CCNA 1 v3.

1 Module 2 Networking Fundamentals

Networking Devices

Network Topology

Local-area Networks (LANs)

Wide-area Networks (WANs)

Metropolitan-Area Network (MANs)

Storage-Area Networks (SANS)

Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)

Importance of Bandwidth

Bandwidth Highway Analogy

What is ETHERNET

Ethernet is a protocol that controls the way data is transmitted over a local area network (LAN). It uses wires (meaning it is not a wireless technology). The wires used for a LAN are mostly those headed by an RJ-45 jack, which is similar to the jack plugged into your telephone set, but twice as big. Some Ethernet networks use coaxial cables, but thats rarer, and present in rather large LANs, which span over areas between buildings. If you want to see what a coaxial cable is like, look at the thick cable that links your TV antenna to your TV set. Ethernet is by far the most popular LAN protocol used today. It is so popular that if you buy a network card to install on your machine, you will get an Ethernet card, unless you ask for something different, if of course that different protocol is available. Ethernet has evolved over the years. Today, you can get cheap Ethernet LAN cards with speeds up to 100 Mbps; while the fastest Ethernet reaches Gbps (1 Gbps = 1000 Mbps) in speed.

Ping
Ping

is a computer network administration utility used to test whether a particular host is reachable across an Internet Protocol (IP) network . Ping uses Internet Control Message Protocol ICMP. Two types of ping standard and extended. Simple ping 192.168.0.1 Ping in which you specify protocols and destination and source port numbers.

What is Protocol

Imagine the number of people communicating in the world, the number of different languages they use, the number of different machines they use, the number of ways in which they transmit data and the different software they use. We would never be able to communicate worldwide if there were no standards governing the way we communicate and the way our machines treat data. These standards are sets of rules.There are rules governing how data is transferred over networks, how they are compressed, how they are presented on the screen and so on. These set of rules are called protocols. TCP,IP,WIFI(wireless fidelity),ETHERNET,FTP,HTTP are the example of protocols.

Multiaccess vs. Point-to-point

Multiaccess

means shared medium.

many end-systems share the same physical communication resources (wire, frequency, ...) There must be some arbitration mechanism.
Point-to-point

only 2 systems involved no doubt about where data came from !

Multiaccess

Point-to-point

Internetwork
Connection

of 2 or more distinct (possibly dissimilar) networks. Requires some kind of network device to facilitate the connection.

Net A

Net B

OSI Reference Model

Layered

model:

7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1.

Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data Link Physical

The Physical Layer

Responsibility:

transmission of raw bits over a communication channel.

Issues:

mechanical and electrical interfaces time per bit distances

 Responsibility: Issues:

The Data Link Layer Data Link Control

provide an error-free communication link framing (dividing data into chunks)

header

& trailer bits

addressing

10110110101

01100010011

10110000001

The Data Link Layer The MAC sublayer

Medium

Access Control - needed by mutiaccess networks. provides DLC with virtual wires on multiaccess networks.

MAC

The Network Layer

Responsibilities:

path selection between end-systems (routing). subnet flow control. fragmentation & reassembly translation between different network types.

Issues:

packet headers virtual circuits

The Transport Layer

Responsibilities:

provides virtual end-to-end links between peer processes. end-to-end flow control
Issues:

headers error detection reliable communication

The Session Layer

Responsibilities:

establishes, manages, and terminates sessions between applications. service location lookup
Many

protocol suites do not include a session layer.

The Presentation Layer

Responsibilities:

data encryption data compression data conversion

Many

protocol suites do not include a Presentation Layer.

The Application Layer

Responsibilities:

anything not provided by any of the other layers

Issues:

application level protocols appropriate selection of type of service

Layering & Headers

Each

layer needs to add some control information to the data in order to do its job. This information is typically prepended to the data before being given to the lower layer. Once the lower layers deliver the the data and control information - the peer layer uses the control information.

Headers
Process DATA Process

Transport

DATA

Transport

Networ k
Data Link

H H

DATA

Network

H H H

DATA

Data Link

What are the headers?

Physical: no header - just a bunch of bits. Data Link:
address of the receiving endpoints address of the sending endpoint length of the data checksum.

 protocol

suite version type of service length of the data packet identifier fragment number time to live

Network layer header examples

protocol header checksum source network address destination network address

Important Summary
Data-Link:

communication between machines on the same network. Network: communication between machines on possibly different networks. Transport: communication between processes (running on machines on possibly different networks).

Connecting Networks
Repeater:

physical layer

Bridge:
Router: Gateway:

data link layer

network layer network layer and above.

Repeater
Copies

bits from one network to another Does not look at any bits Allows the extension of a network beyond physical length limitations

REPEATER

Bridge
Copies

frames from one network to another Can operate selectively - does not copy all frames (must look at data-link headers). Extends the network beyond physical length limitations.
BRIDGE

 Copies

packets from one network to another. Makes decisions about what route a packet should take (looks at network headers).

Router

ROUTER

Gateway
Operates

as a router Data conversions above the network layer. Conversions:

encapsulation - use an intermediate network translation - connect different application protocols encrpyption - could be done by a gateway

Encapsulation Example

Gateway

Gateway

Provides

service connectivity even though intermediate network does not support protocols.

Translation
Gateway

Translate

protocol

from green protocol to brown

Encryption gateway
Secure Network Encryption/Decryption Gateways Secure Network

GW

? ? ?
Insecure Network

GW

Hardware vs. Software

Repeaters

are typically hardware devices. Bridges can be implemented in hardware or software. Routers & Gateways are typically implemented in software so that they can be extended to handle new protocols. Many workstations can operate as routers or gateways.

Byte Ordering
Different

computer architectures use different byte ordering to represent multibyte values. 16 bit integer:
Low Byte
High Byte

Address A
Address A+1

High Byte
Low Byte

Network Byte Order

Conversion

of application-level data is left up to the presentation layer. But hold on !!! How do lower level layers communicate if they all represent values differently ? (data length fields in headers) A fixed byte order is used (called network byte order) for all control data.

Multiplexing
..

to combine many into one. Many processes sharing a single network interface. A single process could use multiple protocols. More on this when we look at TCP/IP.

Modes of Service
connection-oriented

vs. connectionless

sequencing
error-control flow-control byte

stream vs. message based full-duplex vs. half-duplex.

connection-oriented service includes the establishment of a logical connection between 2 processes.

establish logical connection transfer data terminate connection.

Connection-Oriented vs. Connectionless Service

Connectionless

services involve sending of independent messages.

Sequencing
Sequencing

provides support for an order to communications. A service that includes sequencing requires that messages (or bytes) are received in the same order they are sent.

Error Control
Some

services require error detection (it is important to know when a transmission error has occured). Checksums provide a simple error detection mechanism. Error control sometimes involves notification and retransmission.

Flow Control
Flow

control prevents the sending process from overwhelming the receiving process. Flow control can be handled a variety of ways - this is one of the major research issues in the development of the next generation of networks (ATM).

Byte Stream vs. Message

Byte

stream implies an ordered sequence of bytes with no message boundaries. Message oriented services provide communication service to chunks of data called datagrams.

Full- vs. Half-Duplex

Full-Duplex

services support the transfer of data in both directions.

Half-Duplex

services support the transfer of data in a single direction.

End-to-End vs. Hop-toHop

Many

service modes/features such as flow control and error control can be done either:
between endpoints of the communication. -orbetween every 2 nodes on the path between the endpoints.

End-to-End
Process A

Process B

Hop-by-Hop
Process A

Process B

Buffering
Buffering

can provide more efficient communications. Buffering is most useful for byte stream services.
Send Buffer Recv. Buffer

Process A

Process B

Addresses
Each

communication endpoint must have an address. Consider 2 processes communicating over an internet:
the network must be specified the host (end-system) must be specified the process must be specified.

Addresses at Layers
Physical

Layer: no address necessary

Data

Link Layer - address must be able to select any host on the network.
Layer - address must be able to provide information to enable routing. Layer - address must identify the destination process.

Network

Transport

Broadcasts
Many

networks support the notion of sending a message from one host to all other hosts on the network. A special address called the broadcast address is often used. Some popular network services are based on broadcasting (YP/NIS, rup, rusers)

Summary