Introduction to Information Retrieval

Introduction to

Information Retrieval
Hinrich Schtze and Christina Lioma Lecture 13: Text Classification & Naive Bayes

Introduction to Information Retrieval

Overview

Recap Text classification

Naive Bayes

NB theory

Evaluation of TC
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Introduction to Information Retrieval

Overview

Recap Text classification

Naive Bayes

NB theory

Evaluation of TC
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Introduction to Information Retrieval

Looking vs. Clicking

Introduction to Information Retrieval

Pivot normalization

Source: Lillian Lee

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Introduction to Information Retrieval

Use min heap for selecting top k out of N

Use a binary min heap A binary min heap is a binary tree in which each nodes value is less than the values of its children. It takes O(N log k) operations to construct the k-heap containing the k largest values (where N is the number of documents). Essentially linear in N for small k and large N.

Introduction to Information Retrieval

Binary min heap

Introduction to Information Retrieval

Heuristics for finding the top k most relevant

Document-at-a-time processing
We complete computation of the query-document similarity score of document di before starting to compute the querydocument similarity score of di+1. Requires a consistent ordering of documents in the postings lists

Term-at-a-time processing We complete processing the postings list of query term ti

before starting to process the postings list of ti+1. Requires an accumulator for each document still in the running

The most effective heuristics switch back and forth between term-at-a-time and document-at-a-time processing.
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Introduction to Information Retrieval

Tiered index

Introduction to Information Retrieval

Complete search system

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Introduction to Information Retrieval

Take-away today
Text classification: definition & relevance to information retrieval Naive Bayes: simple baseline text classifier Theory: derivation of Naive Bayes classification rule & analysis Evaluation of text classification: how do we know it worked / didnt work?

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Introduction to Information Retrieval

Outline

Recap Text classification

Naive Bayes

NB theory

Evaluation of TC
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Introduction to Information Retrieval

A text classification task: Email spam filtering

From: <[email protected]> Subject: real estate is the only way... gem oalvgkay Anyone can buy real estate with no money down Stop paying rent TODAY ! There is no need to spend hundreds or even thousands for similar courses I am 22 years old and I have already purchased 6 properties using the methods outlined in this truly INCREDIBLE ebook. Change your life NOW ! ================================================= Click Below to order: http://www.wholesaledaily.com/sales/nmd.htm =================================================

How would you write a program that would automatically detect and delete this type of message?
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Introduction to Information Retrieval

Formal definition of TC: Training

Given: A document space X
Documents are represented in this space typically some type of high-dimensional space.

A fixed set of classes C = {c1, c2, . . . , cJ}

The classes are human-defined for the needs of an application (e.g., relevant vs. nonrelevant).

A training set D of labeled documents with each labeled document <d, c> X C Using a learning method or learning algorithm, we then wish to learn a classifier that maps documents to classes: :XC
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Introduction to Information Retrieval

Formal definition of TC: Application/Testing

Given: a description d X of a document Determine: (d) C, that is, the class that is most appropriate for d

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Introduction to Information Retrieval

Topic classification

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Introduction to Information Retrieval

Exercise

Find examples of uses of text classification in information retrieval

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Introduction to Information Retrieval

Examples of how search engines use classification

Language identification (classes: English vs. French etc.) The automatic detection of spam pages (spam vs. nonspam) The automatic detection of sexually explicit content (sexually explicit vs. not) Topic-specific or vertical search restrict search to a vertical like related to health (relevant to vertical vs. not) Standing queries (e.g., Google Alerts) Sentiment detection: is a movie or product review positive or negative (positive vs. negative)
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Introduction to Information Retrieval

Classification methods: 1. Manual

Manual classification was used by Yahoo in the beginning of the web. Also: ODP, PubMed Very accurate if job is done by experts Consistent when the problem size and team is small Scaling manual classification is difficult and expensive. We need automatic methods for classification.

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Introduction to Information Retrieval

Classification methods: 2. Rule-based

Our Google Alerts example was rule-based classification. There are IDE-type development enviroments for writing very complex rules efficiently. (e.g., Verity) Often: Boolean combinations (as in Google Alerts) Accuracy is very high if a rule has been carefully refined over time by a subject expert. Building and maintaining rule-based classification systems is cumbersome and expensive.

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Introduction to Information Retrieval

A Verity topic (a complex classification rule)

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Introduction to Information Retrieval

Classification methods: 3. Statistical/Probabilistic

This was our definition of the classification problem text classification as a learning problem (i) Supervised learning of a the classification function and (ii) its application to classifying new documents We will look at a couple of methods for doing this: Naive Bayes, Rocchio, kNN, SVMs No free lunch: requires hand-classified training data But this manual classification can be done by non-experts.

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Introduction to Information Retrieval

Outline

Recap Text classification

Naive Bayes

NB theory

Evaluation of TC
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Introduction to Information Retrieval

The Naive Bayes classifier

The Naive Bayes classifier is a probabilistic classifier.
We compute the probability of a document d being in a class c as follows:

nd is the length of the document. (number of tokens)

P(tk |c) is the conditional probability of term tk occurring in a document of class c P(tk |c) as a measure of how much evidence tk contributes that c is the correct class. P(c) is the prior probability of c. If a documents terms do not provide clear evidence for one

class vs. another, we choose the c with highest P(c).

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Maximum a posteriori class

Our goal in Naive Bayes classification is to find the best class. The best class is the most likely or maximum a posteriori (MAP) class cmap:

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Taking the log

Multiplying lots of small probabilities can result in floating point underflow. Since log(xy) = log(x) + log(y), we can sum log probabilities instead of multiplying probabilities. Since log is a monotonic function, the class with the highest score does not change. So what we usually compute in practice is:

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Introduction to Information Retrieval

Naive Bayes classifier

Classification rule:

Simple interpretation:
Each conditional parameter log is a weight that indicates how good an indicator tk is for c. The prior log frequency of c. is a weight that indicates the relative

The sum of log prior and term weights is then a measure of how much evidence there is for the document being in the class. We select the class with the most evidence.
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Introduction to Information Retrieval

Parameter estimation take 1: Maximum likelihood

Estimate parameters Prior: and from train data: How?

Nc : number of docs in class c; N: total number of docs Conditional probabilities:

Tct is the number of tokens of t in training documents from class c (includes multiple occurrences) Weve made a Naive Bayes independence assumption here:
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Introduction to Information Retrieval

The problem with maximum likelihood estimates: Zeros

P(China|d) P(China) P(BEIJING|China) P(AND|China) P(TAIPEI|China) P(JOIN|China) P(WTO|China) If WTO never occurs in class China in the train set:

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Introduction to Information Retrieval

The problem with maximum likelihood estimates: Zeros (cont)

If there were no occurrences of WTO in documents in class China, wed get a zero estimate:

We will get P(China|d) = 0 for any document that contains WTO! Zero probabilities cannot be conditioned away.

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Introduction to Information Retrieval

To avoid zeros: Add-one smoothing

Before:

Now: Add one to each count to avoid zeros:

B is the number of different words (in this case the size of the vocabulary: |V | = M)

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Introduction to Information Retrieval

To avoid zeros: Add-one smoothing

Estimate parameters from the training corpus using add-one smoothing For a new document, for each class, compute sum of (i) log of prior and (ii) logs of conditional probabilities of the terms Assign the document to the class with the largest score

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Introduction to Information Retrieval

Naive Bayes: Training

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Introduction to Information Retrieval

Naive Bayes: Testing

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Introduction to Information Retrieval

Exercise

Estimate parameters of Naive Bayes classifier Classify test document

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Introduction to Information Retrieval

Example: Parameter estimates

The denominators are (8 + 6) and (3 + 6) because the lengths of textc and are 8 and 3, respectively, and because the constant B is 6 as the vocabulary consists of six terms.

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Introduction to Information Retrieval

Example: Classification

Thus, the classifier assigns the test document to c = China. The reason for this classification decision is that the three occurrences of the positive indicator CHINESE in d5 outweigh the occurrences of the two negative indicators JAPAN and TOKYO.

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Introduction to Information Retrieval

Time complexity of Naive Bayes

Lave: average length of a training doc, La: length of the test doc, Ma: number of distinct terms in the test doc, training set, V : vocabulary, set of classes is the time it takes to compute all counts. is the time it takes to compute the parameters from the counts. Generally: Test time is also linear (in the length of the test document). Thus: Naive Bayes is linear in the size of the training set (training) and the test document (testing). This is optimal.

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Introduction to Information Retrieval

Outline

Recap Text classification

Naive Bayes

NB theory

Evaluation of TC
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Introduction to Information Retrieval

Naive Bayes: Analysis

Now we want to gain a better understanding of the properties of Naive Bayes. We will formally derive the classification rule . . . . . . and state the assumptions we make in that derivation explicitly.

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Introduction to Information Retrieval

Derivation of Naive Bayes rule

We want to find the class that is most likely given the document:

Apply Bayes rule

Drop denominator since P(d) is the same for all classes:

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Introduction to Information Retrieval

Too many parameters / sparseness

There are too many parameters , one for each unique combination of a class and a sequence of words. We would need a very, very large number of training examples to estimate that many parameters. This is the problem of data sparseness.
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Introduction to Information Retrieval

Naive Bayes conditional independence assumption

To reduce the number of parameters to a manageable size, we make the Naive Bayes conditional independence assumption:

We assume that the probability of observing the conjunction of attributes is equal to the product of the individual probabilities P(Xk = tk |c). Recall from earlier the estimates for these priors and conditional probabilities:

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Introduction to Information Retrieval

Generative model

Generate a class with probability P(c) Generate each of the words (in their respective positions), conditional on the class, but independent of each other, with probability P(tk |c) To classify docs, we reengineer this process and find the class that is most likely to have generated the doc.
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Introduction to Information Retrieval

Second independence assumption

For example, for a document in the class UK, the probability of generating QUEEN in the first position of the document is the same as generating it in the last position. The two independence assumptions amount to the bag of words model.

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A different Naive Bayes model: Bernoulli model

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Violation of Naive Bayes independence assumption

The independence assumptions do not really hold of documents written in natural language. Conditional independence:

Positional independence: Exercise

Examples for why conditional independence assumption is not really true?

Examples for why positional independence assumption is not really true?

How can Naive Bayes work if it makes such inappropriate assumptions?

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Why does Naive Bayes work?

Naive Bayes can work well even though conditional independence assumptions are badly violated. Example:

Double counting of evidence causes underestimation (0.01) and overestimation (0.99). Classification is about predicting the correct class and not about accurately estimating probabilities. Correct estimation accurate prediction. But not vice versa! 48

Introduction to Information Retrieval

Naive Bayes is not so naive

Naive Naive Bayes has won some bakeoffs (e.g., KDD-CUP 97) More robust to nonrelevant features than some more complex learning methods

More robust to concept drift (changing of definition of class over time) than some more complex learning methods
Better than methods like decision trees when we have many equally important features

A good dependable baseline for text classification (but not the best)
Optimal if independence assumptions hold (never true for text, but true for some domains)

Very fast
Low storage requirements
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Introduction to Information Retrieval

Outline

Recap Text classification

Naive Bayes

NB theory

Evaluation of TC
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Introduction to Information Retrieval

Evaluation on Reuters

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Introduction to Information Retrieval

Example: The Reuters collection

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Introduction to Information Retrieval

A Reuters document

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Evaluating classification
Evaluation must be done on test data that are independent of the training data (usually a disjoint set of instances). Its easy to get good performance on a test set that was available to the learner during training (e.g., just memorize the test set). Measures: Precision, recall, F1, classification accuracy

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Precision P and recall R

P = TP / ( TP + FP) R = TP / ( TP + FN)

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A combined measure: F
F1 allows us to trade off precision against recall. This is the harmonic mean of P and R:

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Averaging: Micro vs. Macro

We now have an evaluation measure (F1) for one class. But we also want a single number that measures the aggregate performance over all classes in the collection. Macroaveraging
Compute F1 for each of the C classes

Average these C numbers

Microaveraging
Compute TP, FP, FN for each of the C classes

Sum these C numbers (e.g., all TP to get aggregate TP)

Compute F1 for aggregate TP, FP, FN
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Introduction to Information Retrieval

Naive Bayes vs. other methods

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Introduction to Information Retrieval

Take-away today
Text classification: definition & relevance to information retrieval Naive Bayes: simple baseline text classifier Theory: derivation of Naive Bayes classification rule & analysis Evaluation of text classification: how do we know it worked / didnt work?

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Introduction to Information Retrieval

Resources
Chapter 13 of IIR Resources at http://ifnlp.org/ir
Weka: A data mining software package that includes an implementation of Naive Bayes

Reuters-21578 the most famous text classification evaluation set (but now its too small for realistic experiments)

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