TCP/IP Naming, Addressing, and Routing

An IP Tutorial

Tutorial Overview
Part 1: Internet Background Part 2: Internet Basics Part 3: How does data get from A to B? Part 4: IP Routing Part 5: IP QoS Part 6: Internet History, Governance, References

What is the Internet?

A very large network of networks. Uses TCP/IP protocols and packet switching. Runs on any communications substrate.

Internet Architecture: WAN

Interconnection Points (NAPs/MAEs)

National Service Providers (NSPs)

Regional Enterprise

Enterprise

Regional

Internet Architecture: Enterprise Attachment

H1 H H

FDD Net # 1

Internet Service Provider

R1

Ethernet H5 Net # 2

H6

H7

Private Line
H2

R2

H3

H4

Ethernet Net # 3

Internet - Recent Statistics

20M hosts, 18K adds/day 755K www-prefixed hosts, 256% annual growth rate Highest growth rate: USA (1), Japan (2) 1300K Domains (60/40 USA vs. Rest) Largest domain , .com with 4.5M hosts 214 connected IP countries 55 million users

1000

100000

100000000

10000000

1000000

10000

100

10

19 69 74 1 3 5 6 Ju n-8 -8 -8 A ug ug ct A O N ov -8 l-8 8 89 9 Ju Ja n-8 91 1 2 O ct n-9 -9 2 3 Ja O ct pr ct -9 -9 3 pr ct -9 4 l-9 95 96 97 A O A O Ju Ja nnnJa Ja

Internet Growth 1969-1997

Hosts

D omains

Networks

# of countries
S ep
100 120 140 160 180 20 40 60 80 0

-9 1 1 -9 2

D ec ar -9 92 2 2 n-9 -9 3 M Ju S ep ec ar -9 93 3 3 n-9 -9 4 D M Ju S ep ec ar -9 94 4 4 n-9 -9 5 D M Ju S ep ec ar -9 95 5 5 n-9 -9 6 96 S ep D M -9 ec 6 -9 6 ar Ju -9 n7 97 D M Ju S ep ec ar -9 nD M Ju

Worldwide Networks Growth

Internet B itnet U U CP FidoN et OSI

Internet Traffic Statistics

Internet

NAP traffic ~ 1 Gbps, growing at 5x/year Total Internet Bandwidth ~ 350 Gbps Worlds telecom traffic ~ 1 Tbps

Comparing Internet Growth

Telephone

Lines: CAGR* = 5.1% Cellular Phones: CAGR = 68.9% Internet Users: CAGR = 113.1%
* Compounded Annual Growth Rate

Moores Law vs. Internet Growth

Moores Law PC Performance Growth = 2 x Every 18 months

Internet Growth

Internet Bandwidth Demand Growth = 2 x Every 3-4 months

Tutorial Overview
Part 1: Internet Background Part 2: Internet Basics Part 3: How does data get from A to B? Part 4: IP Routing Part 5: IP QoS Part 6: Internet History, Governance, References

Part 2: Internet Basics

Philosophy and Terminology Addressing Naming and the Domain Name System

Design Philosophies

Shared Fate Principle

connection

state maintained at end-points little state maintained in routers

Addresses are Globally Significant

allows

local decisions on routing

Provide a Virtual Network Layer

separates

physical/link layers from internetwork layer

Connectionless Paradigm

There is no connection in IP
Packets

can be delivered out-of-order Each packet can take a different path to the destination No error detection or correction in payload No congestion control (beyond drop)

TCP mitigates these for connectionoriented applications

error

correction is by retransmission

Connectionless Example
H
H H

Internet Service Provider

FDDI

Router

Ethernet
H H H

Private Line
Router

Ethernet
H H H

Internet Protocol Architecture

Ping FTP TELNET HTTP BGP TCP UDP DNS RTP RIP SNMP SMTP ICMP

OSPF

IP

LANs 10/100BaseT

ATM

FR

PPP Circuit-Switched B/W: POTS, SDS, ISDN, ...

CDPD

Dedicated B/W: DSx, SONET, ...

Wireless

OSI Hierarchy
7
6 5 4 3 2 1

Application
Presentation Session Transport Network Link Physical

Physical
SONET,

T1, T3

Link
Ethernet,

FDDI Circuit, ATM, FR switches

Network
Routing,

Call control IP internetworking

OSI Hierarchy
7
6 5 4 3 2 1

Application
Presentation Session Transport Network Link Physical

Transport
Error

and congestion control TCP, UDP

Session, Presentation, Application

Data,

voice encodings Authentication web/http, ftp, telnet

TCP/IP: Postal Analogy

IP Packets are like Postcards

Globally significant To/From Addresses Finite but variable length content Variable delays Delivery failures Out-of-order deliveries May take different routes

In networking language, IP is connectionless

TCP: Postal Analogy

TCP is like sending a Novel on Postcards

Network delivers postcards best effort Endpoints handle all service actions above best effort Page numbering (ordering, duplicate detection) Positive Acknowledgment Retransmission on Timeout

In networking language, TCP is connection-oriented

IP Network Model
The Internet is a network of networks A network is a collection of hosts that can communicate directly among each other

Any

pair can communicate The network defines how the pair exchanges information

IP Network Model

An internet is a concatenation of networks

The

networks involved may be (and usually are) heterogeneous An end-to-end path is achieved by concatenating the transport of data over possibly multiple networks A Router mediates the differences between the preceding and succeeding networks in the concatenation

Ramifications of Design Principles

Hosts contain connection state

Amount

of state maintained is determined by the application Not all applications require the same amount of state (e.g., reliable delivery)

Network elements contain no connection state or soft state

Soft

state is state that can be lost and refreshed without completely losing the connection

Ramifications of Design Principles

Since intermediate systems do not maintain hard state, requested QoS is difficult to manage
When

soft state is lost, intermediate systems will not be able to maintain the QoS (the information on what the QoS was is lost momentarily)

Ramifications of Design Principles

IP routers take actions independent of other routers to forward data toward its destination
IP

routers make local decisions only; there is no network-wide coordination a bad routing decision by one router can be corrected by its neighbors a failure of a router does not affect the forwarding of traffic to a destination not directly attached to the failed router

Ramifications of Design Principles

Implementation Performance Varies

Most

implementations are highly optimized for the most common case Use of other IP features can cause significant performance degradation
out-of-order datagram deliver use of IP options

Bandwidth Bottlenecks

Routing Protocols Create A Single "Shortest Path"

C1

C3
C2 "Longer" paths become underutilised Path for C1 <> C3 Path for C2 <> C3

Engineering-Out

The Bottlenecks

ATM Switches Enable Traffic Engineering

C1

C3
C2

PVC C1 <> C3 PVC C2 <> C3

MPLS Takes Over

MPLS LSRs Enable Traffic Engineering

C1

C3
C2

LSP C1 <> C3 LSP C2 <> C3

MPLS Path Creation: Quality of Service Refinements

Source device (S) determines the type of path on the basis of the data

Low delay (preferred for VoIP traffic) High bandwidth (preferred for FTP)

Hosts, Subnets, & Routers

Protocols above IP

Host

Host

IP Subnet (No IP Processing)

IP Subnet (No IP Processing)

IP Processing

R
IP Subnet (No IP Processing)

IP Subnet (No IP Processing)

IP Packets IP Subnet: Ethernet, Private Line, Frame Relay, ATM, .

Names and Addresses

Every TCP/IP device (optionally) has a name. Each IP subnet interface on the device has an IP address and one or more subnet specific addresses (sometimes called physical addresses).

Names and Addresses

Name: Character string based on a domain structure, e.g., www.att.com IP Address: A.B.C.D (4-octet binary string consisting of subnet id and host id)

Subnet Specific Addresses

Subnet Specific Addresses are often referred to as physical addresses but are really either
true

network addresses (like E.164, ATM End System Addresses) link layer addresses (like Frame Relay DLCIs or ATM VPI/VCI)

Examples of Subnet Specific Addresses

Ethernet, IEEE 802.3 MAC/link Frame Relay (E.164/network, DLCI/link) Circuit-switched (E.164/network) ATM (E.164/network, AESA/network, VPI/VCI/link) Dedicated Serial Line (null subnet specific address)

Subnet Confusion Possible

Note: the term subnet is also used as a logical subdivision of the IP address space
which

is meant should be clear from the context

Names & Addresses: An Example

IP: A.3 E.164: 201-876-4477

Circuit-switched Net (IP subnet id = A)

IP: A.1 E.164: 908-949-1254 IP: A.2 E.164: 212-546-1355

R
IP: C.1

IP: B.1 NSAP: af26c9

R
VPI/VCI: 555

Private Line Net (IP subnet id = C)

IP: B.3 NSAP: ed43fc
VPI/VCI: 222

VPI/VCI: 898

IP: C.2

ATM Network (IP subnet id = B)

VPI/VCI: 456 VPI/VCI: 222

R
IP: D.2 MAC: 458ef9

VPI/VCI: 666

Name: www.att.com

IP: B.2 NSAP: cd675f

R
IP: D.3 MAC: b23cd1

Ethernet (IP subnet id = D)

H
IP: D.1 MAC: efd462

IP Addresses
IP version 4 addresses are all 24 bits in length Representation is in dotted-decimal notation: A.B.C.D

is the decimal number equivalent to the 8-bit quantity in the first octet B is the decimal number equivalent to the 8-bit quantity in the second octet, etc.

All IP addresses contain a network part and a host part

IP Address Network/Host Parts

When specific boundary between network and host parts is needed:

a

subnet mask is paired with the address

the mask is ANDed with the address to obtain the network part e.g., 255.255.255.0 means that the first 3 octets are network and the last octet is host, or
a

specific bit-length is included

the length is placed after a slash separating the address from the length

Example: Subnet/Host Address

Example: Host snipe.ho.att.com

IP

address is 135.16.157.112 IP network is 135.16.157.0 255.255.255.0 IP network is 135.16.157.0/24

Which representations to use is determined by local software

Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR)

IP addresses originally had a natural network length

Class

A addresses had an 8-bit network and 24-bit host part Class B addresses had a 16-bit network and 16-bit host part Class C addresses had a 24-bit network and 8-bit host part

CIDR and Addresses

Later subnet extensions were allowed

the

natural network part could be extended out to, but not including, the host part when this is done, a subnet mask is required to allow various IP processing stages to determine the network/host boundary

CIDR and Addresses

CIDR removes the natural network length

subnets

can now be any prefix of length 1 to 31 bits this required changes to routing protocols to allow carriage of the subnet length field

IP Packet Structure
Header

...

Data

S = Source Address (Calling Number)

D = Destination Address (Called Number)

IP Packet Structure
4-bit 8-bit 4-bit Version Header Type of Service Length (TOS) 16-bit Identification 8-bit Time to Live (TTL) 16-bit Total Length (Bytes) 3-bit Flags

13-bit Fragment Offset 20-byte Header

8-bit Protocol

16-bit Header Checksum

32-bit Source IP Address

32-bit Destination IP Address

Options (if any)

Payload

Tutorial Overview
Part 1: Internet Background Part 2: Internet Basics Part 3: How does data get from A to B? Part 4: IP Routing Part 5: IP QoS Part 6: Internet History, Governance, References

Part 3: How Does a Datagram get from A to B?

Host Configurations
How

does a host get an IP address? Other fixed configurations: DNS server and default router

Name to address translation Mask and Match on Address

Decision:

resolve the address or forward?

Address resolution

Getting from A to B
Host address resolution protocol (ARP) and table Host forwarding table

Host Configurations

A host needs to be configured to know 3 IP addresses

Its

own IP address The IP address of its DNS server (two are preferred, primary and secondary) The IP address of the default router it will use to reach hosts not on its local (sub)network These can be either static (manual) or dynamic configurations

Host Configurations

A host also needs to know the subnet mask (or prefix length) of its own IP address
subnet

mask uses a 24-bit quantity with logical AND to extract the IP subnet prefix length explicitly indicates what part of the local IP address is the IP subnet

Dynamic Configuration

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)

Uses

central administration to maintain a server The protocol uses the hosts Ethernet address (on I/F) to identify it The DHCP server responds with the specific configuration information for that host

DHCP at Bootup
DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

DHCP Response

Broadcast DHCP Request:

Ethernet

DHCP Server

Name: myhost.att.com IP addr: 135.16.12.44 MAC addr: ef655c

Source. MAC addr. = ef655c No IP Addr

Name/Address Translations IP Over Ethernet

DNS: Domain Name Server ARP: Address Resolution Protocol

DNS

ARP: 135.16.12.44? ef655c

Ethernet

http://www.att.com
Dest. MAC addr. = ef655c Dest. IP Addr.= 135.16.12.44

Name: www.att.com IP addr: 135.16.12.44 MAC addr: ef655c

Name/Address Translations IP Over ATM Network

DNS: Domain Name Server ARPS: Address Resolution Protocol Server

DNS

ARPS

ATM Network
SVC set-up to ef655c Assign VPI/VCI = 1234

http://www.att.com
VPI/VCI = 1234 Dest. IP Addr.= 135.16.12.44

Name: www.att.com IP addr: 135.16.12.44 NSAP addr: ef655c

Name to Address Translation

The host obtains a name from the user

www.att.com

The resolver is called to map the name to an address A name resolution query is sent to the configured DNS server

Name to Address Translation

The DNS server responds with

the

address(es) corresponding to the name, if it knows it, or the address of another server that should know more

Translation can be name to:

Host

address Mail exchange other information (e.g., services supported)

Name to Address: Example

A host named coyote.acme.com wants to know the address of roadrunner.aspca.org

Assume

the configured name server for coyote is dns.acme.com

Name to Address: Example

dns.acme.com receives a name query for roadrunner.aspca.org

this

DNS server has no idea about

roadrunner.aspca.org, or aspca.org
but

it knows org is handled by dns.internic.net and its IP address

dns.acme.com returns a reply referring to the address of dns.internic.net

Name to Address: Example

coyote.acme.com sends a query to dns.internic.net for roadrunner.aspca.org dns.internic.net looks in its database and finds

it

doesnt know about roadrunner.aspca.org but it does know that the name server for aspca.org is called dns.aspca.org at a.b.c.d

Name to Address: Example

dns.internic.net replies with a referral to dns.aspca.org at a.b.c.d coyote.acme.com sends a query to dns.aspca.org for roadrunner.aspca.org

dns.aspca.org

finds the entry and replies with the address The server will also respond with any other information it has for that name

Hierarchical Structure of the DNS

root

top level domains arpa

com

edu

gov

int

mil

net

org

us

uk

in

second level domains

att

att

va

www

worldnet

reston

cnri

Administration of the Domain Name System

Top Level Domains are assigned and a set of top level servers are maintained
Internet

Society is owner (http://www.isoc.org) Internet Assigned Number Authority within ISOC contracts actual running of top-level servers (3 sites: US, Europe, Asia/Pacific)

Administration of the Domain Name System

Within a top level domain

names

are created and assigned administration is delegated to that subordinate name for each subordinate name, a minimum of two servers must answer for that name: a primary and at least one secondary the primary is the point of administration secondaries are updated automatically using a domain/zone transfer protocol

Forwarding: Local or Remote?

Once the DNS returns the destination IP address, the host must determine whether it is local or remote
local:

the subnet the sender is connected to

there is a presumption that all local hosts are directly reachable for example all hosts on the same Ethernet are directly reachable
remote:

not local and therefore must be reached via a router

the router must be local

Forwarding: Local or Remote?

The determination of local or remote is based on comparing the IP subnet of the source with that of the destination
If

the local IP subnets match, the two hosts are local to each other The assignment of IP addresses must maintain this rule!

This is often called mask and match

Local: Send it Directly

If the destination is local, then it can be sent directly

but

you first need to know the destination host Ethernet address (this generalizes for any layer 2 subnet)

Local: Send it Directly

Given the IP address of a local destination, use the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
ARP

IP ARP relies on broadcast of a request and a reply

ARP Request: My Ethernet address: ef655c My IP address: 135.16.157.23 Your Ethernet address: ? Your IP address: 135.16.157.15 ARP Reply: Your Ethernet address: ef655c Your IP address: 135.16.157.23 My Ethernet address: fc893e My IP address: 135.16.157.15

is not based on IP, but rather supports

ARP Cache
ARP replies are seen by all local hosts Each host maintains an ARP cache

mapping

between IP address and Ethernet (layer 2) address each cache entry times out (approx. 10 minutes) the cache is consulted for address resolution before an ARP request is sent

Remote: Send it to the Router

If the destination is remote (subnet match fails)

then

send it to the local router the router has a local IP address use ARP or the ARP cache to translate to a layer 2 address

Once the Router has the datagram

uses

its FIB to determine the next hop the entire process repeats at this point

Sending Over Point-to-Point Links

Previous discussions assumed a broadcast network for transmission IP treats a point-to-point link as a subnet with exactly two hosts

sending

to the other end is both broadcast and unicast point-to-point examples: private line, frame relay PVC, ATM PVC

Data Transfer
Once the subnet and interface is selected, data transmission uses the underlying layer 2 medium IP is encapsulated in a multiprotocol sublayer (may be different by medium) The multiprotocol PDU is encapsulated using the appropriate layer 2 mechanism for that medium Transmission begins

Data Transfer Over Framebased Networks

File

TCP

IP

Frame (Ethernet, FR, PPP)

Data Transfer Over Cellbased Networks

File

TCP

IP

Adaptation

ATM Cells

Tutorial Overview
Part 1: Internet Background Part 2: Internet Basics Part 3: How does data get from A to B? Part 4: IP Routing Part 5: IP QoS Part 6: Internet History, Governance, References

Part 4: IP Routing
Elements of IP Routing Internet Routing Architecture and Autonomous Systems Interior Routing Protocols (RIP, OSPF, IS-IS) Exterior Routing Protocols (BGP)

Elements of IP Routing

IP routing is done at each IP capable node

at

all routers at all hosts (even though it may be much simplified)

IP Routing & Forwarding

Source

IP Subnet

R
IP Subnet

R
IP Subnet

R
IP Subnet

Destination

IP Routing is a dynamic, fully distributed process. Does not rely on any centralized administration. Packet Forwarding is a hop-by-hop process. Each entity (host or router) only forwards the packet to another entity (host or router) attached to its local IP subnet.

Internet Routing Architecture

Autonomous System (AS) Autonomous System (AS) Autonomous System (AS)

Autonomous System (AS)

Autonomous System (AS)

Autonomous System: A collection of IP subnets and routers under the same administrative authority. Interior Routing Protocol Exterior Routing Protocol

Internet Routing Hierarchy

The Internet is composed of Autonomous Systems Each Autonomous System is an administrative entity that

Uses

Interior Gateway Protocols (IGPs) to determine routing within the Autonomous System Uses Exterior Gateway Protocols (EGPs) to interact with other Autonomous Systems

ISPs and Autonomous Systems

A Service Provider may have multiple Autonomous Systems within its operating network
The

AT&T WorldNet dial platform and Common Backbone were two separate ASs that have merged There are two ASs within the WorldNet Common Backbone: one for Internet Gateway Routers (IGRs) and one for the rest

Routings 3 Aspects

Acquisition of information about the IP subnets that are reachable through an internet
static

routing configuration information dynamic routing information protocols (e.g., BGP4, OSPF, RIP, ISIS) each mechanism/protocol constructs a Routing Information Base (RIB)

Routing Aspect #2

Construction of a Forwarding Table

synthesis

of a single table from all the Routing Information Bases (RIBs) information about a destination subnet may be acquired multiple ways a precedence is defined among the RIBs to arbitrate conflicts on the same subnet Also called a Forwarding Information Base (FIB)

Routing #3

Use of a Forwarding Table to forward individual packets

selection

interface hop-by-hop, each router makes an independent decision

of the next-hop router and

RIB Construction

Multiple routing protocols may run on the same router

static

routing Interior Gateway Protocols, e.g., OSPF Exterior Gateway Protocols, e.g., BGP

RIB Construction
Each routing protocol builds its own Routing Information Base (RIB) Each protocol has its own view of costs

e.g.,

OSPF is administrative weights e.g., BGP4 is Autonomous System path length

FIB Construction

An algorithm is used to choose one next-hop toward each IP destination known by any routing protocol
the

set of IP destinations present in any RIB are collected if a particular IP destination is present in only one RIB, that RIB determines the next hop forwarding path for that destination

FIB Construction

Choosing FIB entries, cont..

if

a particular IP destination is present in multiple RIBs, then a precedence is defined to select which RIB entry determines the next hop forwarding path for that destination This process normally chooses exactly one next-hop toward a given destination

There are no standards for this; it is an implementation (vendor) decision

FIB Contents

IP subnet and mask (or length) of destinations

can

be the default IP subnet

IP address of the next hop toward that IP subnet Interface id of the subnet associated with the next hop Optional: cost metric associated with this entry in the forwarding table

Packet Forwarding

Forwarding is the process of determining where a particular datagram should be sent next
involves

searching the FIB for the next hop IP address and interface prefixes may have common upper parts, the longest one matching is used

Uses the longest matching prefix

several

Longest Matching Prefix

Next hop for 101010111... is 135.17.21.1

Prefix 1010110 10101 101 Length N ext H op 7 5 3 135.17.21.4 135.17.21.1 135.17.21.4

Routing Information Base Construction

A dynamic, fully distributed process done for each routing protocol being run Distance Vector and Link State routing are the two basic techniques.

Distance Vector and Link State

Distance Vector
Accumulates

a metric hop-by-hop as the protocol messages traverse the subnets

Link State
Builds

a network topology database Computes best path routes from current node to all destinations based on the topology

Distance Vector Protocols

Each router only advertises to its neighbors, its distance to various IP subnets Each router computes its next-hop routing table based on least cost determined from information received from its neighbors and the cost to those neighbors

Distance Vector
Attempts to minimize messaging overhead and memory requirements at the expense of slower convergence Needs careful design to avoid problems

packet

looping, or counting to infinity split horizon with poisoned reverse

if A routes to X via B , then B should not try to route to X via A (loop formation) A sends to B updates that list X with infinite (poisoned) cost

Distance Vector RIB Construction

Cost to D = 5 Next Hop = A.2 A.3

H
A.1

IP Subnet A Cost = 2
A.2

Cost to D = 4 Next Hop = C.2 C.1

Cost to D = 3 Next Hop = B.2 B.1

IP Subnet C Cost = 2
C.2 B.3

IP Subnet B Cost = 1
B.2 Cost to D = 2 Next Hop = direct

Cost to D = 2 Next Hop = direct D.2

Destination
D.1

D.3

IP Subnet D Cost = 2

Packet Forwarding
Cost to D = 5 Next Hop = A.2

A.1
D.1

IP Subnet A Cost = 2
A.2

A.3

Cost to D = 4 Next Hop = C.2 C.1

R
D.1

Cost to D = 3 Next Hop = B.2

IP Subnet C Cost = 2
C.2

B.1

IP Subnet B Cost = 1
B.2
Cost to D = 2 Next Hop = direct

B.3

Cost to D = 2 Next Hop = direct D.2

Destination
D.1

D.3
D.1

IP Subnet D Cost = 2

H
D.1

D.1

Distance Vector RIB Parameters

Accumulated cost
cost

is a constant administrative assignment for each subnet assignment is typically 1 for each subnet (equivalent to hop-count) included in routing protocol exchange

Time the update was received (for timeout)

Distance Vector RIB Parameters

The next-hop the entry was received from

senders

id is included in routing protocol exchange

Accumulated Hop count and Maximum Hop Count

used

to detect cycles hop count included in routing protocol exchange

Distance Vector: Additions

When a router learns of new reachable subnets

at

router startup when an interface in enabled or restored to service

A routing update is broadcast to all neighbors

Distance Vector: Additions

Any router receiving the packet compares the cost it received in the new packet with that in its RIB If the cost is smaller or the subnet is new

the

new entry is used in the RIB the new entry is broadcast to all its neighbors (except the one from which it was received)

Distance Vector: Removals

Each RIB entry is aged

a

timeout defines when an entry is removed from the RIB

Periodically, each router re-advertises all the routes it knows to its neighbors
this

can be done in many ways: from simple neighbor hellos to enumeration of all routes

Distance Vector: Removals

If a neighbor does not respond within a timeout, all routes learned from that neighbor are removed Route removal may be advertised to neighbors

Link State Protocols

Each router broadcasts to all the routers in the network the state of its locally attached links and IP subnets Each router constructs a complete topology view of the entire network based on these link state updates and computes its next-hop routing table based on this topology view

Link State Protocols

Attempts to minimize convergence times and eliminate non-transient packet looping at the expense of higher messaging overhead, memory, and processing requirements Allows multiple metrics/costs to be used

Link State Protocols

The broadcast of link state from one router to all others uses a variety of mechanisms
true

broadcast when the layer 2 subnet interconnecting the routers supports broadcast multicast among the routers when the layer 2 subnet supports that (e.g. FrameRelay, ATM) hop-by-hop flooding as a last resort

Link State Protocols

Transmission of link state must be done reliably

the

protocol assumes that the topology databases of all nodes are identical to prevent routing-loops from forming acknowledgments from all neighbors are needed routers must deal with out-of-order delivery of updates, replicates, etc., all of which requires processing time

Link State RIB Parameters

Topology Database
Router

IDs Link IDs

From Router ID To Router ID
Metric(s)

Sequence

number

List of Shortest Paths to Destinations

Link State Operation: Additions

Flooding Algorithm
each

router announces itself and each link it is attached to announcements by broadcast or multicast or unicast to all neighbors Designated router used on broadcast nets
to minimize number of adjacencies

Each router constructs its Topology DB

Link State Operation: Removals

Removals are announcements with the metric set to infinity Adjacencies must be refreshed

neighbors

use hello protocol if a router loses a neighbor, then routes via that neighbor are recomputed send announcements with link metric to lost neighbor set to infinity

Link State: Shortest Path

Dijkstras Shortest Path First graph algorithm

Use

yourself as starting point Search outward on the graph and add router IDs as you expand the front

Addresses are associated with routers

Hence

the SPF algorithm needs to deal only in the number of routers, not the number of routes

Link State: Shortest Path

From R1
A.3

IP Subnet A Cost =3
A.2

R2
C.1

Next Router Hop Link

R1
B.1

IP Subnet C Cost = 2
C.2 B.3

IP Subnet B Cost = 2
B.2

R3
D.2

R2 R3 R4 R1 R2 R3

R4

D.3

IP Subnet D Cost = 3

A.3 A B.3 B B.2 B From R4 B.1 B B.3 B B.3 B

IGP: Routing Information Protocol (RIP)

The first interior routing protocol based on distance vector concepts (RFC 1058, 6/1/88, updated to RIP v2 in RFC 1723, 11/15/94) Limited scalability (max diameter 16) Suffers from problems such as

creation

of routing loops creation of black holes

IGP: Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)

Current generation interior routing protocol based on link state concepts (RFC 1131, 10/1/89, obsoleted by OSPF v2, RFC 1723, 11/15/94) Supports hierarchies for scalability Fast convergence and loop avoidance Used within the WorldNet Common Backbone and Dial Platform

IGP: Intermediate System-toIntermediate System (IS-IS)

OSI routing protocol extended to allow IP (RFC 1142, 12/30/91) Very similar to OSPF

Differences

are small and deal mostly with failure modes

Used in many Internet Service Provider networks

Ciscos

implementation of ISIS is believed to be better than Ciscos OSPF

IGP: Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP)

Ciscos proprietary routing protocol Based on distance vector concepts, but avoids RIP problems Dominant in enterprise networks Ciscos EIGRP is a hybrid protocol using both distance vector and link state concepts

EGP: Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP)

The first exterior routing protocol based on distance vector concepts (RFC 0904, 4/1/84) Designed for a simple tree-structured topology with regional networks with a single backbone. Topology restrictions quickly made this protocol obsolete No longer used widely in the Internet

EGP: Border Gateway Protocol version 4 (BGP4)

The current generation exterior routing protocol based on path vector concepts (RFC 1771, 3/21/95) Supports complex mesh topologies with loop-avoidance Required protocol for use at Internet exchange points

EGP: Border Gateway Protocol version 4 (BGP4)

Supports policy-based routing by keeping the path of ASs toward the destination
e.g.,

allows filtering out routes through specified ASs

Tutorial Overview
Part 1: Internet Background Part 2: Internet Basics Part 3: How does data get from A to B? Part 4: IP Routing Part 5: IP QoS Part 6: Internet History, Governance, References

Part 5: IP QoS
Philosophy How things work on the Internet

data voice,

video

How IP QoS tries to make them work better The role of ATM

Internet QoS Philosophy

Things should work with best-effort service

best-effort

service supports no explicit bounds on delay, throughput, or packet loss

Selectively do resource reservation if you need things to work better Maintain only soft state or no state

Protocol Architecture
Data Voice, Video

HTTP

FTP

RPC

RTP timing recovery resequencing adaptive encoding

TCP

UDP

reliable transport resequencing flow control

IP

delivery not reliable - congestion may cause packet loss sequence may not be preserved - packets may follow different paths delays variable

Voice, Video, Jitter, & Delay

Router Router
to Codec Playout Point

Competing traffic

Packets experience variable delay (jitter) under best-effort service Receiver can accommodate jitter by adapting the playout point

larger jitter implies larger end-to-end delay

Sliding Windows
Packets: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
ACKed by receiver
sent, but not ACKed can send now cant send yet

Receiver acknowledges successfully received packets Sender limits number of packets that have been sent but not acknowledged

Limit

= Window

Window size limits transmission rate

Data Transport & Packet Loss

Window Size W=1 Transmitter W=2 W=3 W=4 User Data Acknowledgment Receiver

TCP probes for bandwidth by increasing its window size until loss occurs, then backs off and tries again
loss

more critical than delay for data

Data Transport & Packet Loss

W=4
Transmitter
D
D

Receiver

W=2

D R

User Data Ack Duplicate Ack Retransmission

TCP decreases window size if hole detected in window or if time-out occurs

loss

of more than one packet per round-trip time typically results in an over-reaction to congestion

Internet Work on Resource Management and QoS Support

Signaling

QoS Routing

Scheduling

Little Effort Here Most Effort Here

Routing: Best-Effort vs. QoS

Best-Effort Routing Routing based on

QoS Routing Routing based on

hop counts facility speeds

QoS requirements not met if resources are insufficient on besteffort path

hop counts facility speeds bandwidth and delay requirements bandwidth availability

QoS requirements supported if feasible path through network exists

Flow
Sequence of packets defined by common destination address or subnet and possibly also by one or more of the following attributes: Source IP Address/Subnet

Protocol

(TCP or UDP) Source TCP/UDP port number Destination TCP/UDP port number Type of Service (TOS) field

Integrated Services

Flow-Based QoS

signaled via the ReSource reserVation Protocol (RSVP) per-flow reservations requested by receiver, propagated router-by-router difficult to implement; not widely deployed flows mapped into small # of classes packets marked (via TOS field) at network edge and prioritized in network interior based on marking

Class-Based QoS (Differential Services)

Services
QoS Goal Reduce Delays Improve Throughput RS VP Guara ntee d QoS Controlled Load Diffe rerential S ervices P riority As s ured

With exception of Guaranteed QoS service, QoS objectives are described qualitatively, not quantitatively

With Freedom Comes Responsibility: Token Buckets

Arriving Packet
Token Available? No Tag packet, drop packet, or treat as best effort

Token bucket defines token rate & bucket depth Use of token buckets common to all Integrated Services Similar to ATM and Frame Relay networks

RSVP
Sender
2.

1.

R
3.

1.Forward data flow established 2. PATH message traces route from sender to receiver 3. RESV message backtracks route of PATH message and installs reservation Soft state periodically refreshed by new PATH and RESV messages Interior routers maintain per-flow state

Receiver

Differential Services Bandwidth Brokers

User Net 1 10 Mbps to D BB V OK 50

BB

20

BB
D

OK ISP

OK

User Net 2

Signaling is between agents from adjacent Autonomous Systems

Agents generically called Bandwidth Brokers (BBs)

Interior routers not necessarily aware of individual bandwidth allocations

pre-provisioned rates per class between administratively separate networks

Algorithms for Frame Scheduling and Buffer Management

Weighted Fair Queueing (WFQ)

link bandwidth allocated per-flow or per-class in proportion to a configured weight supports minimum bandwidth guarantees and fair allocation of excess bandwidth randomizes packet loss to optimize TCP performance drop probabilities depend on buffer occupancy and possibly on packet priority (Weighted RED)

Random Early Detection (RED)

Voice Delay w/ Two WFQ Implementations (Bennett and Zhang)

30 ms 20 ms 15 ms 10 ms 10 ms 5 ms 20 ms

Accounts for queueing delay at single DS3 link saturated by background traffic Assumes 9 Mbps of voice With First-In-First-Out queueing (rather than WFQ), voice delays in the hundreds of msec would result

Example: 150 msec budget for one-way voice delay (gateway-gateway)

Packetization + Look Ahead (G.729): 45 msec assumes 4 frames per packet 10 msec per frame and 5 msec look ahead DSP Processing: 5 msec Propagation: 50 msec Queueing: 25 msec (gateway-to-gateway) Buildout: 25 msec

To consistently live within budget, voice must be prioritized at links, or links must be dedicated to voice

Link Sharing
155 Mbps
1.0 Customer 1 .14 .05
Priority

.03
Assured

.06
BestEffort

... ...

.21 Customer N .01

Priority

.12
Assured

.08
BestEffort

Provides characteristics of a private network Implemented via WFQ or other service discipline that guarantees bandwidth shares

experience with layer-2 services (frame relay and ATM) indicates that sub-classes must be queued separately to systematically divide bandwidth between them

Role of ATM
R1 S1 R2 S2 R4
Priority VC Assured VC Best-Effort VC

R3

ATM can provide a designer link layer for routers

Link sharing implemented through ATM Virtual Circuits (VCs) About 16K VCs supported per OC12 (today) with queueing and QoS differentiation on a per-VC basis

QoS routing at ATM layer can compensate for lack thereof at IP layer

Tutorial Overview
Part 1: Internet Background Part 2: Internet Basics Part 3: How does data get from A to B? Part 4: IP Routing Part 5: IP QoS Part 6: Internet History, Governance, References

Internet Timeline: 1960s

1965: ARPA sponsors a study on cooperative network of time-sharing computers 1969

ARPANET

commissioned First Request for Comment (RFC) published: Host Software

Internet Timeline: 1970s

Store-and-forward networks
Email

and conferencing technologies developed

Telnet and FTP developed (1972/73) Metcalfe outlines ideas behind Ethernet BBN starts Telenet, first public packet data service (1974) UUCP developed at Bell Labs (1976)

Internet Timeline: 1980s

TCP/IP suite of protocols (1982)

Transmission

Control Protocol (TCP) Internet Protocol (IP) Concatenates heterogeneous networks using IP

Internet Activities Board created (1983) Domain Name System intro. (1984)

Internet Timeline: 1980s

NSFNET created (1986)

backbone

56 kbps links (1986), T1 (1988) regional networks also created

UUNET founded for commercial netnews service (1987) First commercial email exchanges via Internet (1989)

MCI

Mail and CompuServe

Internet Timeline: 1990s

ARPANET ceases to exist (1990) First commercial dial service: The World (1990) Commercial Internet eXchange (CIX) association (1991) NSFNET backbone to T3 (1991)

terabyte/month 10 giga-packets/month

Multicast backbone established (1992)

Internet Timeline: 1990s

World Wide Web (1993)

Mosaic

from NCSA leads to Netscape Navigator and MS Internet Explorer WWW growth is 341,634% per year

NSFNET reverts to a research net (1995)

very

high-speed Backbone Network Service (vBNS) at OC-3, contract to MCI The Internet completely commercial

AT&T WorldNet becomes the largest pure Internet Service Provider

Internet Governance
Internet Society Internet Activities Board (IAB) Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG) Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) Internet Research Task Force (IRTF)

IETF Areas
Application Area Internet Area Operations & Management Area Routing Area Security Area Transport Area User Services Area

Request for Comments

RFC process is based on rough consensus

representation

is individual, not based on company or other affiliation

Internet Drafts are submitted to IETF working groups Internet Draft to Proposed Standard

stable

specification agreed to by IESG all design choices resolved

Request for Comments

Proposed to Draft Standard

Two

independent and interoperable implementations including all options IESG approval Draft Standard is normally considered final

Draft Standard to Internet Standard

Exhibits

a high degree of technical maturity Provides significant benefit to the community

References
Comer, Internetworking with TCP/IP, Prentice-Hall, 1988. Huitema, Routing on the Internet, Prentice-Hall PTR, 1995. Perlman, Interconnections: Bridges and Routers, Addison-Wesley, 1992. Stevens, TCP/IP Illustrated, volumes 1-3, Addison-Wesley, 1995.

References

Hobbes Internet Timeline, IETF RFC 2235, Nov. 1997.

References on the Web

www.isoc.org
The

Internet Society

www.iab.org
Internet

Activities Board

www.ietf.org
RFCs

and Internet drafts meeting schedules

References on the Web

www.internic.net
RFCs

and Internet drafts IP address and DNS registration information Databases of various and sundry Internet related stuff

Part 7: Miscellaneous

Load Balancing

A particular routing protocol may determine there are multiple paths toward a destination with the same cost
Typical

when there are multiple parallel trunks between routers

If a RIB has multiple entries for the same destination, then the FIB could include one, some, or all of them

Load Balancing

If there is more than one is entry in the FIB for a destination, load balancing is possible
round-robin

paths hashed distribution attempts to keep packets with the same source and destination addresses on the same trunk to minimize out-of-order delivery

distribution of packets onto

IP Multicast
Design and purpose Distributed communication model Class D addresses MBONE

IP Multicast
Designed for efficient support of one-to-many and many-to-many communications, e.g., Conferencing, etc. Sender sends one copy addressed to a multicast group and the network delivers one copy to each multicast group member.

IP Multicast

Based on a fully-distributed communication model that does not require a centralized bridge:

Participants join/drop multicast sessions via the Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP). Multicast routing protocols (DVMRP, MOSPF, PIM, etc.) are used for packet routing and delivery.

The Internet Multicast Backbone (MBONE) was deployed between 19881992 for experimentation and development of multicast protocols

RIP Messages

Request / Response
1 1 2 2 2 4 Command (Req/Resp) Version reserved Address Family (IP=2) reserved Address May be repeated

8
4

reserved
metric

RIP Protocol

Updates are sent

periodically
upon

request optional: upon change of metric on destination (e.g., due to link failure)

RIB entries time out and must be refreshed

RIP Protocol

Convergence times are long because

The

entire RIB is sent, not just entries that changed Convergence sometimes encounters loops
count-to-infinity in RIP means count-to-16 each hop may wait the full period to forward updates

RIP v1 does not implement CIDR support (v2 does)