Algorithms

Akhil Kaushik
Asstt. Prof., CE Deptt.,
TIT Bhiwani
 What is Algorithm?

• Algorithm is a step by step procedure.

• It defines a set of instructions to be executed in
certain order to get the desired output.
• Algorithms are generally created independent of
underlying languages.
 Algorithm Development
• Good, logical programming is developed through
good pre-code planning and organization.
• This is assisted by the use of pseudocode and
program flowcharts.
• Flowcharts are written with program flow from the
top of a page to the bottom.
• Each command is placed in a box of the appropriate
shape, and arrows are used to direct program flow.
 Pseudocode
• It is a method of describing computer algorithms using a
combination of natural and programming language.
• The usual Fortran symbols are used for arithmetic
operations (+, -, *, / ).
• Symbolic names are used to indicate the quantities being
processed.
• Certain Fortran keywords can be used, such as PRINT,
WRITE, READ, etc.
• Indentation should be used to indicate branches and loops
of instruction.
Example:- Pseudocode to Add Two Nos.
step 1 − START
step 2 − Declare three integers a, b & c
step 3 − define values of a & b
step 4 − Add values of a & b
step 5 − Store output of step 4 to c
step 6 − Print value of c
step 7 − STOP
 Characteristics of an Algorithm
• Unambiguous − Algorithm should be clear and unambiguous.
• Input − An algorithm should have 0 or more well defined inputs.
• Output − An algorithm should have 1 or more well defined
outputs, and should match the desired output.
• Finiteness − Algorithms must terminate after a finite number of
steps.
• Feasibility − Should be feasible with the available resources.
• Independent − An algorithm should have step-by-step
directions which should be independent of any programming
code.
 Algo Design Techniques

1. Top down
2. Bottom up
3. Incremental
4. Divide and conquer
5. Greedy.
6. Dynamic approach
 Top-Down Design
• Divide main program into a main module and its
related module.
• Divide each module in sub module according to s/w
engineering and programming style.
• Division of module continues till elementary process
that can’t be divided.
• In this each module has single entry and single exit
point.
• In c language it is done by functions.
 Bottom-Up Approach
• Its principle is to start with specific module and
built into more complex structure, ending at top.
• It is widely used for testing because each of
lowest level function is written and tested first.
• This strategy often resembles a "seed" model, by
which the beginnings are small but eventually
grow in complexity and completeness.
 Incremental Approach
• This approach start with single module then
adding module to finally build the whole
algorithm.
• It is piecing together of systems to give rise to
more complex systems.
 Divide and Conquer

• This approach divide the original

problem into sub problems.
• Solve each problem individually.
• Finally combine solution of top
sub problems into a solution of
whole problem.
 Greedy Approach
• It seeks to optimize a function by making choice
which are best locally but not globally.
• Result is good solution but necessarily not best.

Dynamic Approach
• It is a technique for efficiently computing
recurrences by storing partial results.
• It is a method of solving problems exhibiting
properties of overlapping sub problems.
 Algorithm Analysis
• A priori analysis − This is theoretical analysis of an
algorithm.
– Efficiency of algorithm is measured by assuming that all
other factors. Ex. processor speed, are constant and
have no effect on implementation.
• A posterior analysis − The selected algorithm is
implemented using programming language.
– This is then executed on target computer machine. In this
analysis, actual statistics like running time and space
required, are collected.
 Algorithm Complexity
• Time Factor − It is measured by counting the no. of
key operations such as comparisons in sorting
algorithm.
• Space Factor − The space is measured by counting
the maximum memory space required by the algo.
• The complexity of an algorithm f(n) gives the
running time and / or storage space required by the
algorithm in terms of n as the size of input data.
 Space Complexity
• It is amount of memory space required by the
algorithm in its life cycle.
• Space required by an algo is equal to the sum of the
following two components:-
– A fixed part is a space required to store certain data and
variables, that are independent of the size of the
problem.
– A variable part is a space required by variables; whose
size depends on the size of the problem. Ex: dynamic
memory allocation, recursion stack space etc.
 Time Complexity
• It is amount of time required by the algorithm to run
to completion.
• Time requirements can be defined as a numerical
function T(n), which is measured as the number of
steps, provided each step consumes constant time.
• Ex: Addition of two n-bit integers takes n steps.
Thus, the total computational time is T(n) = c*n,
where c is the time taken for addition of two bits.
– Here, we observe that T(n) grows linearly as input size
increases.
 Asymptotic Analysis
• Usually, time required by an
algorithm falls under three types −
• Best Case − Minimum time required
for program execution(Ω).
• Average Case − Average time
required for program execution(θ).
• Worst Case − Maximum time
required for program execution(O).
 Omega Notation, Ω
• The Ω(n) is the formal way to express the lower
bound of an algorithm's running time.
• It measures best amount of time an algorithm can
possibly take to complete.
• Ω(f(n)) ≥ { g(n) : there exists c > 0 and n0 such that
g(n) ≤ c.f(n) for all n > n0. }
 Theta Notation, θ
• The θ(n) is the formal way to express both the lower
bound and upper bound of an algorithm's running
time. It is represented as following −
• θ(f(n)) = { g(n) if and only if g(n) = Ο(f(n)) and g(n) =
Ω(f(n)) for all n > n0. }
 Big Oh Notation, Ο
• The Ο(n) is the formal way to express the upper
bound of an algorithm's running time.
• It measures the worst case or longest amount of
time an algorithm can possibly take to complete.
Ο(f(n)) = { g(n) : there exists c > 0 and n0 such that
g(n) ≤ c.f(n) for all n > n0. }
 Common Asymptotic Notations
• Constant−Ο(1)
• Logarithmic−Ο(log n) or O(log(log(n))
• Linear−Ο(n) or O(log(n2))
• Quadratic−Ο(n log n) or Ο(n2)
• Cubic−Ο(n3)
• Polynomial−O(nk), where k>0
• Exponential−O(cn), where c>1. Ex: O(2n)
Common Asymptotic Notations
 Common Asymptotic Notations
• Constant − Ο(1) -> When algo takes same amount
of time to compute regardless of input size.
• Ex: 1. If a no. is even or odd
• 2. If an item on an array is null
• 3. Print 1st element from list
• 4. Find a value on map
 Common Asymptotic Notations
• Logarithmic − Ο(log n) -> Here, it uses divide-&-
conquer strategy to divide the problems into half.
– Ex: 1. Find a word in dictionary
– 2. Find a person on phone book

• Linear Arithmetic - O(n log(n)) -> It is slower than

linear, but better than a quadratic algo.
– Ex: Sorting – Merge sort, quick sort, etc.
 Common Asymptotic Notations
• Linear − Ο(n) -> As input grows, algo takes
proportionally longer.
• Ex: 1. Get max/ min value in array
• 2. Find/ search an element in a collection
• 3. Print all values in a list
 Common Asymptotic Notations
• Quadratic − Ο(n2) -> If the input size of 2, it will do
4 operations. If input is 8, it will do 64 operations.
• Ex: 1. Sorting – Bubble, Insertion, Selection
• 2. Check if array has duplicated values
• 3. Find all possible ordered pairs in array
 Common Asymptotic Notations
• Polynomial−O(nc) -> Here, c>1. Here, it takes
huge running times as input grow.
• Ex: Triple nested loop has O(n3)
• Quadratic O(n2) and Cubic O(n3) come under this
category.
 Common Asymptotic Notations
• Exponential – O(2n) -> Calculations performed by
algo double every time as input grows.
– Ex: 1. Power set – find all subsets on set.
– 2. Fibonacci series or Travelling salesman problem.

• Factorial – O(n!) -> Most calculations are worst

case scenarios.
 Examples
• If f(n) = 7(2n2+5), then O(f(n)) is n2
• If f(n) = 5 + 4n, then O(n)
• If f(n) = n3 + 4n2 + 20n + 1, then O(n3)
• If f(n) = n & g(n) = n2, then f(n) < g(n),
Hence f(n) = O(g(n))
 Examples
• If f(n) = n, g(n) = n2 & h(n) = n3, then
f(n) = O(g(n)), g(n) = O(h(n)) & thus f(n) = O(h(n))
• If f(n) = n2 log n & g(n) = n(log n)10, then:

f(n) g(n)
n2 log n n(log n)10
n.n log n n.log n (log n)9
n (log n)9
Hence, f(n) = Ω(g(n))
 Examples
• If f(n) = n2 & g(n) = 2n, then:
Hence, f(n) = O(g(n)) for n>4
f(n) g(n)
0 for n=0 1 for n=0
1 for n=1 2 for n=1
4 for n=2 4 for n=2
9 for n=3 8 for n=3
16 for n=4 16 for n=4
25 for n=5 32 for n=5
36 for n=6 64 for n=6
 THANK YOU !!!
CONTACT ME AT:

Akhil Kaushik

akhilkaushik05@gm
ail.com
9416910303