UNIT I

FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS

S.KARPAGADEEPA
History of Computers
Abacus
The history of computer begins with the birth of abacus
which is believed to be the first computer. It is said that
Chinese invented Abacus around 4,000 years ago.
It was a wooden rack which has metal rods with beads
mounted on them. The beads were moved by the abacus
operator according to some rules to perform arithmetic
calculations. Abacus is still used in some countries like
China, Russia and Japan. An image of this tool is shown
below;
The first counting device was used by
the primitive people. They used sticks,
stones and bones as counting tools. As
human mind and technology improved
with time more computing devices were
developed. Some of the popular
computing devices starting with the first
to recent ones are described below;
Napier‘sBones
It was a manually-operated calculating device which was invented by John Napier (1550-1617) of Merchiston. In this calculating tool, he used 9 different ivory strips or bones marked with numbers to multiply and divide. So, the
tool became known as "Napier's Bones. It was also the first machine to use the decimal point.
Pascaline
Pascaline is also known as Arithmetic Machine or Adding
Machine. It was invented between 1642 and 1644 by a French
mathematician-philosopher Biaise Pascal. It is believed that it
was the first mechanical and automatic calculator.
 Generations of Computers

• First Generation Computers

• The first generation (1946-1959) computers were slow, huge and
expensive. In these computers, vacuum tubes were used as the basic
components of CPU and memory. These computers were mainly
depended on batch operating system and punch cards. Magnetic tape
and paper tape were used as output and input devices in this
generation;
• Some of the popular first generation computers are;
• ENIAC ( Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer)
• EDVAC ( Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer)
• UNIVACI( Universal Automatic Computer)
• IBM-701
• IBM-650
 Second Generation Computers

• The second generation (1959-1965) was the era of the transistor

computers. These computers used transistors which were cheap,
compact and consuming less power; it made transistor computers
faster than the first generation computers.
• In this generation, magnetic cores were used as the primary memory
and magnetic disc and tapes were used as the secondary storage.
Assembly language and programming languages like COBOL and
FORTRAN, and Batch processing and multiprogramming operating
systems were used in these computers.
• Some of the popular second generation computers are;
• IBM 1620
• IBM 7094
• CDC 1604
 Third Generation Computers

• The third generation computers used integrated circuits (ICs)

instead of transistors. A single IC can pack huge number of
transistors which increased the power of a computer and reduced
the cost. The computers also became more reliable, efficient and
smaller in size. These generation computers used remote
processing, time-sharing, multi programming as operating system.
Also, the high-level programming languages like FORTRON-II TO IV,
COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, ALGOL-68 were used in this generation.
• Some of the popular third generation computers are;
• IBM-360 series
• Honeywell-6000 series
• PDP(Personal Data Processor)
 Fourth Generation Computers

• The fourth generation (1971-1980) computers used very

large scale integrated (VLSI) circuits; a chip containing
millions of transistors and other circuit elements. These
chips made this generation computers more compact,
powerful, fast and affordable. These generation computers
used real time, time sharing and distributed operating
system. The programming languages like C, C++, DBASE
were also used in this generation.
• Some of the popular fourth generation computers are;
• DEC 10
• STAR 1000
 Fifth Generation Computers

• In fifth generation (1980-till date) computers, the VLSI technology was

replaced with ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration). It made possible
the production of microprocessor chips with ten million electronic
components. This generation computers used parallel processing
hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence) software. The programming
languages used in this generation were C, C++, Java, .Net, etc.
• Some of the popular fifth generation computers are;
• Desktop
• Laptop
• NoteBook
• UltraBook
• ChromeBook
 Types of Computer

• On the basis of data handling capabilities, the

computer is of three types:
• Analogue Computer
• Digital Computer
• Hybrid Computer
AnalogueComputers.

• Analogue computers are designed to process analogue

data. Analogue data is continuous data that changes
continuously and cannot have discrete values. We can say
that analogue computers are used where we don't need
exact values always such as speed, temperature, pressure
and current.
Analogue computers directly accept the data from the
measuring device without first converting it into numbers
and codes. They measure the continuous changes in
physical quantity and generally render output as a reading
on a dial or scale. Speedometer and mercury
thermometer are examples of analogue
 2) Digital Computer

• Digital computer is designed to perform

calculations and logical operations at high
speed. It accepts the raw data as input in the
form of digits or binary numbers (0 and 1) and
processes it with programs stored in its
memory to produce the output. All modern
computers like laptops, desktops including
smartphones that we use at home or office
are digital computers.
 3) Hybrid Computer

• Hybrid computer has features of both analogue and

digital computer. It is fast like an analogue computer
and has memory and accuracy like digital computers. It
can process both continuous and discrete data. It
accepts analogue signals and convert them into digital
form before processing. So, it is widely used in
specialized applications where both analogue and digital
data is processed. For example, a processor is used in
petrol pumps that converts the measurements of fuel
flow into quantity and price. Similarly, they are used in
airplanes, hospitals, and scientific applications.
 On the basis of size, the computer can be
of five types:
• 1) Supercomputer
• Supercomputers are the biggest and fastest computers.
They are designed to process huge amount of data. A
supercomputer can process trillions of instructions in a
second. It has thousands of interconnected processors.
• Supercomputers are particularly used in scientific and
engineering applications such as weather forecasting,
scientific simulations and nuclear energy research. The
first supercomputer was developed by Roger Cray in
1976.
 2) Mainframe computer

• Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds or

thousands of users simultaneously. They can support multiple
programs at the same time. It means they can execute different
processes simultaneously. These features of mainframe computers
make them ideal for big organizations like banking and telecom
sectors, which need to manage and process high volume of data.
• Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds or
thousands of users simultaneously. They can support multiple
programs at the same time. It means they can execute different
processes simultaneously. These features of mainframe computers
make them ideal for big organizations like banking and telecom
sectors, which need to manage and process a high volume of data
that requires integer operations such as indexing, comparisons, etc.
 3) Miniframe or Minicomputer

• It is a midsize multiprocessing computer. It

consists of two or more processors and can
support 4 to 200 users at one time. Miniframe
computers are used in institutes and
departments for tasks such as billing,
accounting and inventory management. A
minicomputer lies between the mainframe
and microcomputer as it is smaller than
mainframe but larger than a microcomputer.
 4) Workstation

• Workstation is a single user computer that is

designed for technical or scientific
applications. It has a faster microprocessor, a
large amount of RAM and high speed graphic
adapters. It generally performs a specific job
with great expertise; accordingly, they are of
different types such as graphics workstation,
music workstation and engineering design
workstation.
 5) Microcomputer

• Microcomputer is also known as a personal

computer. It is a general-purpose computer that
is designed for individual use. It has a
microprocessor as a central processing unit,
memory, storage area, input unit and output unit.
Laptops and desktop computers are examples of
microcomputers. They are suitable for personal
work that may be making an assignment,
watching a movie, or at office for office work.
 Basic Anatomy of a Computer System
• Computer Components
• There are 5 main computer components that
are given below:
• Input Devices
• CPU
• Output Devices
• Primary Memory
• Secondary Memory
The operations of computer components are given below:

• 1) Inputting: It is the process of entering raw data, instructions and

information into the computer. It is performed with the help of
input devices.
• 2) Storing: The computer has primary memory and secondary
storage to store data and instructions. It stores the data before
sending it to CPU for processing and also stores the processed data
before displaying it as output.
• 3) Processing: It is the process of converting the raw data into
useful information. This process is performed by the CPU of the
computer. It takes the raw data from storage, processes it and then
sends back the processed data to storage.
• 4) Outputting: It is the process of presenting the processed data
through output devices like monitor, printer and speakers.
• 5) Controlling: This operation is performed by the control unit that
is part of CPU. The control unit ensures that all basic operations are
 Input Devices

• Input device enables the user to send data, information, or control

signals to a computer. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) of a
computer receives the input and processes it to produce the output.
• Some of the popular input devices are:
• Keyboard
• Mouse
• Scanner
• Joystick
• Light Pen
• Digitizer
• Microphone
• Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)
• Optical Character Reader (OCR)
• Digital Camera
• Paddle
• Steering Wheel
• Gesture recognition devices
• Light Gun
• Touch Pad
• Remote
• Touch screen
• VR
• Webcam
• Biometric Devices
 1) Keyboard

• The keyboard is a basic input device that is

used to enter data into a computer or any
other electronic device by pressing keys. It has
different sets of keys for letters, numbers,
characters, and functions. Keyboards are
connected to a computer through USB or a
Bluetooth device for wireless communication.
 2) Mouse

• The mouse is a hand-held input device which is

used to move cursor or pointer across the screen.
It is designed to be used on a flat surface and
generally has left and right button and a scroll
wheel between them. Laptop computers come
with a touchpad that works as a mouse. It lets you
control the movement of cursor or pointer by
moving your finger over the touchpad. Some
mouse comes with integrated features such as
extra buttons to perform different buttons.
 Output Devices

• The output device displays the result of the

processing of raw data that is entered in the
computer through an input device. There are a
number of output devices that display output
in different ways such as text, images, hard
copies, and audio or video.
• Monitor
– CRT Monitor
– LCD Monitor
– LED Monitor
– Plasma Monitor
• Printer
– Impact Printers
• Character Printers
– Dot Matrix printers
– Daisy Wheel printers
• Line printers
– Drum printers
– Chain printers
– Non-impact printers
• Laser printers
• Inkjet printers
• Projector
 Central Processing Unit (CPU)

• A Central Processing Unit is also called a

processor, central processor, or microprocessor.
It carries out all the important functions of a
computer. It receives instructions from both the
hardware and active software and produces
output accordingly. It stores all important
programs like operating systems and application
software. CPU also helps Input and output
devices to communicate with each other.
a CPU has three components:
• ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
• Control Unit
• Memory or Storage Unit
• Control Unit: It is the circuitry in the control unit, which makes use of
electrical signals to instruct the computer system for executing already
stored instructions. It takes instructions from memory and then
decodes and executes these instructions. So, it controls and coordinates
the functioning of all parts of the computer. The Control Unit's main
task is to maintain and regulate the flow of information across the
processor. It does not take part in processing and storing data.
• ALU: It is the arithmetic logic unit, which performs arithmetic and
logical functions. Arithmetic functions include addition, subtraction,
multiplication division, and comparisons. Logical functions mainly
include selecting, comparing, and merging the data. A CPU may contain
more than one ALU. Furthermore, ALUs can be used for maintaining
timers that help run the computer.
• Memory or Storage Unit/ Registers: It is called Random access memory
(RAM). It temporarily stores data, programs, and intermediate and final
results of processing. So, it acts as a temporary storage area that holds
the data temporarily, which is used to run the computer.
Memory Management
 What is Memory?

• memory is used to store data and instructions. It is

the storage space in a computer, where data is to be
processed and all the instructions are stored that are
required for processing. In simple words, it works just
like a human brain where we can store memories.
• Storage devices are hardware devices that are
capable of storing and fetching data. Hard drives or
optical discs are an example of such storage devices.
• Without memory, the computer can't perform a
single task.
 Types of computer memory

• There are two types of memories:

• Primary memory
• Secondary memory
 1) Primary Memory (Main Memory)

• It is also referred to as Main Memory. It is volatile. The reason

behind is, Primary memory holds only those data and instructions
on which the computer is currently working that is it does not store
the data permanently.
• It also stores the operating system and data required to run the
computer.
• It is a limited capacity memory and data or information is lost when
power is switched off. Primary Memory is generally constructed
with a semiconductor device.
• Registers are much faster than these memories but it is faster than
secondary memory.
• It contains all the data and instructions that are required to be
processed.
• It is further divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM.
 i) RAM (Random Access Memory)

• It is Random Access Memory because of the

random selection of memory locations. It
performs both read and writes operations on
memory. It stores data temporarily.
• If power failures happen in the system during
memory access then you will lose your data
permanently. So, RAM is a volatile memory.
• RAM categorized into following types:
• DRAM
• SRAM
a) SRAM (Static random access memory)
• It holds data in a static form, that is, as long as the
memory has the power as the dynamic RAM, it is
not needed to refresh it again and again.
• Static RAM provides faster access to data and is
more expensive than DRAM as each cell must
contain multiple transistors.
• SRAM does not use capacitors.
• SRAM is also highly recommended for use in PCs,
peripheral equipment, printers, LCD screens, hard
disk buffers, router buffers and buffers in CDROM /
CDRW drives.
b) Dynamic RAM (Dynamic random access memory)
• It is a type of random-access memory used in
computing devices. It is made up of capacitors and
transistors.
• This type of memory uses separate capacitors or
transistors to stores each bit of data and it has two
states of value in one bit called 0 and 1.
• As compared with other RAM's it is less expensive.
• Data were written by DRAM at the byte-level.
• In DRAM, data is written at the byte-level and it reads
data at the multiple-byte page level.
• DRAM requires less power than other RAMs.
• ii) ROM (Read Only Memory)
• ROM offers huge types of standards to save data as it is a
permanent memory location. But it works with the read-only
operation. whenever power failure occurs during the ROM
memory work in computers then no data lose happens.
• It is Used where the programming requires no change and
also in embedded systems or.
• It is Used in peripheral devices and calculators.
• Types of Read Only Memory (ROM)
• PROM (Programmable read-only memory)
• EPROM (Erasable Programmable read only memory)
• EEPROM (Electrically erasable programmable read only
memory)
Types of Software
 Types of Software

There are two major classifications of software,

namely
• System Software and
• Application Software.
 1. System Software

• A system software aids the user and the

hardware to function and interact with each
other. Basically, it is a software to manage
computer hardware behavior so as to provide
basic functionalities that are required by the
user. In simple words, we can say that system
software is an intermediator or a middle layer
between the user and the hardware.
 2) Application Software:

• Application software is a set of programs designed

to perform a specific task. It does not control the
working of a computer as it is designed for end-
users. A computer can run without application
software. Application software can be easily
installed or uninstalled as required. It can be a
single program or a collection of small programs.
Microsoft Office Suite, Adobe Photoshop, and any
other software like payroll software or income tax
software are application software
 3) Programming Software:

• It is a set or collection of tools that help developers in

writing other software or programs. It assists them in
creating, debugging, and maintaining software or
programs or applications. We can say that these are
facilitator software that helps translate programming
language such as Java, C++, Python, etc., into machine
language code. So, it is not used by end-users. For
example, compilers, linkers, debuggers, interpreters,
text editors, etc. This software is also called a
programming tool or software development tool.
Operating System
• an operating system is a type of software without which
you cannot operate or run a computer. It acts as an
intermediary or translation system between computer
hardware and application programs installed on the
computer. In other words, you cannot directly use
computer programs with computer hardware without
having a medium to establish a connection between
them.
• Besides this, it is also an intermediary between the
computer user and the computer hardware as it
provides a standard user interface that you see on your
computer screen after you switch on your computer. For
example, the Windows and the Mac OS are also
operating systems that provide a graphical interface
with icons and pictures to enable users to access
multiple files and applications simultaneously.
 Programming Languages
• A programming language is a formal language
comprising a set of instructions that produce
various kinds of output. Programming
languages are used in computer programming
to implement algorithms.
• Most programming languages consist of
instructions for computers.
 Language Types
Machine and assembly languages

• A machine language consists of the numeric

codes for the operations that a particular
computer can execute directly. The codes are
strings of 0s and 1s, or binary digits (“bits”),
which are frequently converted both from and
to hexadecimal (base 16) for human viewing
and modification.
 Assembly language
• Assembly language is one level above machine
language. It uses short mnemonic codes for
instructions and allows the programmer to
introduce names for blocks of memory that
hold data. One might thus write “add pay,
total” instead of “0110101100101000” for an
instruction that adds two numbers.
• Assembly language is designed to be easily
translated into machine language. Although
blocks of data may be referred to by name
instead of by their machine addresses, assembly
language does not provide more sophisticated
means of organizing complex information. Like
machine language, assembly language requires
detailed knowledge of internal
computer architecture. It is useful when such
details are important, as in programming a
computer to interact with input/output devices
(printers, scanners, storage devices, and so forth).
 Algorithmic languages

• Algorithmic languages are designed to express

mathematical or symbolic computations. They
can express algebraic operations in notation
similar to mathematics and allow the use of
subprograms that package commonly used
operations for reuse. They were the first high-
level languages.
 Types of program translator

• Assembler
• An assembler translates assembly language into
machine code.i. Assembly language consists of
mnemonics for machine opcodes so assemblers
perform a 1:1 translation from mnemonics to a
direct instruction. For example:
• LDA #4 converts to 0001001000100100
• Conversely, one instruction in a high level language
will translate to one or more instructions at machine
level.
 Compiler

• A Compiler is a computer program

that translates code written in a high level
language to a lower level language,
object/machine code. The most common
reason for translating source code is to create
an executable program (converting from a
high level language into machine language).
 Interpreter

• An interpreter program executes other programs directly,

running through program code and executing it line-by-
line. As it analyses every line, an interpreter is slower
than running compiled code but it can take less time to
interpret program code than to compile and then run it —
this is very useful when prototyping and testing code.
Interpreters are written for multiple platforms, this means
code written once can be run immediately on different
systems without having to recompile for each. Examples
of this include flash based web programs that will run on
your PC, MAC, games console and Mobile phone