Introduction to Computer Networks

Computer Networks
Computer network connects two or more autonomous computers. The computers can be geographically located anywhere. Two or more than two computer systems connected by means of a communication medium like cables is termed as a Network. Computer Network is a communication systems, which links computers and their resources. Computer Resources are storage devices e.g. HDD, tape drive, CDROM, MODEM,RDBMS like Oracle, MS-SQL etc and any other computing system (Mainframe, Minicomputer etc.).

Advantages of a Network
Resource Sharing Hardware (computing resources, disks, printers) Software (application software)

Information Sharing Easy accessibility from anywhere (files, databases) Search Capability (WWW)
Communication Email Message broadcast Remote computing Distributed processing (GRID Computing)

Service Access
Easy Back-Up Management Security

Centralized Administration and Support

Network Topology
The network topology defines the way in which computers, printers, and other devices are connected. A network topology describes the physical layout of the wire and devices as well as the paths used by data transmissions.
The choice of the networks topology for installing a computer network depends upon a combination of factors, such as: The desired performance of the system. The desired reliability of the system. Size of the system. Expandability of the system. Availability of communication lines. Delays involved in routing information from one node to another.

Bus Topology

The bus topology refers to a linear arrangement of computers that are connected together by a single cable referred to as the trunk or backbone. It is often used when a network installation is small, simple or temporary.

Advantages:
Simple,Reliable,Easy to use and understand.

Least amount of cable to connect a computers. Easy to extend a bus with the help of a repeater.

Disadvantages
If the cable is broken from the middle the entire network collapses If the bus is long then packets may be lost.

Star and Tree Topology

The star topology is the most commonly used architecture in Ethernet LANs.

When installed, the star topology resembles spokes in a bicycle wheel.

Larger networks use the extended star topology also called tree topology. When used with network devices that filter frames or packets, like bridges, switches, and routers, this topology significantly reduces the traffic on the wires by sending packets only to the wires of the destination host.

Advantages:
Good Performance Easy to set up and to expand. Any non-centralized failure will have very
little effect on the network, whereas on a ring network it would all fail with one fault.

Disadvantages:
Expensive to install Extra hardware required If the host computer fails the entire system is affected.

Ring Topology
A frame travels around the ring, stopping at each node. If a node wants to transmit data, it adds the data as well as the destination address to the frame. The frame then continues around the ring until it finds the destination node, which takes the data out of the frame. Single ring All the devices on the network share a single cable Dual ring The dual ring topology allows data to be sent in both directions.

Advantages:

Data is quickly transferred without a bottle neck. (very fast, all data traffic is in the same direction) The transmission of data is simple as packets travel in one direction only. Adding additional nodes has very little impact on bandwidth It prevents network collisions because of the media access method or architecture required. Data packets must pass through every computer between the sender and recipient therefore this makes it slower. If any of the nodes fail then the ring is broken and data cannot be transmitted successfully. It is difficult to troubleshoot the ring. Because all stations are wired together, to add a station you must shut down the network temporarily. In order for all computers to communicate with each other, all computers must be turned on.

Disadvantages:

Token Ring Topology

A token ring is a type of computer network in which all the computers are arranged (schematically) in a circle. A token, which is a special bit pattern, travels around the circle. To send a message, a computer catches the token, attaches a message to it, and then lets it continue to travel around the network. Although it is considered a more reliable system, a token ring network is slower and offers less flexibility than schools and other businesses need. In a token ring, only one computer may send information at a time.

Introduction to Computer Networks

Mesh Topology
The mesh topology connects all devices (nodes) to each other for redundancy and fault tolerance.

It is used in WANs to interconnect LANs and for mission critical networks like those used by banks and financial institutions.
Implementing the mesh topology is expensive and difficult.

Wired Network

Types of Network
LAN (Local Area Network)

WAN (Wide Area Network)

LAN
Network in small geographical Area
E.g. Room, Building or a Campus

Definition: LAN connects computers that are located near each other or at the same location.
A corporate network consisting of several building in a campus an example of a LAN

A Typical Local Area Network

A local area network is a computer network across one building or site.

Printer Work Station Fileserver Network Cable

WAN
WIDE AREA NETWORKSLONG HAUL NETWORKS WAN connects a numbers of computers which are located at a greater distance from one other or at different location. Internet is an example of WAN A WAN is a data communications network that covers a relatively broad geographic area and that often uses transmission facilities provided by common carriers, such as telephone companies(coaxial cables) or communication satellites. WAN uses no fixed Network Topology.

Hybrid Network

Types of Network
CAN (Campus Area Network)

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

HAN (Home Area Network)

CAN
Network in a campus specific to an academic setting. is called as CAN
ALSO CALLED: Controller Area Network, or Cluster Area Network A network spanning multiple LANs but smaller than a MAN, such as on a university campus. The main aim is to facilitate students accessing internet and university resources.

MAN
Network in a City is call MAN
Networks that share some of the characteristics of both LANs and WANs are sometimes referred to as MAN. The MANs usually cover a wider geographic area than LANs. The main objective of MANs is to interconnect LANs located in a entire city or metropolitan area.

HAN
Network in a home is called as HAN
ALSO CALLED: Home Networks, Home Networking, HAN, Digital Home Networks, and Digital Home Networking A home network allows computer owners to interconnect multiple computers so that each can share files, programs, printers, other peripheral devices, and Internet access with other computers, reducing the need for redundant equipment and, in general, making everything easier to use. A new trend, sometimes referred to as an intelligent network, extends the home network to include controls for the home ambient environment, security systems, and kitchen devices which in future will be controlled remotely.

Hybrid Networks: Wired vs. Wireless

Wired Network
Fast Stationary Flexibility depends on the wired length Only the devices connected can access Expensive to set up Difficult to set up Troubleshooting is difficult More Secure

Wireless Network
Slow Mobile Flexibility Wider devices can access, e.g. PDA Cheaper to set up Easier to setup Troubleshooting is easier Less Secure

Gaming, Share Files

Streaming audio and video files

A hybrid network offers the best of both in terms of speed, mobility, affordability and security. If a user needs maximum Internet speed, then he can plug into the network via Ethernet cable. If he needs to use internet in the hallway, he can access the network wirelessly. With the right planning, an organisation can save money on Ethernet cable. With the right encryption and password management , the wireless portion of the network can be made secure.

Wireless Network

Intranets and Extranets

Intranet
An internal corporate network built using Internet and World Wide Web standards and products that allows employees of an organization to gain access to corporate information

Extranet
A network based on Web technologies that links selected resources of the intranet of a company with its customers, suppliers, or other business partners

Intranet
A network based an internet belonging to an organization, usually a corporate. An Intranet does not extend beyond the organisation that created it. It is accessible only by the organization's members, employees, or others with authorization. An intranet's Web sites look and act just like any other Web sites, but the firewall surrounding an intranet fends off unauthorized access. Based on client server model

Intranet Advantages
Like the Internet itself, intranets are used to share information. Secure intranets are now popular because they are much less expensive to build and manage. Low cost distribution information of internal corporate

Intranets can also be used to provide software updates and patches, which update users computers automatically using scripts

Intranet Applications
Training
Provides online access to a host of training functions including course catalogue, registration, content, and evaluation Provides significant increases in productivity and standardization, and cost reductions (e.g. travel costs)

Application Integration
Allows for integration and consolidation of information from disparate systems into a single point of access Increases employee productivity and output quality

Online Entry of Information

Allows for direct online input to streamline routine business processes (e.g. expense reporting) Provides for significant cost reductions from reducing administrative support and shifting maintenance functions back to the employee (e.g. updating 401K selections)

Extranet
Extranet is a type of intranet that is partially accessible to authorized outsiders, members not belonging to the organisation. An extranet provides various levels of accessibility to outsiders. You can access an extranet only if you have a valid username and password, and your identity determines which parts of the extranet you can view. Extranets are becoming a very popular means for business partners(of two different corporate or organisation) to exchange information.

Extranet Advantages
Networks that connect companies with suppliers, business partners and authorised users Each user has access to the databases, files and other information stored on computers connected to the extranet Improves timeliness and accuracy of communications reducing errors and misunderstandings Allows central management of documents allowing single updates which are then available to all interested parties Easy to use, requires little training Used to automate transactions, reducing cost and cycle time Fedex changed from an Intranet to Extranet for package tracking on their Web site

Extranet Applications
Supply Chain Management
Used to exchange supply and manufacturing information between customers and suppliers The extranet contains features allowing participants to purchase online, check supplier inventory, transfer design specifications, and other business related tasks

Trading Exchanges (Electronic Marketplaces)

Allow many buyers and many sellers to come together
Offer transaction processing, industry information, best sourcing, info resources, and invoicing

Revenues made through advertising and transaction fees

VPN
Virtual Private Network, is a network that is constructed by using public wires to connect nodes.
For example, there are a number of systems that enable you to create networks using the Internet as the medium for transporting data. These systems use encryption and other security mechanisms to ensure that only authorized users can access the network and that the data cannot be intercepted. The connection is virtual since it is only temporary, it is created when information needs to be transmitted

A VPN is an extranet, but not every extranet is a VPN

Network Structures Server Based

In this structure there is one computer or workstation assigned as a server or master and that provides services or controls the other workstations or clients.
There are 2 types Master/Slave Client/Server

Master Slave
Master/slave is a model for a communication protocol in which one device or process (known as the master) controls one or more other devices or processes (known as slaves). Once the master/slave relationship is established, the direction of control is always from the master to the slave(s). Some manufacturers prefer the term primary/secondary.

Network Structures Client Server

Client/server describes the relationship between two computer programs in which one program, the client, makes a service request from another program, the server, which fulfills the request. In a network, this model provides a convenient way to interconnect programs that are distributed efficiently across different locations. In the Internet, your Web browser is a client program that requests services (the sending of Web pages or files) from a Web server in another computer somewhere on the Internet. The server contains the file, print, application, security, and other services in a central computer that is continuously available to respond to client requests. For example, to check your bank account from your computer, a client program in your computer forwards your request to a server program at the bank. That program may in turn forward the request to its own client program that sends a request to a database server at another bank computer to retrieve your account balance. The balance is returned back to the bank data client, which in turn serves it back to the client in your personal computer, which displays the information for you.

Network Structures Peer to Peer

Peer-to-peer is a communications model in which each party has the same capabilities and either party can initiate a communication session.
In some cases, P2P communications is implemented by giving each communication node both server and client capabilities. In recent usage, P2P has come to describe applications in which users can use the Internet to exchange files with each other directly or through a mediating server. On the Internet, P2P is a type of transient network that allows a group of computer users with the same software to connect with each other and directly access files from one another's hard drives. E.g Napster, Limewire Corporations are looking at the advantages of using P2P as a way for employees to share files without the expense involved in maintaining a centralized server and as a way for businesses to exchange information with each other directly.

Network Structures Peer to Peer

How Does Internet P2P Work?
The user must first download and execute a peer-topeer networking program. After launching the program, the user enters the IP address of another computer belonging to the network. Once the computer finds another network member on-line, it will connect to that user's connection (who has gotten their IP address from another user's connection and so on). Users can choose how many member connections to seek at one time and determine which files they wish to share or password protect.

Network Media
physical link: transmitted data bit propagates across link Guided or wired media:
signals propagate in solid media: copper, fiber

unguided or wireless media:

signals propagate freely .eg., radio or infrared signal carried in electromagnetic spectrum no physical wire bidirectional propagation environment effects:
reflection obstruction by objects interference

Network Media - Wired

Twisted Pair (TP)

two insulated copper wires Category 3: traditional phone wires, 10 Mbps ethernet Category 5 TP: 100Mbps ethernet

Drawbacks
Unidirectional Data loss due to no insulation

Network Media - Wired

Coaxial cable: wire (signal carrier) within a wire (shield) baseband: single channel on cable broadband: multiple channel on cable bidirectional common use in 10Mbs Ethernet The error rate is less than coaxial but more than Fiber Optic

Network Media - Wired

Fiber optic cable: glass fiber carrying light pulses high-speed operation: 100Mbps Ethernet high-speed point-to-point transmission (e.g., 5 Gps) low error rate

Network Media - Wireless

Radio
10 Khz to 1 Ghz. It is broken into many bands including AM, FM, and VHF bands. Frequencies for unregulated use are:
902-928Mhz - Cordless phones, remote controls. 2.4 Ghz 5.72-5.85 Ghz

Network Media - Wireless

Microwave
Terrestrial
Used to link networks over long distances but the two microwave towers must have a line of sight between them. 4-6GHz or 21-23GHz. Speed is often 1-10Mbps The signal is normally encrypted for privacy.

Satellite
A station on the ground will send and receive signals from the satellite. The signal can have propagation delays between 0.5 to 5 seconds due to the distances involved. The transmission frequency is normally 11-14GHz Speed is in the range of 1-10Mbps.

Network Media - Wireless

Infared
Infared is just below the visible range of light between 100Ghz and 1000Thz.
A light emitting diode (LED) or laser is used to transmit the signal. The signal cannot travel through objects. Light may interfere with the signal.

Network Media - Wireless

The types of infared are
Point to point
Transmission frequencies are 100GHz-1,000THz. Transmission is between two points and is limited to line of sight range. It is difficult to eavesdrop on the transmission. The speed is 100Kbps to 16Mbps

broadcast
The signal is dispersed so several units may receive the signal. The unit used to disperse the signal may be reflective material or a transmitter that amplifies and retransmits the signal. The speed is limited to 1Mbps. Transmission frequency is normally 100GHz-1,000THz with transmission distance in 10's of meters.

Network Interface Card

A network interface card (NIC) is a computer circuit board or card that is installed in a computer so that it can be connected to a network. Each computer MUST have one of these. It is the component that uniquely identifies the client or the server. Personal computers and workstations on a local area network (LAN) typically contain a NIC specifically designed for the LAN transmission technology, such as Ethernet or Token Ring. NIC provide a dedicated, connection to a network. full-time

HUB
A hub is the central part of a star topology The term is similar to airport "hubs" to make connecting flights from one point to another. In data communications, a hub is a place of convergence where data arrives from one or more directions and is forwarded out in one or more other directions. A hub usually includes a switch of some kind. (And a product that is called a "switch" could usually be considered a hub as well.) A hub can also include a router. A hub may include a group of modem cards for dial-in users, a gateway card for connections to a local area network (for example, an Ethernet or a Token Ring), and a connection to a line (the main line in this example).

BRIDGES
A bridge is a device that connects one local area network (LAN) to another local area network that uses the same protocol (for example, Ethernet or Token Ring). If a data unit on one LAN is intended for a destination on an interconnected LAN, the bridge forwards the data unit to that LAN; otherwise, it passes it along on the same LAN. A bridge usually offers only one path to a given interconnected LAN. In bridging networks, computer or node addresses have no specific relationship to location. For this reason, messages are sent out to every address on the network and accepted only by the intended destination node. Bridges learn which addresses are on which network and develop a learning table so that subsequent messages can be forwarded to the right network. Drawback: Bridging networks are generally always interconnected local area networks since broadcasting every message to all possible destinations would flood a larger network with unnecessary traffic.

A bridge is sometimes combined with a router in a product called a brouter.

Switches
A switch is a single connection point for a group of computers. A switch is a device that channels incoming data from any of multiple input ports to the specific output port that will take the data toward its intended destination. On a LAN, it determines from the physical device address in each incoming message frame which output port to forward it to and out of. In case of the Internet, a switch determines from the IP address in each packet which output port to use for the next part of its trip to the intended destination.

In the simplest networks, a switch is not required for messages that are sent and received within the network.

Routers
A device that forwards data packets along networks.
A router is connected to at least two networks, commonly two LANs or WANs or a LAN and its ISPs network and decides which way to send each information packet based on its current understanding of the state of the networks it is connected to. . Routers are located at gateways, the places where two or more networks connect. Routers choose the best route for data, based on the info in routing table, out of a number of paths out to destinations on the various connected networks.

Very little filtering of data is done through routers.

GATEWAYS
They are used for connecting networks that are built on totally different communication architectures. Definition: A node on a network that serves as an entrance to another network.

In enterprises, the gateway is the computer that routes the traffic from a workstation to the outside network that is serving the Web pages. Also acts as a proxy server and a firewall.
In homes, the gateway is the ISP that connects the user to the internet. It also connects a computer system located on earth that switches data signals and voice signals between satellites and terrestrial networks. An earlier term for router, though now obsolete in this sense as router is commonly used.

Ethernet
Definition The standard local area network (LAN) access method. A reference to "LAN," "LAN connection" or "network card" automatically implies Ethernet. Most new computers come network ready with Ethernet built in. For machines without a network connection, Ethernet adapters can be added via USB or PC Card or by plugging an Ethernet card into a free PCI bus slot inside the case. A 10/100 Ethernet port supports two speeds: 10 Mbps (10BaseT or Ethernet) and 100 Mbps (100Base-T or Fast Ethernet). Computers also come with 10/100/1000 ports, which includes Gigabit Ethernet at 1 Gbps (1,000 megabits). Ethernet devices negotiate with each other and transmit at the highest speed possible. For high-speed backbones in metropolitan and wide area networks, 10 Gigabit Ethernet (10,000 megabits), the fastest Ethernet, is also used (see 10 Gigabit Ethernet).

Bandwidths
CONNECTION Modems
Modem 56k

BITS
53.3 kbit/s

ISDN
64k ISDN 128k dual-channel ISDN 64.0 kbit/s 128.0 kbit/s

Wide area network

ADSL upstream ADSL downstream 64 kbit/s to 1024 kbit/s 256 kbit/s to 8 Mbit/s

Local area network

Fast Ethernet (100base-X) Gigabit Ethernet (1000base-X) 100 Mbit/s 1 Gbit/s

Network Protocol
The term protocol is used to refer to a set of rules and conventions needed for communication between communicating parties. Computer networks are implemented using the concept of layered protocols. A protocol provides a service
For e.g. the post office protocol for reliable parcel transfer service

Peer entities use a protocol to provide a service to a higherlevel peer entity

for e.g., truck drivers use a protocol to present post offices with the abstraction of an unreliable parcel transfer service

E.g. OSI Model, TCP/IP Model Protocols

set of valid messages meaning of each message

TCP/IP
application
supporting network applications E.g. ftp, smtp, http

application transport network

transport
host-host data transfer E.g. tcp, udp packets

network
routing of datagrams from source to destination ip, routing protocols

link
physical

link
data transfer between network elements ppp, ethernet neighboring

Physical
bits on the wire

Data Communications
Bandwidth tells us the rate at which data can be transmitted down the communications line in a given period of time
FAST BANDWIDTH

SLOW BANDWIDTH

Bandwidth
The higher the bandwidth, the quicker the data will flow along the line Web pages loaded quicker. Multimedia is downloaded faster. Internet connection is faster. Less network traffic. Quicker response time.

Public Switched Telephone Network.

Also called as PSTN : Public Switched Telephone Network. Uses traditional telephone system to allow access to the Internet. Low Bandwidth Dial Up Connection.

Modem
Stands for Modulator Demodulator. First created to take digital signals from a computer and convert them to analogue so that they can be transmitted down a telephone line. Speed at which a modem operates will affect the download time of web pages and files.

Digital Data Connections

There are a number of connection types available to us when we want to access the services from the Internet Each one has a different BANDWIDTH.
DSL : Digital subscriber line. ADSL : Asymmetric DSL. HSDL : High-speed DSL. ISDN : Integrated Services Digital Network.

Digital subscriber line

Also called DSL : Digital subscriber line. Does not use a modem. Uses a piece of network equipment similar to a network switch. More expensive Bandwidth of 128Kbps 256Kbps.

Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line.

Is known as Broadband. or ADSL Is permanently switched on, no need for dial up. Has a high bandwidth. Bandwidths from 100-640Kbps upstream and from 1.5 to 9 Mbps downstream

High-speed Digital Subscriber Line.

Is known as HDSL. Like ADSL, is permanently switched on, no need for dial up. Has a higher bandwidth than ADSL. For businesses purposes 768Kbps of symmetric bandwidth

Integrated Services Digital Network.

Is known as ISDN. Supports Videoconferencing, faxes and voice applications. Users still must dial up. High speed digital transfer. Integrated services digital network (ISDN) first used DSL protocol suite in 1984

Cable modems
Connected using broadband coaxial cable that serves a television. Upstream bandwidth of 300Kbps to 1 Mbps and downstream bandwidth of 10Mbps

DSL vs Cable
DSL is a private line with no competing traffic Cable connections bandwidth change with the user load (number of subscribers using the service) Problems Web users in rural areas often do not have cable access and have limited telephone access (low cost voice-grade lines, rather than data-grade lines) thus bandwidth is limited (<14Kbps)

Leased-Line Connections
Large firms with a large amounts of Internet traffic can lease lines from telecommunication carriers Various technologies are used; classified by the amount of telephone lines they include: DS0 (digital signal zero) carries one digital signal (64Kbps) T1 (or DS1) carries 24 DS0 lines (1.544Mbps) Fractional T1 (128Kbps and upwards) T3 (or DS3) carries 30 T1 lines (44.736Mbps) Connections more expensive than PSTN, ISDN and DSL

Wireless Networks
Wireless LAN IEEE 802.11a, b, g Fixed Point Wireless Bluetooth Cellular Telephone Networks.

Wireless LAN
Also called Wireless Ethernet or Wi-Fi. They follow standard IEEE 802.11a, b, g Most common wireless on LANs Bandwidth 11Mbps at 300 feet A computer with a Wi-Fi network can communicate with a wireless access point (WAP) to become a part of the network

Wireless Ethernet Advantages

Wi-Fi devices can roam, i.e. shift from one WAP to another without user intervention Increasingly WAPs are becoming available in public places, e.g. airports

Fixed Point Wireless

Uses a system of repeaters (transmitterreceiver devices) to forward a radio signal from the ISP to customers Users antennas are connected to a device that converts radio signals to Wi-Fi packets which are sent to their computers

Bluetooth
One of the first wireless protocols Operates reliably over 35 feet Can be part of up to 10 networks of eight devices each. When in a networks they are called Personal Area network or PAN Bandwidth of 722kbps Good for wireless printing

Bluetooth Advantages
Bluetooth technology consumes very little power Bluetooth devices can discover each other and exchange information automatically e.g. a user can print to a printer on a network without logging on

Cellular Telephone Networks

In 2003, about 500 million mobile (cell) phones worldwide Originally slow data communication (10 kbps 384kbps) Third generation cell phones Up to 2 Mbps Services Provide
Short message service (SMS) protocol Web browser which provide web access, email, etc. Internet access through their cellular networks. Fixed fee plus charge for amount of data transferred Business potential of mobile commerce