Physical
Layer
Line coding Schemes
These slides are partially based on slides assembled by B. A. Forouzan, with grateful acknowledgement of the many others who made their course materials freely available online.
DIGITAL-TO-
DIGITAL
CONVERSION
•How we can represent digital
data by using digital signals?
•The conversion involves three
techniques:
• Line coding
• Block coding
• Scrambling
•Line coding is always needed;
block coding and scrambling may
or may not be needed.
Line coding and Decoding
Signal
element Vs
Data element
•Data Element:- It is the
smallest entity that can
represent a piece of
information
•Signal Element:- It refers the
shortest unit of digital signal
Data rate Vs Signal
rate
Data Rate:- It is the number of data elements sent per second.
Data rate is also called as bit rate and represented in bps.
Signal Rate:- It refers the number of signal element sent per second.
Signal rate is also known as pulse rate or baud rate and represented
in baud.
Signal Rate (S)=
Average Signal Rate ()=
where c= Case factor
Question
A signal is carrying data in which one data element is encoded as
one signal element ( r = 1). If the bit rate is 100 kbps, what is the
average value of the baud rate if c is between 0 and 1?
Solution
Question
A signal is carrying data in which one data element is encoded as
one signal element ( r = 1). If the bit rate is 100 kbps, what is the
average value of the baud rate if c is between 0 and 1?
Solution
Assuming that the average value of c is 1/2 . The baud rate is
then
Signal Transmission Issues
DC Components:- When the voltage level in
a digital signal is constant for a while, the
spectrum creates very low frequencies. These Effect of lack of synchronization
frequencies around zero, called DC (direct-
current) components. Creates problems for a
system that cannot pass low frequencies
Self-Synchronization-: To correctly interpret
the signals received from the sender, the
receiver's bit intervals must correspond exactly
to the sender's bit intervals.
If the receiver clock is faster or slower, the bit
intervals are not matched and the receiver might
misinterpret the signals.
The sender sends 10110001, while the
receiver receives 110111000011
Question
In a digital transmission, the receiver clock is 0.1 percent faster than the
sender clock.
How many extra bits per second does the receiver receive if the data rate is 1
kbps?
How many if the data rate is 1 Mbps?
Question
In a digital transmission, the receiver clock is 0.1 percent faster than the
sender clock. How many extra bits per second does the receiver receive if the
data rate is
1 kbps? How many if the data rate is 1 Mbps?
Solution
At 1 kbps, the receiver receives 1001 bps instead of 1000
bps.
At 1 Mbps, the receiver receives 1,001,000 bps instead of 1,000,000
bps.
Line coding schemes
Line coding:- It is the process of converting digital data to digital signals
Unipolar NRZ scheme
Unipolar :-All signal levels are one side of time axis either below or above.
NRZ – Non- Return to Zero
Unipolar NRZ scheme is very
costly.
Polar NRZ-L and NRZ-I schemes
Polar :- Signal levels are on both side of time axis.
In NRZ-L the level of the voltage
determines the value of the bit.
In NRZ-I the inversion
or the lack of inversion
determines the value of the bit.
NRZ-L and NRZ-I both have a DC
component problem
Polar RZ scheme
Polar RZ:- Return-to-zero (RZ) scheme uses three values: positive, negative, and zero.
• In RZ, the signal changes not between bits but during the bit also.
• No DC component problem.
• It occupies greater bandwidth.
• Complexity: RZ uses three levels of
voltage, which is more complex to
create and discern.
Polar Biphase: Manchester and
differential Manchester schemes
The idea of RZ (transition at the middle
of the bit) and the idea of NRZ-L are
combined into the Manchester scheme.
In Manchester encoding, the duration of
the bit is divided into two halves.
Differential Manchester, on the other
hand, combines the ideas of RZ and NRZ-
I.
In both the encodings, the transition at the
middle of the bit is used for
synchronization
Bipolar schemes
• In bipolar encoding, Three levels are used: positive, zero, and negative.
• Two schemes: - AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion) and Pseudoternary
No DC component.
Commonly used for
long-distance
communication
Synchronization
problem when a long
sequence of 0s is
present in the data.
