CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS

1.1 Definition 1.2 Types of Statistics 1.3 Important Statistical Terminologies 1.4 Types of Variables and Data 1.5 Sources of Data

Objectives
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to: Define statistics and basic statistical terminologies correctly Classify statistics into two types with examples Differentiate and classify types of data in terms of measurement level, form, and representation. Identify data sources and data collection methods used in research. M4003 INTRODUCTION HELEN TEH

1.1 What is statistics?

Statistics is the science of

collecting

summarizing

analyzing interpreting

organizing

displaying

numerical data for the purpose of making a more informed conclusion and decision.
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1.2 Types of Statistics

2 types

Types of Statistics

Descriptive Statistics
Is the type of statistics used to describe data numerically (mean, standard deviation) or graphically (line graph, pie chart) in forms that easily understood and used.

Inferential Statistics
Is the type of statistics used to make statements and draw conclusions about a population using information obtained from a sample and based on probability theory.

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1.2.1 Descriptive Statistics

x1 x2 x3 ... xn Mean, x
n

Mode = value that occurs most frequently in a data set. For example, for the sample [1, 3, 6, 6, 6, 6, 7, 7, 12, 12, 17] the mode is 6. Standard deviation, = shows how much the set of data varies from the "average (mean)
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1.2.2 Inferential Statistics

Examples of statistical tests such as:
hypothesis testing (standard normal test, Z test; t-test to compare two means, ANOVA to compare 3 or or more means, Chi square test, etc) test of relationship between two variables (correlation Pearson, r; and Spearman, ) prediction test (regression) Others which you will not be learning in this course include multiple regression, Mann-Whitney U test, Kruskal-Wallis test, factor analysis and etc.
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Sample: Population Variable: :

1.3

A smallgroup of people selected from the population Entire group which is or objects which is being Characteristic or attribute of a population being of interest (aof all measurement of interest). Example: studied Example: height, weight, (set subset of the population). A good sample Statistical Terminologieslength, gender, taste, studied is aregisteredsample (fair i.e. equal chance of being all random voters, all students in a college. aroma, colour etc. selected and representative of the population).
X37 X35 X36

Sampling Unit: Each population unit that may be sampled.

Statistic
X38
X39 X40 X11 X12 X 14 X13

xa , s a
n=10

Sample B
6

Statistic xb , sb n=10 Statistic

X19 X21 X 23 X X X22

Sample A
X28 X24 X X26 25 X27 X30 X29 X31

18

20

X15 X16 X17 X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X

X34

Sample C
X7 X8 X9 X10

xc , sc
n=10

X32 X33

Parameter (, 2), N=40

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Population
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Sampling unit

1.3 Statistical Terminologies

Also known as respondents/ elements. They are objects or sources Unit/ Case/ of information.

Variable
Height (cm) 160 162 157 155
Population characteristic/ attribute being studied

Element

Ali Guna Unit/ Case Swee Lin Aida

Observation

Prakash

167

Value obtained from a variable

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1.3 Statistical Terminologies

Population : Entire group of people or objects which is being studied (set of all measurement of interest). Example: all registered voters, all students in a college. Sample: A small group which is selected from the population (a subset of the population). A good sample is a random sample (fair and representative of the population). Sampling Unit: Each population unit that may be sampled. Variable: Characteristic or attribute of a population that is being studied Example: height, weight, length, gender, taste, aroma, colour etc.
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Think and do ...

Identify the population, sample and variable in the research statements below:
1. A research was carried out to determine the effectiveness of a new teaching approach (Outcome-based education, OBE) introduced in 2009 for all diploma programs in Malaysian polytechnics. The perspectives of 450 students and 85 lecturers were obtained through surveys. 2. A sensory evaluation was conducted to determine the best formulation for chicken nuggets. A panel of 30 consumers were chosen randomly from among those who visited Carrefour at East Coast Mall between 12.00 2.00 pm on Sunday.
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Identify the population, sample and variable in the research statements below:

variabl e
1. A research was carried out to determine the effectiveness of a new teaching approach (Outcome-based education, OBE) introduced in 2009 for all diploma programs in Malaysian polytechnics. The perspectives of 450 students and 85 lecturers were obtained through surveys.

sample

populatio n

All students and all lecturers in Malaysian polytechnics who followed or taught using the OBE approach
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Identify the population, sample and variable in the research statements below:

2.

A sensory evaluation using hedonic testing was conducted to determine the best formulation for chicken nuggets based on four attributes taste, aroma, texture and colour; and overall acceptance of the product. An untrained panel of 30 consumers were chosen randomly from among those who visited Carrefour at East Coast Mall between 12.00 2.00 pm on Sunday.

variables

sample

populatio n
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1.4 Variable
Qualitative
Expresses quality or category, also called categorical variable Nominal scale (name) Examples: gender, hair colour, religious affiliation, state of birth, favourite singer, grade of cocoa, ethnic background etc. Can be coded to appear numeric but values are meaningless.
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Quantitative
Can be measured on a numeric scale Numerically meaningful Examples: number of children in a family, amount of bacteria in a culture (cfu), weight of chillies in kilogram, height, etc.

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1.4.1 Qualitative Variable

The variable Gender Female = F or 1 Male = M or 2
Suppose you add the values from a qualitative variable. Would the value be meaningful?

Numerically meaningless!

1
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1.4.1 Qualitative Variable

The variable number of babies in a nursery Numerically meaningful!
Suppose you add values from a quantitative variable. Would the value obtained be meaningful?

=
1 2

1
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Exercise 1.1:

1. Give 5 examples for quantitative variables and qualitative variables.

Quantitative Qualitative

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Exercise 1.1:
2. List whether the following is quantitative variable or qualitative variable: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. Lifetime of a light bulb in hours Final results from the judges Religion of an individual The concentration of sugar in a fruit juice Aroma of flowers Monthly telephone bill Dividend paid to investment with Amanah Saham Bumiputera Temperature of a region

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1.4.2 Quantitative Variable

Discrete quantitative variable

Finite or countable number (whole numbers) Counts/ frequencies Example: the number of bedrooms in a house, number of apples in the basket, etc.
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Continuous quantitative variable

Infinite number of possible values Usually obtained by measurement Example: the weight of potatoes in a bag, duration taken to bake a cake, temperature. Brix, etc.
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Exercise 1.1: 3. State whether the following statement is either discrete variable or continuous variable:
a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k. l. Number of phone calls every 2 hours. Number of goals that scored by a player in a tournament The amount of petrol used by a car in 4 days. Weight of a letter. Number of seeds in an orange. Speed of a car. Number of passengers in a plane. Time needed to run 100 meters. Volume of fruit juice in a bottle. Height of a student. Number of children in a family. Lifetime of a light bulb.
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1.5 Statistics and Research

Researchers and scientists frequently use statistics to analyze their results.
Researchers and scientists frequently use statistics to analyze their results. Why do researchers use statistics?

To describe the population or phenomenon being studied To determine the right statistical methods or procedures to analyze and understand the data better (and more accurately) To help confirm or reject a hypothesis and to make informed and more valid decisions Gathering information (data) from a sample is cheaper and HELEN TEH moreM4003 INTRODUCTION manageable (feasible)

Of the 47,263 students eligible to participate in Monash Experience Questionnaire 2005, there were 16,116 returns, resulting in an overall response rate of 34.1%.

King, M. & Nair, C. S. (2006). The student experience: Quality never dies. In Proceedings of the Australian Universities Quality Forum 2006. AUQA: 96100
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Design type of test

For example, a yes or no questionnaire produces categorical data. For such data, frequency counts and percentages are some descriptive statistics often used.

T-test, t

Spearman,

ANOVA, F A questionnaire with a 9-point hedonic scale or a 10-interval scoring test used in sensory Pearson, evaluation produce ordinal data. As the number of intervals used is more than 5, the data is often analysed as interval data. y = mx + c Comparison of formulations would use statistical procedures M4003 INTRODUCTION HELEN TEH such as t-tests and ANOVA.

... The optimal conditions to obtain the highest yield of acidsoluble collagen from the skin of grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) were ... The predicted yield of acid-soluble collagen was 19.3 0.5% which was in agreement with the actual value (p<.05). This finding supports the production of acid-soluble collagen from the skin of grass carp. However further research on the structural properties of collagen is ... Wang, L.; Yang, B.; Du. X.; Yang, Y.; and Liu, J. (2008). Optimization of conditions for extraction of acid-soluble collagen from grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) by response surface methodology. Journal of Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies. 9(4): 604607 DOI: 10.1016/j.ifset.2008.03.001

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