talk about a US-Japan war *****Movie***** Title: Transformers Type: Anime, Science Fiction Format: DVD Year: 1989 Rating: R Stars: 8 Description: A schientific fiction *****Movie***** Title: Trigun Type: Anime, Action Format: DVD Rating: PG Stars: 10 Description: Vash the Stampede! *****Movie***** Title: Ishtar Type: Comedy Format: VHS Rating: PG Stars: 2
- 362. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Description: Viewable boredom For a complete detail on SAX API documentation, please refer to standard Python SAX APIs. Parsing XML with DOM APIs: The Document Object Model or "DOM," is a cross-language API from the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) for accessing and modifying XML documents. The DOM is extremely useful for random-access applications. SAX only allows you a view of one bit of the document at a time. If you are looking at one SAX element, you have no access to another. Here is the easiest way to quickly load an XML document and to create a minidom object using the xml.dom module. The minidom object provides a simple parser method that will quickly create a DOM tree from the XML file. The sample phrase calls the parse( file [,parser] ) function of the minidom object to parse the XML file designated by file into a DOM tree object. #!/usr/bin/python from xml.dom.minidom import parse import xml.dom.minidom # Open XML document using minidom parser DOMTree = xml.dom.minidom.parse("movies.xml") collection = DOMTree.documentElement if collection.hasAttribute("shelf"): print "Root element : %s" % collection.getAttribute("shelf") # Get all the movies in the collection movies = collection.getElementsByTagName("movie") # Print detail of each movie. for movie in movies: print "*****Movie*****" if movie.hasAttribute("title"): print "Title: %s" % movie.getAttribute("title") type = movie.getElementsByTagName('type')[0] print "Type: %s" % type.childNodes[0].data format = movie.getElementsByTagName('format')[0] print "Format: %s" % format.childNodes[0].data rating = movie.getElementsByTagName('rating')[0] print "Rating: %s" % rating.childNodes[0].data description = movie.getElementsByTagName('description')[0] print "Description: %s" % description.childNodes[0].data This would produce the following result: Root element : New Arrivals *****Movie***** Title: Enemy Behind Type: War, Thriller Format: DVD Rating: PG Description: Talk about a US-Japan war *****Movie***** Title: Transformers
- 363. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Type: Anime, Science Fiction Format: DVD Rating: R Description: A schientific fiction *****Movie***** Title: Trigun Type: Anime, Action Format: DVD Rating: PG Description: Vash the Stampede! *****Movie***** Title: Ishtar Type: Comedy Format: VHS Rating: PG Description: Viewable boredom For a complete detail on DOM API documentation, please refer to standard Python DOM APIs.
- 364. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Python GUI Programming Python provides various options for developing graphical user interfaces (GUIs). Most important are listed below: Tkinter: Tkinter is the Python interface to the Tk GUI toolkit shipped with Python. We would look this option in this tutorial. wxPython: This is an open-source Python interface for wxWindows http://wxpython.org. JPython: JPython is a Python port for Java which gives Python scripts seamless access to Java class libraries on the local machine http://www.jython.org. There are many other interfaces available which I'm not listing here. You can find them over the net. Tkinter Programming Tkinter is the standard GUI library for Python. Python when combined with Tkinter provides a fast and easy way to create GUI applications. Tkinter provides a powerful object-oriented interface to the Tk GUI toolkit. Creating a GUI application using Tkinter is an easy task. All you need to do is perform the following steps: Import the Tkinter module. Create the GUI application main window. Add one or more of the above-mentioned widgets to the GUI application. Enter the main event loop to take action against each event triggered by the user. Example: #!/usr/bin/python import Tkinter top = Tkinter.Tk() # Code to add widgets will go here... top.mainloop() This would create a following window: CHAPTER 26
- 365. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Tkinter Widgets Tkinter provides various controls, such as buttons, labels and text boxes used in a GUI application. These controls are commonly called widgets. There are currently 15 types of widgets in Tkinter. We present these widgets as well as a brief description in the following table: Operator Description Button The Button widget is used to display buttons in your application. Canvas The Canvas widget is used to draw shapes, such as lines, ovals, polygons and rectangles, in your application. Checkbutton The Checkbutton widget is used to display a number of options as checkboxes. The user can select multiple options at a time. Entry The Entry widget is used to display a single-line text field for accepting values from a user. Frame The Frame widget is used as a container widget to organize other widgets. Label The Label widget is used to provide a single-line caption for other widgets. It can also contain images. Listbox The Listbox widget is used to provide a list of options to a user. Menubutton The Menubutton widget is used to display menus in your application. Menu The Menu widget is used to provide various commands to a user. These commands are contained inside Menubutton. Message The Message widget is used to display multiline text fields for accepting values from a user. Radiobutton The Radiobutton widget is used to display a number of options as radio buttons. The user can select only one option at a time. Scale The Scale widget is used to provide a slider widget.
- 366. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Scrollbar The Scrollbar widget is used to add scrolling capability to various widgets, such as list boxes. Text The Text widget is used to display text in multiple lines. Toplevel The Toplevel widget is used to provide a separate window container. Spinbox The Spinbox widget is a variant of the standard Tkinter Entry widget, which can be used to select from a fixed number of values. PanedWindow A PanedWindow is a container widget that may contain any number of panes, arranged horizontally or vertically. LabelFrame A labelframe is a simple container widget. Its primary purpose is to act as a spacer or container for complex window layouts. tkMessageBox This module is used to display message boxes in your applications. Button The Button widget is used to add buttons in a Python application. These buttons can display text or images that convey the purpose of the buttons. You can attach a function or a method to a button which is called automatically when you click the button. Syntax: Here is the simple syntax to create this widget: w = Button ( master, option=value, ... ) Parameters: master: This represents the parent window. options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget. These options can be used as key- value pairs separated by commas. Option Description activebackground Background color when the button is under the cursor. activeforeground Foreground color when the button is under the cursor. bd Border width in pixels. Default is 2. bg Normal background color. command Function or method to be called when the button is clicked.
- 367. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning fg Normal foreground (text) color. font Text font to be used for the button's label. height Height of the button in text lines (for textual buttons) or pixels (for images). highlightcolor The color of the focus highlight when the widget has focus. image Image to be displayed on the button (instead of text). justify How to show multiple text lines: LEFT to left-justify each line; CENTER to center them; or RIGHT to right-justify. padx Additional padding left and right of the text. pady Additional padding above and below the text. relief Relief specifies the type of the border. Some of the values are SUNKEN, RAISED, GROOVE, and RIDGE. state Set this option to DISABLED to gray out the button and make it unresponsive. Has the value ACTIVE when the mouse is over it. Default is NORMAL. underline Default is -1, meaning that no character of the text on the button will be underlined. If nonnegative, the corresponding text character will be underlined. width Width of the button in letters (if displaying text) or pixels (if displaying an image). wraplength If this value is set to a positive number, the text lines will be wrapped to fit within this length. Methods: Following are commonly used methods for this widget: Medthod Description flash() Causes the button to flash several times between active and normal colors. Leaves the button in the state it was in originally. Ignored if the button is disabled. invoke() Calls the button's callback, and returns what that function returns. Has no effect if the button is disabled or there is no callback. Example: Try the following example yourself: import Tkinter import tkMessageBox top = Tkinter.Tk() def helloCallBack(): tkMessageBox.showinfo( "Hello Python", "Hello World") B = Tkinter.Button(top, text ="Hello", command = helloCallBack) B.pack() top.mainloop()
- 368. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: Canvas The Canvas is a rectangular area intended for drawing pictures or other complex layouts. You can place graphics, text, widgets or frames on a Canvas. Syntax: Here is the simple syntax to create this widget: w = Canvas ( master, option=value, ... ) Parameters: master: This represents the parent window. options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget. These options can be used as key- value pairs separated by commas. Option Description Bd Border width in pixels. Default is 2. Bg Normal background color. Confine If true (the default), the canvas cannot be scrolled outside of the scrollregion. Cursor Cursor used in the canvas like arrow, circle, dot etc. Height Size of the canvas in the Y dimension. Highlightcolor Color shown in the focus highlight. Relief Relief specifies the type of the border. Some of the values are SUNKEN, RAISED, GROOVE, and RIDGE. Scrollregion A tuple (w, n, e, s) that defines over how large an area the canvas can be scrolled, where w is the left side, n the top, e the right side, and s the bottom. Width Size of the canvas in the X dimension.
- 369. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Xscrollincrement If you set this option to some positive dimension, the canvas can be positioned only on multiples of that distance, and the value will be used for scrolling by scrolling units, such as when the user clicks on the arrows at the ends of a scrollbar. Xscrollcommand If the canvas is scrollable, this attribute should be the .set() method of the horizontal scrollbar. Yscrollincrement Works like xscrollincrement, but governs vertical movement. Yscrollcommand If the canvas is scrollable, this attribute should be the .set() method of the vertical scrollbar. The Canvas widget can support the following standard items: arc . Creates an arc item, which can be a chord, a pieslice or a simple arc. coord = 10, 50, 240, 210 arc = canvas.create_arc(coord, start=0, extent=150, fill="blue") image . Creates an image item, which can be an instance of either the BitmapImage or the PhotoImage classes. filename = PhotoImage(file = "sunshine.gif") image = canvas.create_image(50, 50, anchor=NE, image=filename) line . Creates a line item. line = canvas.create_line(x0, y0, x1, y1, ..., xn, yn, options) oval . Creates a circle or an ellipse at the given coordinates. It takes two pairs of coordinates; the top left and bottom right corners of the bounding rectangle for the oval. oval = canvas.create_oval(x0, y0, x1, y1, options) polygon . Creates a polygon item that must have at least three vertices. oval = canvas.create_polygon(x0, y0, x1, y1,...xn, yn, options) Example: Try the following example yourself: import Tkinter import tkMessageBox top = Tkinter.Tk() C = Tkinter.Canvas(top, bg="blue", height=250, width=300) coord = 10, 50, 240, 210 arc = C.create_arc(coord, start=0, extent=150, fill="red") C.pack() top.mainloop() When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:
- 370. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Checkbutton The Checkbutton widget is used to display a number of options to a user as toggle buttons. The user can then select one or more options by clicking the button corresponding to each option. You can also display images in place of text. Syntax: Here is the simple syntax to create this widget: w = Checkbutton ( master, option, ... ) Parameters: master: This represents the parent window. options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget. These options can be used as key- value pairs separated by commas. Option Description activebackground Background color when the checkbutton is under the cursor. activeforeground Foreground color when the checkbutton is under the cursor. bg The normal background color displayed behind the label and indicator. bitmap To display a monochrome image on a button. bd The size of the border around the indicator. Default is 2 pixels. command A procedure to be called every time the user changes the state of this checkbutton. cursor If you set this option to a cursor name (arrow, dot etc.), the mouse cursor will change to that pattern when it is over the checkbutton.
- 371. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning disabledforeground The foreground color used to render the text of a disabled checkbutton. The default is a stippled version of the default foreground color. font The font used for the text. fg The color used to render the text. height The number of lines of text on the checkbutton. Default is 1. highlightcolor The color of the focus highlight when the checkbutton has the focus. image To display a graphic image on the button. justify If the text contains multiple lines, this option controls how the text is justified: CENTER, LEFT, or RIGHT. offvalue Normally, a checkbutton's associated control variable will be set to 0 when it is cleared (off). You can supply an alternate value for the off state by setting offvalue to that value. onvalue Normally, a checkbutton's associated control variable will be set to 1 when it is set (on). You can supply an alternate value for the on state by setting onvalue to that value. padx How much space to leave to the left and right of the checkbutton and text. Default is 1 pixel. pady How much space to leave above and below the checkbutton and text. Default is 1 pixel. relief With the default value, relief=FLAT, the checkbutton does not stand out from its background. You may set this option to any of the other styles selectcolor The color of the checkbutton when it is set. Default is selectcolor="red". selectimage If you set this option to an image, that image will appear in the checkbutton when it is set. state The default is state=NORMAL, but you can use state=DISABLED to gray out the control and make it unresponsive. If the cursor is currently over the checkbutton, the state is ACTIVE. text The label displayed next to the checkbutton. Use newlines ("n") to display multiple lines of text. underline With the default value of -1, none of the characters of the text label are underlined. Set this option to the index of a character in the text (counting from zero) to underline that character. variable The control variable that tracks the current state of the checkbutton. Normally this variable is an IntVar, and 0 means cleared and 1 means set, but see the offvalue and onvalue options above. width The default width of a checkbutton is determined by the size of the displayed image or text. You can set this option to a number of characters and the checkbutton will always have room for that many characters. wraplength Normally, lines are not wrapped. You can set this option to a number of characters and all lines will be broken into pieces no longer than that number. Methods: Following are commonly used methods for this widget:
- 372. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Medthod Description deselect() Clears (turns off) the checkbutton. flash() Flashes the checkbutton a few times between its active and normal colors, but leaves it the way it started. invoke() You can call this method to get the same actions that would occur if the user clicked on the checkbutton to change its state. select() Sets (turns on) the checkbutton. toggle() Clears the checkbutton if set, sets it if cleared. Example: Try the following example yourself: from Tkinter import * import tkMessageBox import Tkinter top = Tkinter.Tk() CheckVar1 = IntVar() CheckVar2 = IntVar() C1 = Checkbutton(top, text = "Music", variable = CheckVar1, onvalue = 1, offvalue = 0, height=5, width = 20) C2 = Checkbutton(top, text = "Video", variable = CheckVar2, onvalue = 1, offvalue = 0, height=5, width = 20) C1.pack() C2.pack() top.mainloop() When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: Entry The Entry widget is used to accept single-line text strings from a user. If you want to display multiple lines of text that can be edited, then you should use the Text widget. If you want to display one or more lines of text that cannot be modified by the user, then you should use the Label widget.
- 373. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Syntax: Here is the simple syntax to create this widget: w = Entry( master, option, ... ) Parameters: master: This represents the parent window. options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget. These options can be used as key- value pairs separated by commas. Option Description bg The normal background color displayed behind the label and indicator. bd The size of the border around the indicator. Default is 2 pixels. command A procedure to be called every time the user changes the state of this checkbutton. cursor If you set this option to a cursor name (arrow, dot etc.), the mouse cursor will change to that pattern when it is over the checkbutton. font The font used for the text. exportselection By default, if you select text within an Entry widget, it is automatically exported to the clipboard. To avoid this exportation, use exportselection=0. fg The color used to render the text. highlightcolor The color of the focus highlight when the checkbutton has the focus. justify If the text contains multiple lines, this option controls how the text is justified: CENTER, LEFT, or RIGHT. relief With the default value, relief=FLAT, the checkbutton does not stand out from its background. You may set this option to any of the other styles selectbackground The background color to use displaying selected text. selectborderwidth The width of the border to use around selected text. The default is one pixel. selectforeground The foreground (text) color of selected text. show Normally, the characters that the user types appear in the entry. To make a .password. entry that echoes each character as an asterisk, set show="*". state The default is state=NORMAL, but you can use state=DISABLED to gray out the control and make it unresponsive. If the cursor is currently over the checkbutton, the state is ACTIVE. textvariable In order to be able to retrieve the current text from your entry widget, you must set this option to an instance of the StringVar class. width The default width of a checkbutton is determined by the size of the displayed image or text. You can set this option to a number of characters and the checkbutton will always have room for that many characters. xscrollcommand If you expect that users will often enter more text than the onscreen size of the widget, you
- 374. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning can link your entry widget to a scrollbar. Methods: Following are commonly used methods for this widget: Medthod Description delete ( first, last=None ) Deletes characters from the widget, starting with the one at index first, up to but not including the character at position last. If the second argument is omitted, only the single character at position first is deleted. get() Returns the entry's current text as a string. icursor ( index ) Set the insertion cursor just before the character at the given index. index ( index ) Shift the contents of the entry so that the character at the given index is the leftmost visible character. Has no effect if the text fits entirely within the entry. insert ( index, s ) Inserts string s before the character at the given index. select_adjust ( index ) This method is used to make sure that the selection includes the character at the specified index. select_clear() Clears the selection. If there isn't currently a selection, has no effect. select_from ( index ) Sets the ANCHOR index position to the character selected by index, and selects that character. select_present() If there is a selection, returns true, else returns false. select_range ( start, end ) Sets the selection under program control. Selects the text starting at the start index, up to but not including the character at the end index. The start position must be before the end position. select_to ( index ) Selects all the text from the ANCHOR position up to but not including the character at the given index. xview ( index ) This method is useful in linking the Entry widget to a horizontal scrollbar. xview_scroll ( number, what ) Used to scroll the entry horizontally. The what argument must be either UNITS, to scroll by character widths, or PAGES, to scroll by chunks the size of the entry widget. The number is positive to scroll left to right, negative to scroll right to left. Example: Try the following example yourself: from Tkinter import * top = Tk() L1 = Label(top, text="User Name") L1.pack( side = LEFT) E1 = Entry(top, bd =5) E1.pack(side = RIGHT) top.mainloop()
- 375. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: Frame The Frame widget is very important for the process of grouping and organizing other widgets in a somehow friendly way. It works like a container, which is responsible for arranging the position of other widgets. It uses rectangular areas in the screen to organize the layout and to provide padding of these widgets. A frame can also be used as a foundation class to implement complex widgets. Syntax: Here is the simple syntax to create this widget: w = Frame ( master, option, ... ) Parameters: master: This represents the parent window. options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget. These options can be used as key- value pairs separated by commas. Option Description Bg The normal background color displayed behind the label and indicator. Bd The size of the border around the indicator. Default is 2 pixels. Cursor If you set this option to a cursor name (arrow, dot etc.), the mouse cursor will change to that pattern when it is over the checkbutton. Height The vertical dimension of the new frame. highlightbackground Color of the focus highlight when the frame does not have focus. highlightcolor Color shown in the focus highlight when the frame has the focus. highlightthickness Thickness of the focus highlight. Relief With the default value, relief=FLAT, the checkbutton does not stand out from its background. You may set this option to any of the other styles Width The default width of a checkbutton is determined by the size of the displayed image or text. You can set this option to a number of characters and the checkbutton will always have room for that many characters. Example: Try the following example yourself: from Tkinter import *
- 376. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning root = Tk() frame = Frame(root) frame.pack() bottomframe = Frame(root) bottomframe.pack( side = BOTTOM ) redbutton = Button(frame, text="Red", fg="red") redbutton.pack( side = LEFT) greenbutton = Button(frame, text="Brown", fg="brown") greenbutton.pack( side = LEFT ) bluebutton = Button(frame, text="Blue", fg="blue") bluebutton.pack( side = LEFT ) blackbutton = Button(bottomframe, text="Black", fg="black") blackbutton.pack( side = BOTTOM) root.mainloop() When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:: Label This widget implements a display box where you can place text or images. The text displayed by this widget can be updated at any time you want. It is also possible to underline part of the text (like to identify a keyboard shortcut) and span the text across multiple lines. Syntax: Here is the simple syntax to create this widget: w = Label ( master, option, ... ) Parameters: master: This represents the parent window. options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget. These options can be used as key- value pairs separated by commas. Option Description anchor This options controls where the text is positioned if the widget has more space than the text needs. The default is anchor=CENTER, which centers the text in the available space. bg The normal background color displayed behind the label and indicator.
- 377. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning bitmap Set this option equal to a bitmap or image object and the label will display that graphic. bd The size of the border around the indicator. Default is 2 pixels. cursor If you set this option to a cursor name (arrow, dot etc.), the mouse cursor will change to that pattern when it is over the checkbutton. font If you are displaying text in this label (with the text or textvariable option, the font option specifies in what font that text will be displayed. fg If you are displaying text or a bitmap in this label, this option specifies the color of the text. If you are displaying a bitmap, this is the color that will appear at the position of the 1-bits in the bitmap. height The vertical dimension of the new frame. image To display a static image in the label widget, set this option to an image object. justify Specifies how multiple lines of text will be aligned with respect to each other: LEFT for flush left, CENTER for centered (the default), or RIGHT for right-justified. padx Extra space added to the left and right of the text within the widget. Default is 1. pady Extra space added above and below the text within the widget. Default is 1. relief Specifies the appearance of a decorative border around the label. The default is FLAT; for other values. text To display one or more lines of text in a label widget, set this option to a string containing the text. Internal newlines ("n") will force a line break. textvariable To slave the text displayed in a label widget to a control variable of classStringVar, set this option to that variable. underline You can display an underline (_) below the nth letter of the text, counting from 0, by setting this option to n. The default is underline=-1, which means no underlining. width Width of the label in characters (not pixels!). If this option is not set, the label will be sized to fit its contents. wraplength You can limit the number of characters in each line by setting this option to the desired number. The default value, 0, means that lines will be broken only at newlines. Example: Try the following example yourself: from Tkinter import * root = Tk() var = StringVar() label = Label( root, textvariable=var, relief=RAISED ) var.set("Hey!? How are you doing?") label.pack() root.mainloop() When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:
- 378. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Listbox The Listbox widget is used to display a list of items from which a user can select a number of items Syntax: Here is the simple syntax to create this widget: w = Listbox ( master, option, ... ) Parameters: master: This represents the parent window. options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget. These options can be used as key- value pairs separated by commas. Option Description Bg The normal background color displayed behind the label and indicator. Bd The size of the border around the indicator. Default is 2 pixels. Cursor The cursor that appears when the mouse is over the listbox. font The font used for the text in the listbox. fg The color used for the text in the listbox. height Number of lines (not pixels!) shown in the listbox. Default is 10. highlightcolor Color shown in the focus highlight when the widget has the focus. highlightthickness Thickness of the focus highlight. relief Selects three-dimensional border shading effects. The default is SUNKEN. selectbackground The background color to use displaying selected text. selectmode Determines how many items can be selected, and how mouse drags affect the selection: BROWSE: Normally, you can only select one line out of a listbox. If you click on an item and then drag to a different line, the selection will follow the mouse. This is the default. SINGLE: You can only select one line, and you can't drag the mouse.wherever you click button 1, that line is selected. MULTIPLE: You can select any number of lines at once. Clicking on any line toggles whether or not it is selected. EXTENDED: You can select any adjacent group of lines at once by clicking on the first line and dragging to the last line. width The width of the widget in characters. The default is 20.
- 379. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning xscrollcommand If you want to allow the user to scroll the listbox horizontally, you can link your listbox widget to a horizontal scrollbar. yscrollcommand If you want to allow the user to scroll the listbox vertically, you can link your listbox widget to a vertical scrollbar. Methods: Methods on listbox objects include: Option Description activate ( index ) Selects the line specifies by the given index. curselection() Returns a tuple containing the line numbers of the selected element or elements, counting from 0. If nothing is selected, returns an empty tuple. delete ( first, last=None ) Deletes the lines whose indices are in the range [first, last]. If the second argument is omitted, the single line with index first is deleted. get ( first, last=None ) Returns a tuple containing the text of the lines with indices from first to last, inclusive. If the second argument is omitted, returns the text of the line closest to first. index ( i ) If possible, positions the visible part of the listbox so that the line containing index i is at the top of the widget. insert ( index, *elements ) Insert one or more new lines into the listbox before the line specified by index. Use END as the first argument if you want to add new lines to the end of the listbox. nearest ( y ) Return the index of the visible line closest to the y-coordinate y relative to the listbox widget. see ( index ) Adjust the position of the listbox so that the line referred to by index is visible. size() Returns the number of lines in the listbox. xview() To make the listbox horizontally scrollable, set the command option of the associated horizontal scrollbar to this method. xview_moveto ( fraction ) Scroll the listbox so that the leftmost fraction of the width of its longest line is outside the left side of the listbox. Fraction is in the range [0,1]. xview_scroll ( number, what ) Scrolls the listbox horizontally. For the what argument, use either UNITS to scroll by characters, or PAGES to scroll by pages, that is, by the width of the listbox. The number argument tells how many to scroll. yview() To make the listbox vertically scrollable, set the command option of the associated vertical scrollbar to this method. yview_moveto ( fraction ) Scroll the listbox so that the top fraction of the width of its longest line is outside the left side of the listbox. Fraction is in the range [0,1]. yview_scroll ( number, what ) Scrolls the listbox vertically. For the what argument, use either UNITS to scroll by lines, or PAGES to scroll by pages, that is, by the height of the listbox. The number argument tells how many to scroll.
- 380. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Example: Try the following example yourself: from Tkinter import * import tkMessageBox import Tkinter top = Tk() Lb1 = Listbox(top) Lb1.insert(1, "Python") Lb1.insert(2, "Perl") Lb1.insert(3, "C") Lb1.insert(4, "PHP") Lb1.insert(5, "JSP") Lb1.insert(6, "Ruby") Lb1.pack() top.mainloop() When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: Menubutton A menubutton is the part of a drop-down menu that stays on the screen all the time. Every menubutton is associated with a Menu widget that can display the choices for that menubutton when the user clicks on it. Syntax: Here is the simple syntax to create this widget: w = Menubutton ( master, option, ... ) Parameters: master: This represents the parent window. options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget. These options can be used as key- value pairs separated by commas. Option Description
- 381. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning activebackground The background color when the mouse is over the menubutton. activeforeground The foreground color when the mouse is over the menubutton. Anchor This options controls where the text is positioned if the widget has more space than the text needs. The default is anchor=CENTER, which centers the text. Bg The normal background color displayed behind the label and indicator. Bitmap To display a bitmap on the menubutton, set this option to a bitmap name. Bd The size of the border around the indicator. Default is 2 pixels. Cursor The cursor that appears when the mouse is over this menubutton. direction Set direction=LEFT to display the menu to the left of the button; use direction=RIGHT to display the menu to the right of the button; or use direction='above' to place the menu above the button. disabledforeground The foreground color shown on this menubutton when it is disabled. fg The foreground color when the mouse is not over the menubutton. height The height of the menubutton in lines of text (not pixels!). The default is to fit the menubutton's size to its contents. highlightcolor Color shown in the focus highlight when the widget has the focus. image To display an image on this menubutton, justify This option controls where the text is located when the text doesn't fill the menubutton: use justify=LEFT to left-justify the text (this is the default); use justify=CENTER to center it, or justify=RIGHT to right-justify. menu To associate the menubutton with a set of choices, set this option to the Menu object containing those choices. That menu object must have been created by passing the associated menubutton to the constructor as its first argument. padx How much space to leave to the left and right of the text of the menubutton. Default is 1. pady How much space to leave above and below the text of the menubutton. Default is 1. relief Selects three-dimensional border shading effects. The default is RAISED. state Normally, menubuttons respond to the mouse. Set state=DISABLED to gray out the menubutton and make it unresponsive. text To display text on the menubutton, set this option to the string containing the desired text. Newlines ("n") within the string will cause line breaks. textvariable You can associate a control variable of class StringVar with this menubutton. Setting that control variable will change the displayed text. underline Normally, no underline appears under the text on the menubutton. To underline one of the characters, set this option to the index of that character. width The width of the widget in characters. The default is 20.
- 382. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning wraplength Normally, lines are not wrapped. You can set this option to a number of characters and all lines will be broken into pieces no longer than that number. Example: Try the following example yourself: from Tkinter import * import tkMessageBox import Tkinter top = Tk() mb= Menubutton ( top, text="condiments", relief=RAISED ) mb.grid() mb.menu = Menu ( mb, tearoff = 0 ) mb["menu"] = mb.menu mayoVar = IntVar() ketchVar = IntVar() mb.menu.add_checkbutton ( label="mayo", variable=mayoVar ) mb.menu.add_checkbutton ( label="ketchup", variable=ketchVar ) mb.pack() top.mainloop() When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: Menu The goal of this widget is to allow us to create all kinds of menus that can be used by our applications. The core functionality provides ways to create three menu types: pop-up, toplevel and pull-down. It is also possible to use other extended widgets to implement new types of menus, such as the OptionMenu widget, which implements a special type that generates a pop-up list of items within a selection. Syntax: Here is the simple syntax to create this widget: w = Menu ( master, option, ... )
- 383. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Parameters: master: This represents the parent window. options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget. These options can be used as key- value pairs separated by commas. Option Description activebackground The background color that will appear on a choice when it is under the mouse. activeborderwidth Specifies the width of a border drawn around a choice when it is under the mouse. Default is 1 pixel. activeforeground The foreground color that will appear on a choice when it is under the mouse. bg The background color for choices not under the mouse. bd The width of the border around all the choices. Default is 1. cursor The cursor that appears when the mouse is over the choices, but only when the menu has been torn off. disabledforeground The color of the text for items whose state is DISABLED. font The default font for textual choices. fg The foreground color used for choices not under the mouse. postcommand You can set this option to a procedure, and that procedure will be called every time someone brings up this menu. relief The default 3-D effect for menus is relief=RAISED. image To display an image on this menubutton. selectcolor Specifies the color displayed in checkbuttons and radiobuttons when they are selected. tearoff Normally, a menu can be torn off, the first position (position 0) in the list of choices is occupied by the tear-off element, and the additional choices are added starting at position 1. If you set tearoff=0, the menu will not have a tear-off feature, and choices will be added starting at position 0. title Normally, the title of a tear-off menu window will be the same as the text of the menubutton or cascade that lead to this menu. If you want to change the title of that window, set the title option to that string. Methods: These methods are available on Menu objects: Option Description add_command (options) Adds a menu item to the menu. add_radiobutton( options ) Creates a radio button menu item. add_checkbutton( options ) Creates a check button menu item.
- 384. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning add_cascade(options) Creates a new hierarchical menu by associating a given menu to a parent menu add_separator() Adds a separator line to the menu. add( type, options ) Adds a specific type of menu item to the menu. delete( startindex [, endindex ]) Deletes the menu items ranging from startindex to endindex. entryconfig( index, options ) Allows you to modify a menu item, which is identified by the index, and change its options. index(item) Returns the index number of the given menu item label. insert_separator ( index ) Insert a new separator at the position specified by index. invoke ( index ) Calls the command callback associated with the choice at position index. If a checkbutton, its state is toggled between set and cleared; if a radiobutton, that choice is set. type ( index ) Returns the type of the choice specified by index: either "cascade", "checkbutton", "command", "radiobutton", "separator", or "tearoff". Example: Try the following example yourself: from Tkinter import * def donothing(): filewin = Toplevel(root) button = Button(filewin, text="Do nothing button") button.pack() root = Tk() menubar = Menu(root) filemenu = Menu(menubar, tearoff=0) filemenu.add_command(label="New", command=donothing) filemenu.add_command(label="Open", command=donothing) filemenu.add_command(label="Save", command=donothing) filemenu.add_command(label="Save as...", command=donothing) filemenu.add_command(label="Close", command=donothing) filemenu.add_separator() filemenu.add_command(label="Exit", command=root.quit) menubar.add_cascade(label="File", menu=filemenu) editmenu = Menu(menubar, tearoff=0) editmenu.add_command(label="Undo", command=donothing) editmenu.add_separator() editmenu.add_command(label="Cut", command=donothing) editmenu.add_command(label="Copy", command=donothing) editmenu.add_command(label="Paste", command=donothing) editmenu.add_command(label="Delete", command=donothing) editmenu.add_command(label="Select All", command=donothing) menubar.add_cascade(label="Edit", menu=editmenu) helpmenu = Menu(menubar, tearoff=0) helpmenu.add_command(label="Help Index", command=donothing) helpmenu.add_command(label="About...", command=donothing)
- 385. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning menubar.add_cascade(label="Help", menu=helpmenu) root.config(menu=menubar) root.mainloop() When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: Message This widget provides a multiline and noneditable object that displays texts, automatically breaking lines and justifying their contents. Its functionality is very similar to the one provided by the Label widget, except that it can also automatically wrap the text, maintaining a given width or aspect ratio. Syntax: Here is the simple syntax to create this widget: w = Message ( master, option, ... ) Parameters: master: This represents the parent window. options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget. These options can be used as key- value pairs separated by commas. Option Description Anchor This options controls where the text is positioned if the widget has more space than the text needs. The default is anchor=CENTER, which centers the text in the available space. Bg The normal background color displayed behind the label and indicator. Bitmap Set this option equal to a bitmap or image object and the label will display that graphic. Bd The size of the border around the indicator. Default is 2 pixels.
- 386. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Cursor If you set this option to a cursor name (arrow, dot etc.), the mouse cursor will change to that pattern when it is over the checkbutton. Font If you are displaying text in this label (with the text or textvariable option, the font option specifies in what font that text will be displayed. Fg If you are displaying text or a bitmap in this label, this option specifies the color of the text. If you are displaying a bitmap, this is the color that will appear at the position of the 1-bits in the bitmap. Height The vertical dimension of the new frame. image To display a static image in the label widget, set this option to an image object. justify Specifies how multiple lines of text will be aligned with respect to each other: LEFT for flush left, CENTER for centered (the default), or RIGHT for right-justified. padx Extra space added to the left and right of the text within the widget. Default is 1. pady Extra space added above and below the text within the widget. Default is 1. relief Specifies the appearance of a decorative border around the label. The default is FLAT; for other values. text To display one or more lines of text in a label widget, set this option to a string containing the text. Internal newlines ("n") will force a line break. textvariable To slave the text displayed in a label widget to a control variable of classStringVar, set this option to that variable. underline You can display an underline (_) below the nth letter of the text, counting from 0, by setting this option to n. The default is underline=-1, which means no underlining. width Width of the label in characters (not pixels!). If this option is not set, the label will be sized to fit its contents. wraplength You can limit the number of characters in each line by setting this option to the desired number. The default value, 0, means that lines will be broken only at newlines. Example: Try the following example yourself: from Tkinter import * root = Tk() var = StringVar() label = Message( root, textvariable=var, relief=RAISED ) var.set("Hey!? How are you doing?") label.pack() root.mainloop() When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:
- 387. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Radiobutton This widget implements a multiple-choice button, which is a way to offer many possible selections to the user and lets user choose only one of them. In order to implement this functionality, each group of radiobuttons must be associated to the same variable and each one of the buttons must symbolize a single value. You can use the Tab key to switch from one radionbutton to another. Syntax: Here is the simple syntax to create this widget: w = Radiobutton ( master, option, ... ) Parameters: master: This represents the parent window. options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget. These options can be used as key- value pairs separated by commas. Option Description activebackground The background color when the mouse is over the radiobutton. activeforeground The foreground color when the mouse is over the radiobutton. Anchor If the widget inhabits a space larger than it needs, this option specifies where the radiobutton will sit in that space. The default is anchor=CENTER. Bg The normal background color behind the indicator and label. Bitmap To display a monochrome image on a radiobutton, set this option to a bitmap. Borderwidth The size of the border around the indicator part itself. Default is 2 pixels. Command A procedure to be called every time the user changes the state of this radiobutton. Cursor If you set this option to a cursor name (arrow, dot etc.), the mouse cursor will change to that pattern when it is over the radiobutton. Font The font used for the text. Fg The color used to render the text. Height The number of lines (not pixels) of text on the radiobutton. Default is 1. highlightbackground The color of the focus highlight when the radiobutton does not have focus. Highlightcolor The color of the focus highlight when the radiobutton has the focus.
- 388. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Image To display a graphic image instead of text for this radiobutton, set this option to an image object. Justify If the text contains multiple lines, this option controls how the text is justified: CENTER (the default), LEFT, or RIGHT. Padx How much space to leave to the left and right of the radiobutton and text. Default is 1. Pady How much space to leave above and below the radiobutton and text. Default is 1. Relief Specifies the appearance of a decorative border around the label. The default is FLAT; for other values. Selectcolor The color of the radiobutton when it is set. Default is red. Selectimage If you are using the image option to display a graphic instead of text when the radiobutton is cleared, you can set the selectimage option to a different image that will be displayed when the radiobutton is set. State The default is state=NORMAL, but you can set state=DISABLED to gray out the control and make it unresponsive. If the cursor is currently over the radiobutton, the state is ACTIVE. Text The label displayed next to the radiobutton. Use newlines ("n") to display multiple lines of text. Textvariable To slave the text displayed in a label widget to a control variable of classStringVar, set this option to that variable. Underline You can display an underline (_) below the nth letter of the text, counting from 0, by setting this option to n. The default is underline=-1, which means no underlining. Value When a radiobutton is turned on by the user, its control variable is set to its current value option. If the control variable is an IntVar, give each radiobutton in the group a different integer value option. If the control variable is aStringVar, give each radiobutton a different string value option. Variable The control variable that this radiobutton shares with the other radiobuttons in the group. This can be either an IntVar or a StringVar. Width Width of the label in characters (not pixels!). If this option is not set, the label will be sized to fit its contents. Wraplength You can limit the number of characters in each line by setting this option to the desired number. The default value, 0, means that lines will be broken only at newlines. Methods: Methods Description deselect() Clears (turns off) the radiobutton. flash() Flashes the radiobutton a few times between its active and normal colors, but leaves it the way it started. invoke() You can call this method to get the same actions that would occur if the user clicked on the radiobutton to change its state. select() Sets (turns on) the radiobutton.
- 389. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Example: Try the following example yourself: from Tkinter import * def sel(): selection = "You selected the option " + str(var.get()) label.config(text = selection) root = Tk() var = IntVar() R1 = Radiobutton(root, text="Option 1", variable=var, value=1, command=sel) R1.pack( anchor = W ) R2 = Radiobutton(root, text="Option 2", variable=var, value=2, command=sel) R2.pack( anchor = W ) R3 = Radiobutton(root, text="Option 3", variable=var, value=3, command=sel) R3.pack( anchor = W) label = Label(root) label.pack() root.mainloop() When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: Scale The Scale widget provides a graphical slider object that allows you to select values from a specific scale. Syntax: Here is the simple syntax to create this widget: w = Scale ( master, option, ... ) Parameters: master: This represents the parent window. options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget. These options can be used as key- value pairs separated by commas. Option Description
- 390. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning activebackground The background color when the mouse is over the scale. bg The background color of the parts of the widget that are outside the trough. bd Width of the 3-d border around the trough and slider. Default is 2 pixels. command A procedure to be called every time the slider is moved. This procedure will be passed one argument, the new scale value. If the slider is moved rapidly, you may not get a callback for every possible position, but you'll certainly get a callback when it settles. cursor If you set this option to a cursor name (arrow, dot etc.), the mouse cursor will change to that pattern when it is over the scale. digits The way your program reads the current value shown in a scale widget is through a control variable. The control variable for a scale can be an IntVar, a DoubleVar (float), or a StringVar. If it is a string variable, the digits option controls how many digits to use when the numeric scale value is converted to a string. font The font used for the label and annotations. fg The color of the text used for the label and annotations. from_ A float or integer value that defines one end of the scale's range. highlightbackground The color of the focus highlight when the scale does not have focus. highlightcolor The color of the focus highlight when the scale has the focus. label You can display a label within the scale widget by setting this option to the label's text. The label appears in the top left corner if the scale is horizontal, or the top right corner if vertical. The default is no label. length The length of the scale widget. This is the x dimension if the scale is horizontal, or the y dimension if vertical. The default is 100 pixels. orient Set orient=HORIZONTAL if you want the scale to run along the x dimension, or orient=VERTICAL to run parallel to the y-axis. Default is horizontal. relief Specifies the appearance of a decorative border around the label. The default is FLAT; for other values. repeatdelay This option controls how long button 1 has to be held down in the trough before the slider starts moving in that direction repeatedly. Default is repeatdelay=300, and the units are milliseconds. resolution Normally, the user will only be able to change the scale in whole units. Set this option to some other value to change the smallest increment of the scale's value. For example, if from_=-1.0 and to=1.0, and you set resolution=0.5, the scale will have 5 possible values: - 1.0, -0.5, 0.0, +0.5, and +1.0. showvalue Normally, the current value of the scale is displayed in text form by the slider (above it for horizontal scales, to the left for vertical scales). Set this option to 0 to suppress that label. sliderlength Normally the slider is 30 pixels along the length of the scale. You can change that length by setting the sliderlength option to your desired length. state Normally, scale widgets respond to mouse events, and when they have the focus, also keyboard events. Set state=DISABLED to make the widget unresponsive.
- 391. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning takefocus Normally, the focus will cycle through scale widgets. Set this option to 0 if you don't want this behavior. tickinterval To display periodic scale values, set this option to a number, and ticks will be displayed on multiples of that value. For example, if from_=0.0, to=1.0, and tickinterval=0.25, labels will be displayed along the scale at values 0.0, 0.25, 0.50, 0.75, and 1.00. These labels appear below the scale if horizontal, to its left if vertical. Default is 0, which suppresses display of ticks. to A float or integer value that defines one end of the scale's range; the other end is defined by the from_ option, discussed above. The to value can be either greater than or less than the from_ value. For vertical scales, the to value defines the bottom of the scale; for horizontal scales, the right end. troughcolor The color of the trough. variable The control variable for this scale, if any. Control variables may be from class IntVar, DoubleVar (float), or StringVar. In the latter case, the numerical value will be converted to a string. width The width of the trough part of the widget. This is the x dimension for vertical scales and the y dimension if the scale has orient=HORIZONTAL. Default is 15 pixels. Methods: Scale objects have these methods: Methods Description get() This method returns the current value of the scale. set ( value ) Sets the scale's value. Example: Try the following example yourself: from Tkinter import * def sel(): selection = "Value = " + str(var.get()) label.config(text = selection) root = Tk() var = DoubleVar() scale = Scale( root, variable = var ) scale.pack(anchor=CENTER) button = Button(root, text="Get Scale Value", command=sel) button.pack(anchor=CENTER) label = Label(root) label.pack() root.mainloop() When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:
- 392. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Scrollbar This widget provides a slide controller that is used to implement vertical scrolled widgets, such as Listbox, Text and Canvas. Note that you can also create horizontal scrollbars on Entry widgets. Syntax: Here is the simple syntax to create this widget: w = Scrollbar ( master, option, ... ) Parameters: master: This represents the parent window. options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget. These options can be used as key- value pairs separated by commas. Option Description activebackground The color of the slider and arrowheads when the mouse is over them. Bg The color of the slider and arrowheads when the mouse is not over them. Bd The width of the 3-d borders around the entire perimeter of the trough, and also the width of the 3-d effects on the arrowheads and slider. Default is no border around the trough, and a 2-pixel border around the arrowheads and slider. command A procedure to be called whenever the scrollbar is moved. Cursor The cursor that appears when the mouse is over the scrollbar. elementborderwidth The width of the borders around the arrowheads and slider. The default is elementborderwidth=-1, which means to use the value of the borderwidth option. highlightbackground The color of the focus highlight when the scrollbar does not have focus. highlightcolor The color of the focus highlight when the scrollbar has the focus. highlightthickness The thickness of the focus highlight. Default is 1. Set to 0 to suppress display of the focus highlight. jump This option controls what happens when a user drags the slider. Normally (jump=0), every small drag of the slider causes the command callback to be called. If you set this option to 1, the callback isn't called until the user releases the mouse button.
- 393. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning orient Set orient=HORIZONTAL for a horizontal scrollbar, orient=VERTICAL for a vertical one. repeatdelay This option controls how long button 1 has to be held down in the trough before the slider starts moving in that direction repeatedly. Default is repeatdelay=300, and the units are milliseconds. repeatinterval repeatinterval takefocus Normally, you can tab the focus through a scrollbar widget. Set takefocus=0 if you don't want this behavior. troughcolor The color of the trough. width Width of the scrollbar (its y dimension if horizontal, and its x dimension if vertical). Default is 16. Methods: Scrollbar objects have these methods: Methods Description get() Returns two numbers (a, b) describing the current position of the slider. The a value gives the position of the left or top edge of the slider, for horizontal and vertical scrollbars respectively; the b value gives the position of the right or bottom edge. set ( first, last ) To connect a scrollbar to another widget w, set w's xscrollcommand or yscrollcommand to the scrollbar's set() method. The arguments have the same meaning as the values returned by the get() method. Example: Try the following example yourself: from Tkinter import * root = Tk() scrollbar = Scrollbar(root) scrollbar.pack( side = RIGHT, fill=Y ) mylist = Listbox(root, yscrollcommand = scrollbar.set ) for line in range(100): mylist.insert(END, "This is line number " + str(line)) mylist.pack( side = LEFT, fill = BOTH ) scrollbar.config( command = mylist.yview ) mainloop() When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:
- 394. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Text Text widgets provide advanced capabilities that allow you to edit a multiline text and format the way it has to be displayed, such as changing its color and font. You can also use elegant structures like tabs and marks to locate specific sections of the text, and apply changes to those areas. Moreover, you can embed windows and images in the text because this widget was designed to handle both plain and formatted text. Syntax: Here is the simple syntax to create this widget: w = Text ( master, option, ... ) Parameters: master: This represents the parent window. options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget. These options can be used as key- value pairs separated by commas. Option Description bg The default background color of the text widget. bd The width of the border around the text widget. Default is 2 pixels. cursor The cursor that will appear when the mouse is over the text widget. exportselection Normally, text selected within a text widget is exported to be the selection in the window manager. Set exportselection=0 if you don't want that behavior. font The default font for text inserted into the widget. fg The color used for text (and bitmaps) within the widget. You can change the color for tagged regions; this option is just the default. height The height of the widget in lines (not pixels!), measured according to the current font size. highlightbackground The color of the focus highlight when the text widget does not have focus. highlightcolor The color of the focus highlight when the text widget has the focus.
- 395. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning highlightthickness The thickness of the focus highlight. Default is 1. Set highlightthickness=0 to suppress display of the focus highlight. insertbackground The color of the insertion cursor. Default is black. insertborderwidth Size of the 3-D border around the insertion cursor. Default is 0. insertofftime The number of milliseconds the insertion cursor is off during its blink cycle. Set this option to zero to suppress blinking. Default is 300. insertontime The number of milliseconds the insertion cursor is on during its blink cycle. Default is 600. insertwidth Width of the insertion cursor (its height is determined by the tallest item in its line). Default is 2 pixels. padx The size of the internal padding added to the left and right of the text area. Default is one pixel. pady The size of the internal padding added above and below the text area. Default is one pixel. relief The 3-D appearance of the text widget. Default is relief=SUNKEN. selectbackground The background color to use displaying selected text. selectborderwidth The width of the border to use around selected text. spacing1 This option specifies how much extra vertical space is put above each line of text. If a line wraps, this space is added only before the first line it occupies on the display. Default is 0. spacing2 This option specifies how much extra vertical space to add between displayed lines of text when a logical line wraps. Default is 0. spacing3 This option specifies how much extra vertical space is added below each line of text. If a line wraps, this space is added only after the last line it occupies on the display. Default is 0. state Normally, text widgets respond to keyboard and mouse events; set state=NORMAL to get this behavior. If you set state=DISABLED, the text widget will not respond, and you won't be able to modify its contents programmatically either. tabs This option controls how tab characters position text. width The width of the widget in characters (not pixels!), measured according to the current font size. wrap This option controls the display of lines that are too wide. Set wrap=WORD and it will break the line after the last word that will fit. With the default behavior, wrap=CHAR, any line that gets too long will be broken at any character. xscrollcommand To make the text widget horizontally scrollable, set this option to the set() method of the horizontal scrollbar. yscrollcommand To make the text widget vertically scrollable, set this option to the set() method of the vertical scrollbar. Methods: Text objects have these methods:
- 396. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Methods & Description delete(startindex [,endindex]) This method deletes a specific character or a range of text. get(startindex [,endindex]) This method returns a specific character or a range of text. index(index) Returns the absolute value of an index based on the given index. insert(index [,string]...) This method inserts strings at the specified index location. see(index) This method returns true if the text located at the index position is visible. Text widgets support three distinct helper structures: Marks, Tabs, and Indexes: Marks are used to bookmark positions between two characters within a given text. We have the following methods available when handling marks: Methods & Description index(mark) Returns the line and column location of a specific mark. mark_gravity(mark [,gravity]) Returns the gravity of the given mark. If the second argument is provided, the gravity is set for the given mark. mark_names() Returns all marks from the Text widget. mark_set(mark, index) Informs a new position to the given mark. mark_unset(mark) Removes the given mark from the Text widget. Tags are used to associate names to regions of text which makes easy the task of modifying the display settings of specific text areas. Tags are also used to bind event callbacks to specific ranges of text. Following are the available methods for handling tabs: Methods & Description tag_add(tagname, startindex[,endindex] ...) This method tags either the position defined by startindex, or a range delimited by the positions startindex and endindex. tag_config You can use this method to configure the tag properties, which include, justify(center, left, or right), tabs(this property has the same functionality of the Text widget tabs's property), and underline(used to underline the tagged text). tag_delete(tagname) This method is used to delete and remove a given tag.
- 397. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning tag_remove(tagname [,startindex[.endindex]] ...) After applying this method, the given tag is removed from the provided area without deleting the actual tag definition. Example: Try the following example yourself: from Tkinter import * def onclick(): pass root = Tk() text = Text(root) text.insert(INSERT, "Hello.....") text.insert(END, "Bye Bye.....") text.pack() text.tag_add("here", "1.0", "1.4") text.tag_add("start", "1.8", "1.13") text.tag_config("here", background="yellow", foreground="blue") text.tag_config("start", background="black", foreground="green") root.mainloop() When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: Toplevel Toplevel widgets work as windows that are directly managed by the window manager. They do not necessarily have a parent widget on top of them. Your application can use any number of top-level windows. Syntax: Here is the simple syntax to create this widget: w = Toplevel ( option, ... ) Parameters: options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget. These options can be used as key- value pairs separated by commas.
- 398. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Option Description bg The background color of the window. bd Border width in pixels; default is 0. cursor The cursor that appears when the mouse is in this window. class_ Normally, text selected within a text widget is exported to be the selection in the window manager. Set exportselection=0 if you don't want that behavior. font The default font for text inserted into the widget. Fg The color used for text (and bitmaps) within the widget. You can change the color for tagged regions; this option is just the default. Height Window height. Relief Normally, a top-level window will have no 3-d borders around it. To get a shaded border, set the bd option larger that its default value of zero, and set the relief option to one of the constants. Width The desired width of the window. Methods: Toplevel objects have these methods: Methods & Description deiconify() Displays the window, after using either the iconify or the withdraw methods. frame() Returns a system-specific window identifier. group(window) Adds the window to the window group administered by the given window. iconify() Turns the window into an icon, without destroying it. protocol(name, function) Registers a function as a callback which will be called for the given protocol. iconify() Turns the window into an icon, without destroying it. state() Returns the current state of the window. Possible values are normal, iconic, withdrawn and icon. transient([master]) Turns the window into a temporary(transient) window for the given master or to the window's parent, when no argument is given. withdraw() Removes the window from the screen, without destroying it.
- 399. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning maxsize(width, height) Defines the maximum size for this window. minsize(width, height) Defines the minimum size for this window. positionfrom(who) Defines the position controller. resizable(width, height) Defines the resize flags, which control whether the window can be resized. sizefrom(who) Defines the size controller. title(string) Defines the window title. Example: Try the following example yourself: from Tkinter import * root = Tk() top = Toplevel() top.mainloop() When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: Spinbox The Spinbox widget is a variant of the standard Tkinter Entry widget, which can be used to select from a fixed number of values.
- 400. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Syntax: Here is the simple syntax to create this widget: w = Spinbox( master, option, ... ) Parameters: master: This represents the parent window. options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget. These options can be used as key- value pairs separated by commas. Option Description activebackground The color of the slider and arrowheads when the mouse is over them. Bg The color of the slider and arrowheads when the mouse is not over them. Bd The width of the 3-d borders around the entire perimeter of the trough, and also the width of the 3-d effects on the arrowheads and slider. Default is no border around the trough, and a 2-pixel border around the arrowheads and slider. command A procedure to be called whenever the scrollbar is moved. Cursor The cursor that appears when the mouse is over the scrollbar. disabledbackground The background color to use when the widget is disabled. disabledforeground The text color to use when the widget is disabled. Fg Text color. Font The font to use in this widget. Format Format string. No default value. from_ The minimum value. Used together with to to limit the spinbox range. Justify Default is LEFT Relief Default is SUNKEN. repeatdelay Together with repeatinterval, this option controls button auto-repeat. Both values are given in milliseconds. repeatinterval See repeatdelay. State One of NORMAL, DISABLED, or "readonly". Default is NORMAL. textvariable No default value. To See from. Validate Validation mode. Default is NONE. validatecommand Validation callback. No default value.
- 401. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Values A tuple containing valid values for this widget. Overrides from/to/increment. Vcmd Same as validatecommand. Width Widget width, in character units. Default is 20. Wrap If true, the up and down buttons will wrap around. xscrollcommand Used to connect a spinbox field to a horizontal scrollbar. This option should be set to the set method of the corresponding scrollbar. Methods: Spinbox objects have these methods: Methods & Description delete(startindex [,endindex]) This method deletes a specific character or a range of text. get(startindex [,endindex]) This method returns a specific character or a range of text. identify(x, y) Identifies the widget element at the given location. index(index) Returns the absolute value of an index based on the given index. insert(index [,string]...) This method inserts strings at the specified index location. invoke(element) Invokes a spinbox button. Example: Try the following example yourself: from Tkinter import * master = Tk() w = Spinbox(master, from_=0, to=10) w.pack() mainloop() When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:
- 402. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning PanedWindow A PanedWindow is a container widget that may contain any number of panes, arranged horizontally or vertically. Each pane contains one widget and each pair of panes is separated by a moveable (via mouse movements) sash. Moving a sash causes the widgets on either side of the sash to be resized. Syntax: Here is the simple syntax to create this widget: w = PanedWindow( master, option, ... ) Parameters: master: This represents the parent window. options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget. These options can be used as key- value pairs separated by commas. Option Description bg The color of the slider and arrowheads when the mouse is not over them. bd The width of the 3-d borders around the entire perimeter of the trough, and also the width of the 3-d effects on the arrowheads and slider. Default is no border around the trough, and a 2-pixel border around the arrowheads and slider. borderwidth Default is 2. cursor The cursor that appears when the mouse is over the window. handlepad Default is 8. handlesize Default is 8. height No default value. orient Default is HORIZONTAL. relief Default is FLAT. sashcursor No default value. sashrelief Default is RAISED. sashwidth Default is 2.
- 403. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning showhandle No default value width No default value. Methods: PanedWindow objects have these methods: Methods & Description add(child, options) Adds a child window to the paned window. get(startindex [,endindex]) This method returns a specific character or a range of text. config(options) Modifies one or more widget options. If no options are given, the method returns a dictionary containing all current option values. Example: Try the following example yourself. Here's how to create a 3-pane widget: from Tkinter import * m1 = PanedWindow() m1.pack(fill=BOTH, expand=1) left = Label(m1, text="left pane") m1.add(left) m2 = PanedWindow(m1, orient=VERTICAL) m1.add(m2) top = Label(m2, text="top pane") m2.add(top) bottom = Label(m2, text="bottom pane") m2.add(bottom) mainloop() When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:
- 404. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning LabelFrame A labelframe is a simple container widget. Its primary purpose is to act as a spacer or container for complex window layouts. This widget has the features of a frame plus the ability to display a label. Syntax: Here is the simple syntax to create this widget: w = LabelFrame( master, option, ... ) Parameters: master: This represents the parent window. options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget. These options can be used as key- value pairs separated by commas. Option Description bg The normal background color displayed behind the label and indicator. Bd The size of the border around the indicator. Default is 2 pixels. cursor If you set this option to a cursor name (arrow, dot etc.), the mouse cursor will change to that pattern when it is over the checkbutton. font The vertical dimension of the new frame. height The vertical dimension of the new frame. labelAnchor Specifies where to place the label. highlightbackground Color of the focus highlight when the frame does not have focus. highlightcolor Color shown in the focus highlight when the frame has the focus. highlightthickness Thickness of the focus highlight. relief With the default value, relief=FLAT, the checkbutton does not stand out from its background. You may set this option to any of the other styles text Specifies a string to be displayed inside the widget. width Specifies the desired width for the window. Example: Try the following example yourself. Here's how to create a labelframe widget: from Tkinter import * root = Tk() labelframe = LabelFrame(root, text="This is a LabelFrame") labelframe.pack(fill="both", expand="yes")
- 405. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning left = Label(labelframe, text="Inside the LabelFrame") left.pack() root.mainloop() When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: tkMessageBox The tkMessageBox module is used to display message boxes in your applications. This module provides a number of functions that you can use to display an appropriate message. Some of these functions are showinfo, showwarning, showerror, askquestion, askokcancel, askyesno and askretryignore. Syntax: Here is the simple syntax to create this widget: tkMessageBox.FunctionName(title, message [, options]) Parameters: FunctionName: This is the name of the appropriate message box function. title: This is the text to be displayed in the title bar of a message box. message: This is the text to be displayed as a message. options: options are alternative choices that you may use to tailor a standard message box. Some of the options that you can use are default and parent. The default option is used to specify the default button, such as ABORT, RETRY, or IGNORE in the message box. The parent option is used to specify the window on top of which the message box is to be displayed. You could use one of the following functions with dialogue box: showinfo() showwarning() showerror () askquestion() askokcancel()
- 406. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning askyesno () askretrycancel () Example: Try the following example yourself: import Tkinter import tkMessageBox top = Tkinter.Tk() def hello(): tkMessageBox.showinfo("Say Hello", "Hello World") B1 = Tkinter.Button(top, text = "Say Hello", command = hello) B1.pack() top.mainloop() When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: Standard attributes: Let's take a look at how some of their common attributes, such as sizes, colors and fonts are specified. Dimensions Colors Fonts Anchors Relief styles Bitmaps Cursors Each attributes is explained below individually Dimensions Various lengths, widths, and other dimensions of widgets can be described in many different units. If you set a dimension to an integer, it is assumed to be in pixels.
- 407. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning You can specify units by setting a dimension to a string containing a number followed by: Character Description C Centimeters I Inches M Millimeters P Printer's points (about 1/72") Length options: Tkinter expresses a length as an integer number of pixels. Here is the list of common length options: borderwidth: Width of the border which gives a three-dimensional look to the widget. highlightthickness: Width of the highlight rectangle when the widget has focus . padX padY: Extra space the widget requests from its layout manager beyond the minimum the widget needs to display its contents in the x and y directions. selectborderwidth: Width of the three-dimentional border around selected items of the widget. wraplength: Maximum line length for widgets that perform word wrapping. height: Desired height of the widget; must be greater than or equal to 1. underline: Index of the character to underline in the widget's text (0 is the first character, 1 the second one, and so on). width: Desired width of the widget. Colors Tkinter represents colors with strings. There are two general ways to specify colors in Tkinter: You can use a string specifying the proportion of red, green and blue in hexadecimal digits. For example, "#fff" is white, "#000000" is black, "#000fff000" is pure green, and "#00ffff" is pure cyan (green plus blue). You can also use any locally defined standard color name. The colors "white", "black", "red", "green", "blue", "cyan", "yellow", and "magenta" will always be available. Color options: The common color options are: activebackground: Background color for the widget when the widget is active. activeforeground: Foreground color for the widget when the widget is active. background: Background color for the widget. This can also be represented as bg. disabledforeground: Foreground color for the widget when the widget is disabled. foreground: Foreground color for the widget. This can also be represented as fg. highlightbackground: Background color of the highlight region when the widget has focus. highlightcolor: Foreground color of the highlight region when the widget has focus. selectbackground: Background color for the selected items of the widget. selectforeground: Foreground color for the selected items of the widget. Fonts There may be up to three ways to specify type style.
- 408. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Simple Tuple Fonts: As a tuple whose first element is the font family, followed by a size in points, optionally followed by a string containing one or more of the style modifiers bold, italic, underline and overstrike. EXAMPLE: ("Helvetica", "16") for a 16-point Helvetica regular. ("Times", "24", "bold italic") for a 24-point Times bold italic. Font object Fonts: You can create a "font object" by importing the tkFont module and using its Font class constructor: import tkFont font = tkFont.Font ( option, ... ) Here is the list of options: family: The font family name as a string. size: The font height as an integer in points. To get a font n pixels high, use -n. weight: "bold" for boldface, "normal" for regular weight. slant: "italic" for italic, "roman" for unslanted. underline: 1 for underlined text, 0 for normal. overstrike: 1 for overstruck text, 0 for normal. EXAMPLE: helv36 = tkFont.Font(family="Helvetica",size=36,weight="bold") X Window Fonts: If you are running under the X Window System, you can use any of the X font names. For example, the font named "-*-lucidatypewriter-medium-r-*-*-*-140-*-*-*-*-*-*" is the author's favorite fixed-width font for onscreen use. Use the xfontsel program to help you select pleasing fonts. Anchors Anchors are used to define where text is positioned relative to a reference point. Here is list of possible constants, which can be used for Anchor attribute. NW N NE W CENTER
- 409. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning E SW S SE For example, if you use CENTER as a text anchor, the text will be centered horizontally and vertically around the reference point. Anchor NW will position the text so that the reference point coincides with the northwest (top left) corner of the box containing the text. Anchor W will center the text vertically around the reference point, with the left edge of the text box passing through that point, and so on. If you create a small widget inside a large frame and use the anchor=SE option, the widget will be placed in the bottom right corner of the frame. If you used anchor=N instead, the widget would be centered along the top edge. Example: The anchor constants are shown in this diagram: Relief Styles The relief style of a widget refers to certain simulated 3-D effects around the outside of the widget. Here is a screenshot of a row of buttons exhibiting all the possible relief styles: Here is list of possible constants which can be used for relief attribute. FLAT RAISED SUNKEN
- 410. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning GROOVE RIDGE Example: from Tkinter import * import Tkinter top = Tkinter.Tk() B1 = Tkinter.Button(top, text ="FLAT", relief=FLAT ) B2 = Tkinter.Button(top, text ="RAISED", relief=RAISED ) B3 = Tkinter.Button(top, text ="SUNKEN", relief=SUNKEN ) B4 = Tkinter.Button(top, text ="GROOVE", relief=GROOVE ) B5 = Tkinter.Button(top, text ="RIDGE", relief=RIDGE ) B1.pack() B2.pack() B3.pack() B4.pack() B5.pack() top.mainloop() When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: Bitmaps You would use this attribute to display a bitmap. There are following type of bitmaps available: "error" "gray75" "gray50" "gray25" "gray12"
- 411. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning "hourglass" "info" "questhead" "question" "warning" Example: from Tkinter import * import Tkinter top = Tkinter.Tk() B1 = Tkinter.Button(top, text ="error", relief=RAISED, bitmap="error") B2 = Tkinter.Button(top, text ="hourglass", relief=RAISED, bitmap="hourglass") B3 = Tkinter.Button(top, text ="info", relief=RAISED, bitmap="info") B4 = Tkinter.Button(top, text ="question", relief=RAISED, bitmap="question") B5 = Tkinter.Button(top, text ="warning", relief=RAISED, bitmap="warning") B1.pack() B2.pack() B3.pack() B4.pack() B5.pack() top.mainloop() When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: Cursors Python Tkinter supports quite a number of different mouse cursors available. The exact graphic may vary according to your operating system.
- 412. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Here is the list of interesting ones: "arrow" "circle" "clock" "cross" "dotbox" "exchange" "fleur" "heart" "heart" "man" "mouse" "pirate" "plus" "shuttle" "sizing" "spider" "spraycan" "star" "target" "tcross" "trek" "watch" Example: Try the following example by moving cursor on different buttons: from Tkinter import * import Tkinter
- 413. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning top = Tkinter.Tk() B1 = Tkinter.Button(top, text ="circle", relief=RAISED, cursor="circle") B2 = Tkinter.Button(top, text ="plus", relief=RAISED, cursor="plus") B1.pack() B2.pack() top.mainloop() Geometry Management: All Tkinter widgets have access to specific geometry management methods, which have the purpose of organizing widgets throughout the parent widget area. Tkinter exposes the following geometry manager classes: pack, grid and place. The pack() Method - This geometry manager organizes widgets in blocks before placing them in the parent widget. The grid() Method - This geometry manager organizes widgets in a table-like structure in the parent widget. The place() Method -This geometry manager organizes widgets by placing them in a specific position in the parent widget. The pack() Method This geometry manager organizes widgets in blocks before placing them in the parent widget. Syntax: widget.pack( pack_options ) Here is the list of possible options: expand: When set to true, widget expands to fill any space not otherwise used in widget's parent. fill: Determines whether widget fills any extra space allocated to it by the packer, or keeps its own minimal dimensions: NONE (default), X (fill only horizontally), Y (fill only vertically), or BOTH (fill both horizontally and vertically). side: Determines which side of the parent widget packs against: TOP (default), BOTTOM, LEFT, or RIGHT. Example: Try the following example by moving cursor on different buttons: from Tkinter import * root = Tk() frame = Frame(root) frame.pack() bottomframe = Frame(root) bottomframe.pack( side = BOTTOM ) redbutton = Button(frame, text="Red", fg="red") redbutton.pack( side = LEFT) greenbutton = Button(frame, text="Brown", fg="brown") greenbutton.pack( side = LEFT ) bluebutton = Button(frame, text="Blue", fg="blue") bluebutton.pack( side = LEFT )
- 414. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning blackbutton = Button(bottomframe, text="Black", fg="black") blackbutton.pack( side = BOTTOM) root.mainloop() When the above code is executed, it produces the following result: The grid() Method This geometry manager organizes widgets in a table-like structure in the parent widget. Syntax: widget.grid( grid_options ) Here is the list of possible options: column : The column to put widget in; default 0 (leftmost column). columnspan: How many columns widgetoccupies; default 1. ipadx, ipady :How many pixels to pad widget, horizontally and vertically, inside widget's borders. padx, pady : How many pixels to pad widget, horizontally and vertically, outside v's borders. row: The row to put widget in; default the first row that is still empty. rowspan : How many rowswidget occupies; default 1. sticky : What to do if the cell is larger than widget. By default, with sticky='', widget is centered in its cell. sticky may be the string concatenation of zero or more of N, E, S, W, NE, NW, SE, and SW, compass directions indicating the sides and corners of the cell to which widget sticks. Example: Try the following example by moving cursor on different buttons: import Tkinter root = Tkinter.Tk( ) for r in range(3): for c in range(4): Tkinter.Label(root, text='R%s/C%s'%(r,c), borderwidth=1 ).grid(row=r,column=c) root.mainloop( ) This would produce the following result displaying 12 labels arrayed in a 3 x 4 grid:
- 415. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning The place() Method This geometry manager organizes widgets by placing them in a specific position in the parent widget. Syntax: widget.place( place_options ) Here is the list of possible options: anchor : The exact spot of widget other options refer to: may be N, E, S, W, NE, NW, SE, or SW, compass directions indicating the corners and sides of widget; default is NW (the upper left corner of widget) bordermode : INSIDE (the default) to indicate that other options refer to the parent's inside (ignoring the parent's border); OUTSIDE otherwise. height, width : Height and width in pixels. relheight, relwidth : Height and width as a float between 0.0 and 1.0, as a fraction of the height and width of the parent widget. relx, rely : Horizontal and vertical offset as a float between 0.0 and 1.0, as a fraction of the height and width of the parent widget. x, y : Horizontal and vertical offset in pixels. Example: Try the following example by moving cursor on different buttons: from Tkinter import * import tkMessageBox import Tkinter top = Tkinter.Tk() def helloCallBack(): tkMessageBox.showinfo( "Hello Python", "Hello World") B = Tkinter.Button(top, text ="Hello", command = helloCallBack) B.pack() B.place(bordermode=OUTSIDE, height=100, width=100) top.mainloop() When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:
- 416. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Python Further Extensions Any code that you write using any compiled language like C, C++ or Java can be integrated or imported into another Python script. This code is considered as an "extension." A Python extension module is nothing more than a normal C library. On Unix machines, these libraries usually end in .so (for shared object). On Windows machines, you typically see .dll (for dynamically linked library). Pre-Requisite: To start writing your extension, you are going to need the Python header files. On Unix machines, this usually requires installing a developer-specific package such as python2.5-dev. Windows users get these headers as part of the package when they use the binary Python installer. Additionally, it is assumed that you have good knowledge of C or C++ to write any Python Extension using C programming. First look at a Python extension: For your first look at a Python extension module, you'll be grouping your code into four parts: The header file Python.h. The C functions you want to expose as the interface from your module. A table mapping the names of your functions as Python developers will see them to C functions inside the extension module. An initialization function. The header file Python.h Start including Python.h header file in your C source file, which will give you access to the internal Python API used to hook your module into the interpreter. Be sure to include Python.h before any other headers you might need. You'll follow the includes with the functions you want to call from Python. CHAPTER 27
- 417. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning The C functions: The signatures of the C implementations of your functions will always take one of the following three forms: static PyObject *MyFunction( PyObject *self, PyObject *args ); static PyObject *MyFunctionWithKeywords(PyObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kw); static PyObject *MyFunctionWithNoArgs( PyObject *self ); Each one of the preceding declarations returns a Python object. There's no such thing as a void function in Python as there is in C. If you don't want your functions to return a value, return the C equivalent of Python's None value. The Python headers define a macro, Py_RETURN_NONE, that does this for us. The names of your C functions can be whatever you like as they will never be seen outside of the extension module. So they would be defined as static function. Your C functions usually are named by combining the Python module and function names together, as shown here: static PyObject *module_func(PyObject *self, PyObject *args) { /* Do your stuff here. */ Py_RETURN_NONE; } This would be a Python function called func inside of the module module. You'll be putting pointers to your C functions into the method table for the module that usually comes next in your source code. The method mapping table: This method table is a simple array of PyMethodDef structures. That structure looks something like this: struct PyMethodDef { char *ml_name; PyCFunction ml_meth; int ml_flags; char *ml_doc; }; Here is the description of the members of this structure: ml_name: This is the name of the function as the Python interpreter will present it when it is used in Python programs. ml_meth: This must be the address to a function that has any one of the signatures described in previous seection. ml_flags: This tells the interpreter which of the three signatures ml_meth is using. This flag will usually have a value of METH_VARARGS. This flag can be bitwise or'ed with METH_KEYWORDS if you want to allow keyword arguments into your function. This can also have a value of METH_NOARGS that indicates you don't want to accept any arguments. ml_doc: This is the docstring for the function, which could be NULL if you don't feel like writing one
- 418. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning This table needs to be terminated with a sentinel that consists of NULL and 0 values for the appropriate members. EXAMPLE: For the above-defined function, we would have following method mapping table: static PyMethodDef module_methods[] = { { "func", (PyCFunction)module_func, METH_NOARGS, NULL }, { NULL, NULL, 0, NULL } }; The initialization function: The last part of your extension module is the initialization function. This function is called by the Python interpreter when the module is loaded. It's required that the function be named initModule, whereModule is the name of the module. The initialization function needs to be exported from the library you'll be building. The Python headers define PyMODINIT_FUNC to include the appropriate incantations for that to happen for the particular environment in which we're compiling. All you have to do is use it when defining the function. Your C initialization function generally has the following overall structure: PyMODINIT_FUNC initModule() { Py_InitModule3(func, module_methods, "docstring..."); } Here is the description of Py_InitModule3 function: func: This is the function to be exported. module_methods: This is the mapping table name defined above. docstring: This is the comment you want to give in your extension. Putting this all together looks like the following: #include <Python.h> static PyObject *module_func(PyObject *self, PyObject *args) { /* Do your stuff here. */ Py_RETURN_NONE; } static PyMethodDef module_methods[] = { { "func", (PyCFunction)module_func, METH_NOARGS, NULL }, { NULL, NULL, 0, NULL } }; PyMODINIT_FUNC initModule() { Py_InitModule3(func, module_methods, "docstring..."); } EXAMPLE: A simple example that makes use of all the above concepts: #include <Python.h> static PyObject* helloworld(PyObject* self) { return Py_BuildValue("s", "Hello, Python extensions!!");
- 419. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning } static char helloworld_docs[] = "helloworld( ): Any message you want to put here!!n"; static PyMethodDef helloworld_funcs[] = { {"helloworld", (PyCFunction)helloworld, METH_NOARGS, helloworld_docs}, {NULL} }; void inithelloworld(void) { Py_InitModule3("helloworld", helloworld_funcs, "Extension module example!"); } Here the Py_BuildValue function is used to build a Python value. Save above code in hello.c file. We would see how to compile and install this module to be called from Python script. Building and Installing Extensions: The distutils package makes it very easy to distribute Python modules, both pure Python and extension modules, in a standard way. Modules are distributed in source form and built and installed via a setup script usually called setup.py as follows. For the above module, you would have to prepare following setup.py script: from distutils.core import setup, Extension setup(name='helloworld', version='1.0', ext_modules=[Extension('helloworld', ['hello.c'])]) Now, use the following command, which would perform all needed compilation and linking steps, with the right compiler and linker commands and flags, and copies the resulting dynamic library into an appropriate directory: $ python setup.py install On Unix-based systems, you'll most likely need to run this command as root in order to have permissions to write to the site-packages directory. This usually isn't a problem on Windows Import Extensions: Once you installed your extension, you would be able to import and call that extension in your Python script as follows: #!/usr/bin/python import helloworld print helloworld.helloworld() This would produce the following result: Hello, Python extensions!! Passing Function Parameters: Because you'll most likely want to define functions that do accept arguments, you can use one of the other signatures for your C functions. For example, following function, that accepts some number of parameters, would be defined like this:
- 420. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning static PyObject *module_func(PyObject *self, PyObject *args) { /* Parse args and do something interesting here. */ Py_RETURN_NONE; } The method table containing an entry for the new function would look like this: static PyMethodDef module_methods[] = { { "func", (PyCFunction)module_func, METH_NOARGS, NULL }, { "func", module_func, METH_VARARGS, NULL }, { NULL, NULL, 0, NULL } }; You can use API PyArg_ParseTuple function to extract the arguments from the one PyObject pointer passed into your C function. The first argument to PyArg_ParseTuple is the args argument. This is the object you'll be parsing. The second argument is a format string describing the arguments as you expect them to appear. Each argument is represented by one or more characters in the format string as follows. static PyObject *module_func(PyObject *self, PyObject *args) { int i; double d; char *s; if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "ids", &i, &d, &s)) { return NULL; } /* Do something interesting here. */ Py_RETURN_NONE; } Compiling the new version of your module and importing it will enable you to invoke the new function with any number of arguments of any type: module.func(1, s="three", d=2.0) module.func(i=1, d=2.0, s="three") module.func(s="three", d=2.0, i=1) You can probably come up with even more variations. The PyArg_ParseTuple Function: Here is the standard signature for PyArg_ParseTuple function: int PyArg_ParseTuple(PyObject* tuple,char* format,...) This function returns 0 for errors, and a value not equal to 0 for success. tuple is the PyObject* that was the C function's second argument. Here format is a C string that describes mandatory and optional arguments. Here is a list of format codes for PyArg_ParseTuple function: Code C type Meaning c Char A Python string of length 1 becomes a C char. d Double A Python float becomes a C double. f Float A Python float becomes a C float.
- 421. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning i Int A Python int becomes a C int. l Long A Python int becomes a C long. L long long A Python int becomes a C long long O PyObject* Gets non-NULL borrowed reference to Python argument. s char* Python string without embedded nulls to C char*. s# char*+int Any Python string to C address and length. t# char*+int Read-only single-segment buffer to C address and length. u Py_UNICODE* Python Unicode without embedded nulls to C. u# Py_UNICODE*+int Any Python Unicode C address and length. w# char*+int Read/write single-segment buffer to C address and length. z char* Like s, also accepts None (sets C char* to NULL). z# char*+int Like s#, also accepts None (sets C char* to NULL). (...) as per ... A Python sequence is treated as one argument per item. | The following arguments are optional. : Format end, followed by function name for error messages. ; Format end, followed by entire error message text. Returning Values: Py_BuildValue takes in a format string much like PyArg_ParseTuple does. Instead of passing in the addresses of the values you're building, you pass in the actual values. Here's an example showing how to implement an add function: static PyObject *foo_add(PyObject *self, PyObject *args) { int a; int b; if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "ii", &a, &b)) { return NULL; } return Py_BuildValue("i", a + b); } This is what it would look like if implemented in Python: def add(a, b): return (a + b) You can return two values from your function as follows, this would be cauptured using a list in Python. static PyObject *foo_add_subtract(PyObject *self, PyObject *args) { int a; int b; if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "ii", &a, &b)) {
- 422. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning return NULL; } return Py_BuildValue("ii", a + b, a - b); } This is what it would look like if implemented in Python: def add_subtract(a, b): return (a + b, a - b) The Py_BuildValue Function: Here is the standard signature for Py_BuildValue function: PyObject* Py_BuildValue(char* format,...) Here format is a C string that describes the Python object to build. The following arguments ofPy_BuildValue are C values from which the result is built. The PyObject* result is a new reference. Following table lists the commonly used code strings, of which zero or more are joined into string format. Code C type Meaning c char A C char becomes a Python string of length 1. d double A C double becomes a Python float. f float A C float becomes a Python float. i Int A C int becomes a Python int. l long A C long becomes a Python int. N PyObject* Passes a Python object and steals a reference. O PyObject* Passes a Python object and INCREFs it as normal. O& convert+void* Arbitrary conversion s char* C 0-terminated char* to Python string, or NULL to None. s# char*+int C char* and length to Python string, or NULL to None. u Py_UNICODE* C-wide, null-terminated string to Python Unicode, or NULL to None. u# Py_UNICODE*+int C-wide string and length to Python Unicode, or NULL to None. w# char*+int Read/write single-segment buffer to C address and length. z char* Like s, also accepts None (sets C char* to NULL). z# char*+int Like s#, also accepts None (sets C char* to NULL). (...) as per ... Builds Python tuple from C values. [...] as per ... Builds Python list from C values. {...} as per ... Builds Python dictionary from C values, alternating keys and values. Code {...} builds dictionaries from an even number of C values, alternately keys and values. For example, Py_BuildValue("{issi}",23,"zig","zag",42) returns a dictionary like Python's {23:'zig','zag':42}.
- 423. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning Python Tools/Utilities The standard library comes with a number of modules that can be used both as modules and as command-line utilities. The dis Module: The dis module is the Python disassembler. It converts byte codes to a format that is slightly more appropriate for human consumption. You can run the disassembler from the command line. It compiles the given script and prints the disassembled byte codes to the STDOUT. You can also use dis as a module. The dis function takes a class, method, function or code object as its single argument. EXAMPLE: #!/usr/bin/python import dis def sum(): vara = 10 varb = 20 sum = vara + varb print "vara + varb = %d" % sum # Call dis function for the function. dis.dis(sum) This would produce the following result: 6 0 LOAD_CONST 1 (10) 3 STORE_FAST 0 (vara) 7 6 LOAD_CONST 2 (20) 9 STORE_FAST 1 (varb) 9 12 LOAD_FAST 0 (vara) 15 LOAD_FAST 1 (varb) 18 BINARY_ADD 19 STORE_FAST 2 (sum) CHAPTER 28
- 424. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning 10 22 LOAD_CONST 3 ('vara + varb = %d') 25 LOAD_FAST 2 (sum) 28 BINARY_MODULO 29 PRINT_ITEM 30 PRINT_NEWLINE 31 LOAD_CONST 0 (None) 34 RETURN_VALUE The pdb Module The pdb module is the standard Python debugger. It is based on the bdb debugger framework. You can run the debugger from the command line (type n [or next] to go to the next line and help to get a list of available commands): EXAMPLE: Before you try to run pdb.py, set your path properly to Python lib directory. So let us try with above example sum.py: $pdb.py sum.py > /test/sum.py(3)<module>() -> import dis (Pdb) n > /test/sum.py(5)<module>() -> def sum(): (Pdb) n >/test/sum.py(14)<module>() -> dis.dis(sum) (Pdb) n 6 0 LOAD_CONST 1 (10) 3 STORE_FAST 0 (vara) 7 6 LOAD_CONST 2 (20) 9 STORE_FAST 1 (varb) 9 12 LOAD_FAST 0 (vara) 15 LOAD_FAST 1 (varb) 18 BINARY_ADD 19 STORE_FAST 2 (sum) 10 22 LOAD_CONST 3 ('vara + varb = %d') 25 LOAD_FAST 2 (sum) 28 BINARY_MODULO 29 PRINT_ITEM 30 PRINT_NEWLINE 31 LOAD_CONST 0 (None) 34 RETURN_VALUE --Return-- > /test/sum.py(14)<module>()->None -v dis.dis(sum) (Pdb) n --Return-- > <string>(1)<module>()->None (Pdb) The profile Module: The profile module is the standard Python profiler. You can run the profiler from the command line:
- 425. TUTORIALS POINT Simply Easy Learning EXAMPLE: Let us try to profile the following program: #!/usr/bin/python vara = 10 varb = 20 sum = vara + varb print "vara + varb = %d" % sum Now, try running cProfile.py over this file sum.py as follows: $cProfile.py sum.py vara + varb = 30 4 function calls in 0.000 CPU seconds Ordered by: standard name ncalls tottime percall cumtime percall filename:lineno 1 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 <string>:1(<module>) 1 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 sum.py:3(<module>) 1 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 {execfile} 1 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 {method ......} The tabnanny Module The tabnanny module checks Python source files for ambiguous indentation. If a file mixes tabs and spaces in a way that throws off indentation, no matter what tab size you're using, the nanny complains: EXAMPLE: Let us try to profile the following program: #!/usr/bin/python vara = 10 varb = 20 sum = vara + varb print "vara + varb = %d" % sum If you would try a correct file with tabnanny.py, then it won't complain as follows: $tabnanny.py -v sum.py 'sum.py': Clean bill of health.