1

Unit I
 DATA COMMUNICATION
Data Communication is the
exchange of data (in the form
of 0’s and 1’s) between two
devices via some form of
transmission medium such as
a wire cable.
 Data Communication is

considered to be local if the

communicating devices are in
the same building and remote
if the devices are away/apart.
2
 COMPONENTS OF A DATA
COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
 A Data Communication
system consists of 5
components:

 MESSAGE
 SENDER

 RECEIVER

 MEDIUM

 PROTOCOL 3
 MESSAGE
 The message is the
information (data ) to be
communicated. The message
consists of text, numbers,
pictures, sound or video or a
combination of these.

4
 SENDER
 The Sender is the device that
sends the data message . It
can be a computer,
telephone, video camera etc.

5
 RECEIVER
 The Receiver is the device
that sends the data message .
It can be a computer,
telephone, television etc.

6
 MEDIUM
 The transmission medium is
the physical path by which a
message travels from sender
to receiver. It could be a
twisted pair wire, Co-axial
cable, fibre-optic cable or
satellite.
7
 PROTOCOL
 A Protocol is a set of rules
that governs /controls the
data communication. Without
a protocol, two devices may
be connected but not
communicating.

8
 MEDIUM
SENDER RECEIVER
(SOURCE) Carries the message

Creates the message Receives the message

BASIC COMPONENTS

9
 CHARACTERISTICS OF
DATA
COMMUNICATION
DEVICES
 The effectiveness of a Data
Communication system
depends on three
fundamental characteristics:
 DELIVERY

 ACCURACY

 TIMELINESS
10
 DELIVERY
 The system must deliver the
data to the correct
destination . Data must be
received by the intended
device or the user .

11
 ACCURACY
 The system must deliver the
data accurately. The data
that has been altered or left
uncover able during
transmission is unusable.

12
 TIMELINESS
 The system must deliver the
data in a timely manner.
Data delivered late is
unusable.
 SECURITY:--- Security is

protection of H/W,S/W data

from unauthorized access.
13
 DATA TRANSMISSION
MODES
 There are three ways or
modes of transmitting data
from one point to another:

 SIMPLEX
 HALF- DUPLEX

 DUPLEX / FULL-DUPLEX

14
 SENDER RECEIVER
A) SIMPLEX

OR
Sender or Receiver Sender or Receiver

B) HALF DUPLEX

AND

Sender and Receiver Receiver and Sender

C) FULL DUPLEX

15
 SIMPLEX
 If transmission is simplex,
communication takes place in
one direction only. Devices
connected to such a circuit are
either send only or receive
only. For example: the
keyboard can only introduce
data/input , a monitor can only
show output.
16
 HALF DUPLEX
 A Half Duplex system can both
transmit and receive but not at
the same time. In other terms ,
we can say that a half duplex
system can alternatively sends
and receive data. The half duplex
mode is like a one-lane road with
two directional traffic. While cars
are traveling in one direction,
cars going in the other way must
wait. 17
 DUPLEX / FULL-DUPLEX
 In full duplex mode- both
stations can transmit and
receive simultaneously. One
common example of full-
duplex communication is a
telephone network. When 2
people are communicating by a
telephone line, both can talk
and listen at the same time.
18
 ANALOG AND DIGITAL
COMMUNICATION
 ANALOG---- Analog refers to
something that is continuous that is
a set of specific points of data and all
possible points between.
 DIGITAL ---- Digital refers to
something that is discrete that is s
set of specific point of data with no
other points in between.
19
ANALOG AND DIGITAL DATA
 Data can be analog and digital.
 An example of analog data is human
voice. When someone speaks, an analog
wave / continuous wave is created in the
air. This can be captured by a
microphone and converted into an
analog signal.
 An example of digital data is the data
stored in the memory of a computer in
the form of 0’s and 1’s.
20
 ANALOG AND DIGITAL
SIGNALS
 Signals can also be analog and
digital.
 Analog Signals :-- An analog signal is
the continuous wave form that
changes very smoothly over time. As
the wave moves from A to B- it
passes through and includes an
infinite no. of values along the path.
 21
21
 ANALOG AND DIGITAL
SIGNALS
 DIGITAL SIGNALS :-- A digital signal is
discrete .It can have only a limited
no. of defined values as 1 and 0.It
passes through an infinite no. of
points.
22

22
 Analog Signals

Value
Time

The curve represents the analog signal passing through an infinite

no. of points.

Value
Time

Digital Signals

The vertical lines show the jump the signal makes from value to value.

23
 Characteristics of Signals
 1. Periodic Signals:-- A signal is a
periodic signal if it completes a
pattern within a measurable time
frame called a period and repeats
that pattern over identical
subsequent periods.
 2. Aperiodic signals :-- These
signals changes without exhibiting a
pattern or cycle that repeats over
time.
24
 Contd…
 3. Sine wave:-- A fundamental form of
periodic signal.A simple curve that
changes over the course of a cycle
smoothly and consistently with a
continuous and rolling flow.
S(t)=A Sin(2ft+ )
S= Simultaneous amplitude
A= Amplitude
f = Frequency
t = Time
 = Phase
A Sine wave 25
 Contd….
 A.) Period:-- A period is defined as
the amount of time (in seconds)
required to complete one full cycle.
 B.) Cycle:-- The completion of one
full pattern is called a cycle.
 C.) Amplitude:--Amplitude refers to
the height of the signal.It is
measured in either volts,amperes or
watts.
26
 Contd…
Diagrammatic representation:

1 CYCLE

Amplitude
Max. Amp.
Amp. At
time T1

Min amp.

PERIOD
27
 Contd…
 D) Frequency:-- It refers to the no. of
cycles per second.
Amp. One Second

Frequency=3 Hz
Period=1/3
28
 Contd….
 E)Phase:-- Phase describes the
position of the waveform relative to
time zero.Phase is measured in
Amp.
degrees or radians.
Amp.

Time Time

0 degrees 180 degrees

29
 Contd….
 Bandwidth:- The range of
frequencies that a medium can pass
is called Bandwidth.
 The bandwidth is a range and
normally referred to as the difference
between 2 numbers that is the
highest and lowest frequency that
the medium can pass.
30
Bandwidth=5000-1000=4000 Hertz

Freq.
1000 hz 5000 hz

31
 Contd….
 Bit Rate:-- Bit rate is the no. of bits
transmitted during one second.
 Baud Rate:-- Baud rate refers to the no. of

signal units composed of 1 or more bits per

second that are required to represent those
bits.
 [baud rate  bit rate]

Example:-- Baud=Car ;Bit=Passenger

1 car can carry 1 passenger /
1 car can carry 4 passengers.
32
 Contd….
 Composite Signal:-- A composite signal
is made of many simple sine waves.

 Fourier Signal:-- In the early 1900s the

French mathematician Jean Baptise Fourier
with the help of Fourier analysis showed
that any composite signal is a sum of set
of sine waves of different
frequencies,phases and amplitude.
S(t)=A1Sin(2f1t+1 )+A2Sin(2f2t+2)+---
33
 Encoding or Conversion
 Encoding means the transformation
of information in the form of
signals,to send them from one
place to another.
 There are 4 types of encoding:
1. Digital to Digital encoding.
2. Analog to Digital encoding
3. Digital to Analog encoding
4. Analog to Analog encoding 34
1. Digital to Digital Encoding
 Data stored in a computer is in the form of
0s and 1s. To be carried from one place to
another, data is converted into digital
signals. This is called Digital to Digital
encoding.
 In this type of encoding the binary 0s and
1s generated by a computer are
transmitted into a sequence of voltage
pulses that can be propagated over a wire.

35
01011101 Digital to digital encoding

Digital to Digital Encoding

36
 1. Digital to Digital Encoding
 This type of encoding falls into 3
broad categories:--
1. Unipolar
2. Polar
3. Bipolar
Digital to Digital Encoding

Unipolar Polar Bipolar

37
 Unipolar Encoding
 Unipolar encoding is very simple and
primitive one.
 The polarity of a pulse refers to whether it
is positive or negative.
 Unipolar encoding is so named because it
uses only one polarity and this polarity is
assigned to one of the two binary states
and usually 1. So,the other state usually 0
is represented by 0 voltage.
38
Amp.

0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0

Time

Unipolar Encoding

39
 Unipolar Encoding
 Unipolar encoding has 2 problems:-
 A) DC Component
 B) Lack of synchronization

 A) DC Component:--The average amplitude

of an unipolar encoded signal is non-zero
i.e. -1 or +1. This creates Direct
Current(DC) component {A component
with 0 frequency}.
40
 Unipolar Encoding
 When a signal contains a DC
component, it can’t travel through a
media which can’t handle DC
components.
 Transformers are used to block DC
component from transmitter to
receiver.
 2 problems related to it:
a) Distorted signal
b) May create errors in output
41
Amp.
A signal with DC component.

1 1 1 1

0 0 Time

1 1 1 1
A signal without DC component.
0 0

42
 Unipolar Encoding
 In picture 1 there is DC component
and +ve voltages aren’t cancelled by
the negative voltages and thus it
can’t travel through a transformer.
 In picture 2 there is no DC
component and +ve voltages are
cancelled by the negative voltages
and thus it can travel through a
transformer.
43
 Unipolar Encoding
 Synchronization:--To correctly
interpret/decode the signals sent by
the sender, the receiver’s bit intervals
must match exactly to the sender’s bit
intervals.If receiver’s clock is faster or
slower , the bit intervals aren’t same
and receiver might interpret the
signals different than the sender
intended.
44
 2. POLAR ENCODING
 Polar encoding uses 2 voltage levels–
one positive and one negative.
 A polar signal never comes back to
zero level.
 By using 2 levels, in most polar
encoding the average voltage level
on the line is reduced and the DC
component problem is eliminated.
45
 2. POLAR ENCODING
 Polar encoding is of 3 types:--
1. NRZ (Not Return to Zero)
2. RZ (Return to Zero)
3. Biphase

46
 POLAR ENCODING

NRZ RZ
BIPHASE

NRZ-L NRZ-I DIFFERENTIAL

MANCHESTER MANCHESTER

47
 2. POLAR ENCODING
 NRZ (Non Return to Zero):-- In NRZ
the voltage never returns to zero value.
 The value of the signal is always +ve
and –ve.
 The 2 most popular methods of NRZ
transmission are:
 A) NRZ—L (Non Return to Zero-Level)
 B) NRZ—I (Non Return to Zero-Invert)

48
 2. POLAR ENCODING
 A) NRZ—L (Non Return to Zero-Level)
 In this encoding the level of signal is
dependent on the state of bit.
 NRZ-L encoding level uses –ve voltage
to represent a binary 1 and +ve to
represent a binary 0.
 NRZ-L is typically used for very short
connections such as b/w a computer
and an external modem.
49
 Amplitude

0 0 0 0
+ve

Time
0

1 1 1 1
-ve

NRZ-L Encoding for bits 01001110

50
 2. POLAR ENCODING
 A) NRZ—L (Non Return to Zero-Level)
 NRZ-L suffers from 2 problems:

1. Baseline Wander :--One of the

problems with NRZ-L is that for long
strings of 0’s and 1’s the signal’s
voltage remains +ve or -ve for a longer
duration of time. This leads to a
problem called Baseline Wander which
makes it difficult for the receiver to
decode the information.
51
 2. POLAR ENCODING
 2. Second problem is that in order for
the sender and receiver to be in
synchronization, frequent changes in
the signal need to occur. When there
are long runs of +ve or –ve voltages
the 2 devices are no longer in
synchronization.

52
 2. POLAR ENCODING
 B) NRZ-I (Invert):- To help overcome
the problems with NRZ-L , NRZ-I is
used.
 In Non Return to Zero Invert , the
signal level changes on every
occurrence of 1. The occurrence of 0
has no effect on the signal level.

53
 2. POLAR ENCODING
 When the signal changes from a high
to low voltage or low to high
voltage, a binary 1 is encoded. When
there is no change in the voltage at
the beginning of the current bit time
from the last bit time a binary 0 is
encoded.
 Basically it is a transition b/w +ve
voltage and a –ve voltage.
54
Amp.

0 1 1 0

Time

1 0 0 1

NRZ-I Encoding for bits 01001110

55
 2. POLAR ENCODING
 2. RZ (Return to zero):-
 This encoding uses three values +ve,-ve
and 0.
 In RZ the signal changes not between bits
but during each bit.
 A +ve voltage means 1 and –ve means 0.
But halfway through each bit interval, the
signal returns to 0
 A 1 is actually rep. by +ve to 0 and 0 by
–ve to 0.
56
Amp.
Return To Zero Representation for bit stream 01001110

1 1 1 1

0 0 0 0
Time

These transitions can be used for synchronization.

57
 2. POLAR ENCODING
 3. Biphase Encoding:-- In this
method, the signal changes at the
middle of the bit interval but doesn’t
return to zero.
 Instead it continues to the opposite
pole.
 This encoding is implemented in 2
ways:
 1. Manchester
 2. Differential Manchester
58
 3. BIPHASE ENCODING
 1. Manchester Encoding:--
 Manchester encoding uses an
inversion at the middle of each bit
interval.
 A –ve to +ve transition rep binary 1
and +ve to –ve transition rep. binary
0.
 Basically in this encoding the pt. at
which the signal changes is used to
rep. data.
59
MANCHESTER ENCODING FOR BIT STREAM
01001110

0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0

-Ve to +ve shows---- 1

+ve to –ve shows --- 0

60
 Contd..
 The changes or transitions in M.E. are
known as rising or falling edges. When a
leading edge rises to a +ve voltage , a
binary 1 is encoded and when the leading
edge falls to zero voltage , a binary 0 is
encoded.
 With this type of structure , each bit period
is divided into 2 equal intervals. Each bit
period has a transition in the middle that
makes it easier for the receiver to
synchronize with the sender.
61
 3. BIPHASE ENCODING
 2. Differential Manchester:--
 In this encoding the bit
representation is shown by the
inversion or non-inversion at the
beginning of the bit.
 A transition means binary 0 and no
transition means binary 1.
 D.M. encoding requires 2 signal
changes to represent binary 0 but
only one to rep. binary 1. 62
 3. BIPHASE ENCODING
 A 1 bit is indicated by making the I half of
the signal, equal to the last half of the
previous bits signal ie. No transition at the
start of the bit time.
 A 0 bit is indicated by making the I half of
the signal opposite to the last half of the
previous bit’s signal ie. 0 bit is indicated
by a transitions at the beginning of the bit
time.
 In the middle of the bit time there is
always a transition from high to low or low
to high.
63
 Differential Manchester Encoding For Bit Stream
01001110

0 0 0 1 1 1 0
1

1 bit ---- I half of signal = last half of previous signal

0 bit ----- I half of signal is opposite of previous signal
64
 3. BIPOLAR ENCODING
 Bipolar encoding uses 3 voltage
levels:- +ve , -ve and 0.
 0 is used to rep. binary 0.
 The 1s are represented by alternating
+ve and –ve voltage.
 If the first bit is rep. by +ve amp., the
second will be by –ve amp. And third
by +ve and so on.
65
 3. BIPOLAR ENCODING
 Bipolar encoding is of 3 types:
 1. AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion)
 2. HDB3 (High Density Bipolar 3-zeroes)
 3. B8ZS (Bipolar 8-zero Substitution)
BIPOLAR ENCODING

AMI HDB3 B8ZS

66
 1.AMI (Alternate Mark
Inversion)
 AMI means alternate mark inversion.
(word mark means 1).
 A zero voltage rep. binary 0 and binary 1s
are represented by alternating +ve and –
ve voltages.
 Alternation of pulse polarity also ensures
that the coded signal doesn’t contain any
DC component.
 Each binary 1 introduces a transition and
therefore long string of 1s doesn’t cause
loss of synchronization in the receiver. 67
 Amp.

Alternate Mark Inversion

+ve
1 1

0 0
0 0 Time
0

-ve

1 1

The 1s are positive and negative alternatively.

68
 2. HDB3
 High Density Bipolar-3 Zeroes
 This is another widely popular signal code .
 It is a modification of AMI code and
overcomes the problem of long string of
binary 0s.
 If there are more than 3 consecutive
zeroes ,a violation pulse (V) is substituted
for the fourth zero.
 The violation pulse has the same polarity as
the last pulse and the receiver considers a
V pulse as binary 0.
69
 2. HDB3
 However this simple scheme has a problem

that if there’s a long string of 0s, every fourth

pulse’ll be a V pulse and all the V pulses in
the string’ll be of same polarity.
 The problem can be overcome by making
successive V pulses to have alternating
polarity. But then we will not be able to
identify the V pulses.
 This is overcome by introduction of an
additional bipolar (B) pulse to enable
detection of V pulses. The consecutive four
zeroes(0000) are now substituted either by
000V or B00V sequence.
70
 Amp. 2. HDB3
1 0
+ve 0 1

1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0
0
B V Time

-ve

71
 3. Bipolar 8-Zero
Substitution(B8ZS)
 A modification of AMI code.
 It overcomes the problem of ling string of
0s by substituting 8 consecutive 0s by
000VB0VB– the I violation pulse (V) is of
the same polarity as the last pulse.
 B pulse then follows the inverse polarity
rule.
 The following V pulse is of the same
polarity as preceding B pulse.
 The last B pulse is of inverse polarity.
 The receiver recognizes the pattern and
interprets the octet as consisting of all 0s.
72
 1 0
0 1

+ve
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0
B V
-ve

V B

B8ZS representation

73
 3. Bipolar 8-Zero
Substitution(B8ZS)
 The difference b/w AMI and B8ZS occurs
whenever 8 or more consecutive 0s are
encountered in the data stream.
 The solution provided by B8ZS is to force
artificial signal changes called violations
within the 0 string. Anytime 8 0s occur in
succession, B8ZS introduces changes in
the pattern based on the polarity of the
previous 1.
 If the previous 1 bit was +ve, the eight 0s
will be encoded as zero, zero, zero, +ve,
-ve, zero,-ve, +ve.
74
 ANALOG TO DIGITAL
CONVERSION
 Sometimes we need to convert an
analog signal into a digital signal.
This is called analog to digital
encoding or digitizing an analog
signal .

75
Analog signals such as audio-
voice and music are analog by
nature. So, when we record
voice – we’ve created an analog
electric signal. If we want to
store the recording in the
computer or send it digitally, we
need to change it through a
process called sampling.
76
The term Sampling means
measuring the amplitude of the
signal at equal intervals.

77
 The steps for analog to
digital conversion are:
 PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION(PAM)
 PULSE CODE MODULATION(PCM)
Analog to Digital Encoding

PCM
PAM

78
 PULSE AMPLITUDE
MODULATION
 First method of analog to digital
conversion.
 This technique takes an analog signal, and
uses a technique called sampling. It
means that it samples it that is changes it
and generates a series of pulses based on
the results of the sampling.
 In PAM, the original signal is sampled at
equal intervals.
79
Analog Signal PAM Signal

+15
+10
+5
0
-5
-10
-15
80
PAM is not very useful to data
communications because though it
translates the original waveform to a
series of pulses, these pulses are still
an analog signal. So to make them
digital, we must modify them by
using Pulse Code Modulation(PCM).

81
 PULSE CODE MODULATION

 PCM modifies the pulses created by

PAM to create completely digital
signal.
 This process involves 2 stages
namely-
 1. Quantization
 2. Coding

82
 QUANTIZATION
 Quantization is a method of assigning
integral values in a specific range.
 The values are pre-selected and since
they are fixed , they are easy to
encode.
 PCM modifies the pulses created by
PAM to create a completely digital
signal. To do so it first quantizes the
PAM pulses.
83
Amp.

+80

+60
+38 +48
+40
+20

-20 -15 Time

-40 -50
-60

-80
-80

Quantized PAM Signal

84
 CODING

 Coding involves converting the

discrete level of the sample after
quantization to the binary code of
fixed length .
 The binary digits are then
transformed into a digital signal
using one of the digital to digital
encoding techniques.
85
 76543210

+24 00011000

+38 00100110
+48 00110000
+39 00100111
+26 00011010
-15 10011111
-80 11010000
-50 10110010
+77 01001101
+110 01101110
86
Sign bit + is 0, _ve is 1.
 The binary digits are then transformed into a
digital signal using one of the digital to
Amp.
digital encoding techniques.

11 11
1

00000000
00

Time

The figure shows the result of

the PCM of original signal
encode finally into a unipolar
signal.
87
 RESULT
 So, PCM is actually made up of 4
separate processes:
 1. PAM
 2.Quantization
 3. Binary Encoding
 4. Digital to digital encoding.

88
THE PROCESS IN NUTSHELL:
1. Analog data
1. Analog data
 2. PAM
 3. Sampled analog data
 4. Quantization
 5. Quantized data
 6. Binary encoding
 7. Binary data- 001111001000
 8. Digital to digital encoding ie.

89
 DIGITAL TO ANALOG
ENCODING
 It is the process of changing one of the
characteristics of an analog signal based
on the information in a digital signal(0,1).
 When we transmit data from one computer
to another across a public access phone
line, the original data is digital but because
telephone lines carry analog signals, the
data must be converted into an analog
signal. This is called digital to analog
conversion or modulation.

90
DIGITAL TO ANALOG MODULATION

91
 3 MECHANISMS OF
MODULATION
 1. AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING(ASK)

 2. FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING(FSK)

 3. PHASE SHIFT KEYING(PSK)

92
 QAM
 In addition there is a fourth
mechanism that combines the
changes in amplitude and phase both
is called Quadrate Amplitude
Modulation(QAM).

93
DIGITAL TO ANALOG MODULATION

ASK FSK PSK

QAM

94
 CARRIER SIGNAL
 Carrier wave: Basic sound wave
transmitted through the circuit (provides a
base which we can deviate)
 In analog transmission, the sending device
provides a high-frequency signal that acts
as a basis for the information signal. This
base signal is called the carrier
signal/carrier frequency.

95
Digital information then modulates the
carrier signal by modifying one or
more of its characteristics (amplitude,
frequency or phase). This kind of
modification is called modification or
shift keying and the information signal
is called modulating signal.

96
 ASK

 ASK is the simplest form of digital

modulation.
 In ASK, the strength of the carrier signal
is changed to represent binary 0 or 1-
both frequency and phase remain
constant while the amplitude changes.
 Which voltage represents 1 and which
rep. 0 is left to the system designer.

97
 ASK
 The peak amplitude during each bit
duration is constant and its value
depends on the bit 0 or 1.
 ASK is very sensitive to noise and
finds limited application in data
transmission. It is used at bit rates
less than 100 bps.

98
 FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING
1 BIT 1 BIT 1 BIT 1 BIT
1 BIT
0 1 1 0
0

1 BAUD 1 BAUD 1 BAUD

1 BAUD 1 BAUD

BIT RATE=5 BAUD RATE = 5

99
 ASK
 The term noise refers to unintentional
voltages introduced onto a line by
various phenomenon such as heat or
electromagnetic induction created by
other sources.
 These unintentional voltages combine
with the signal to change the
amplitude. A 0 can be changed to 1
and a 1 to 0. Therefore ASK is the
modulating method most affected by
noise.
100
 FREQUENCY BANDWIDTH
OF ASK
 The bandwidth of a signal is the total range
of frequencies occupied by that signal. It is
the difference b/w the highest and the
lowest frequency that a medium can pass.

101
Amp.

1. fc= Carrier frequency

2. Nbaud = Baud rate

Bandwidth= 5000-1000=4000Hz.

Fc-Nbaud/2 Fc+Nbaud/2

Time

1000 fc 5000

102
 FREQUENCY BANDWIDTH OF
ASK
 The frequency spectrum of ASK modulated
signal consists of the carrier frequency with
upper and lower side bands.

 When we decompose an ASK modulated

signal, we get a spectrum of many
simple frequencies. However the most
significant ones are those b/ w
fc-Nbaud/2 and fc+Nbaud/2 with the
carrier freq. at middle.

103
 Amp
.
Min bandwidth= Nbaud

Fc-Nbaud/2 Fc+Nbaud/2 Freq.

fc

The bandwidth requirements for ASK are calculated

using formula
BW=(1+d) * Nbaud
• Where BW = Bandwidth
• d = factor related to modification process
• Nbaud= Baud rate 104
 Frequency Shift Keying
(FSK)
 In FSK, freq. of the carrier signal shifts
b/w 2 discrete values – one
representing binary 1 and the other
binary 0 both peak amp. And phase
remain constant.
 FSK avoids most of the problems from
noise.
 It is relatively simple to implement. It
is used extensively in low speed
modems having bit rates below 1200
bps. 105
 Bandwidth for FSK
 FSK shifts b/w 2 carrier frequencies.It
is easy to analyze as 2 coexisting
frequencies.
 FSK spectrum is a combination of 2
ASK spectra centered on fco and fc1.
 The bandwidth required for FSK
transmission is equal to the baud
rate of the signal plus the freq. shift
(difference b/w the two carrier freq.)
106
Amp. Freq bandwidth of FSK

BW=fc1-fc0+Nbaud

Nbaud/2 Fc1-fc0 Nbaud/2

Time

107
fco fc1
 0 bit 1 bit 0 bit 1 bit

1 baud 1 baud 1 baud 1 baud

108
 4. QAM (Quadrate
Amplitude Modulation)
 QAM combines ASK and PSK that is it
changes 2 characteristics of a sine
wave at a time.
 QAM means combining ASK and PSK
in such a way that we have max.
contrasts b/w each bit.

109
01
00
90

270
180

10
11

1 amp. , 4 phases

110
 4. Bandwidth for QAM
 The min. bandwidth required for QAM
transmission is the same as that
required for ASK and PSK
transmission.

111
 Analog to Analog Encoding
 Analog to analog conversion is the
representation of analog information
by an analog signal.
 Analog to analog modulation can be
accomplished in 3 ways:
1. Amplitude Modulation (AM)
2. Frequency Modulation (FM)
3. Phase Modulation(PM)
112
 Analog to Analog Encoding

FM PM
AM

113
 Analog to Analog Conversion

Analog information Analog Signal

114
 AM (Amplitude Modulation)
 In AM,the carrier signal is modulated
so that its amplitude varies with the
changing amplitude of the
modulating signal.
 The frequency and phase of the
carrier wave remain the same, only
the amp. Changes to follow
variations in the modulation.
115
 AM (Amplitude Modulation)
 On voice grade lines, it is used up to
1200 bits/sec.
 However amplitude modulated
signals are sensitive to impulse
noises, which arise due to electrical
sparks near the transmission lines.

116
 AM Bandwidth
 The bandwidth of an AM signal is
equal is equal to twice the bandwidth
of the modulating signal and covers
a range centered around the carrier
frequency.
 The bandwidth of an audio signal
(speech and music) is usually
5khz.Thus an AM radio station needs
a min. bandwidth of 10 khz.
117
 BWm= Bandwidth of modulating signal
BWt = Total Bandwidth
Amp.
Fc = Frequency of the carrier
fc

Time

BWm BWm

118
BWt=2 X BWm
FM ( Frequency Modulation)
 In FM transmission the freq. Of the carrier signal
is modulated to follow the changing amp. Of the
modulating signal.
 The amp. And phase of the carrier signal remain
constant but as the amp. Of the information
signal changes the freq. Of the carrier changes
correspondingly.
 It is less susceptible to error than AM.
 Another advantage is it is easier to design
devices based on FM because discrimination b/w
2 freq. Is simpler than detecting phase changes.

119
Amp
. Modulating signal (audio)

Freq.

Amp
Carrier
.
frequency

Freq.

Amp
.

Freq.

FM signal 120
 Transmission Mode
 A transmission mode defines the way in
which a group of bits goes from one device
to another.
 It also defines whether bits may travel in
both directions simultaneously or whether
devices must take turns sending and
receiving.
 There are 2 categories of transmission:
1. Parallel transmission
2. Serial transmission.

121
 Transmission Modes
Data Transmission

Parallel Serial

Synchronous Asynchronous
122
 Parallel Transmission
 Binary data, consisting of 1’s and 0’s, may
be organized into groups of n bits each.
 Parallel transmission means that a group of
bits is transmitted simultaneously by using a
separate line (wire) for each bit.
 The mechanism for P.T. is a conceptually
simple-use n wires to send n bits at one
time.It means each bit has its own wire and
all n bits of one group can be transmitted
from one device to another.

123
 Parallel Transmission
 P.T is used when the distance b/w the 2
devices is short for example: communication
b/w a computer and peripheral devices.
 Speed of transmission of the bits in the P.T. is
higher than in serial transmission because bits
group are sent simultaneously.
 P.T is more expensive than S.T. for long
distance. For long distance, wires should be
thicker to maintain the signal degradation.

124
 88 bits
bits sent
sent
together
together
0
1
1
0
Sender 0 Receiver
0
1
0

We
We need
need 88
lines
lines
Fig : Parallel Transmission for n = 8.
125
 SERIAL TRANSMISSION
 S.T. means that a group of bits is
transmitted one by one using one line(wire)
for all bits rather than using n channels.
 S.T. is cheaper and more reliable than P.T.
over long distances.
 It is also slower because the bits are sent
one at a line.
 It occurs in one of the 2 ways:
1. Synchronous transmission
2. Asynchronous transmission
126
 88 bits
bits sent
sent one
one
after
after another
another

0 0
1 1
1 1
01100010 0
Sender 0
0
Receiver
0
0 0
1 1
0 0

We
We need
need
only
only one
one line
line
(wire)
(wire)

Fig: Serial Transmission for n = 8

127
 Serial Transmission

Synchronous Transmission Asynchronous Transmission

128
 Synchronous Transmission
 In synchronous transmission , the bit
stream is combined into longer
frames which may contain multiple
bytes.
 We send bits one after another
without start/stop bits or gaps. It is
the responsibility of the receiver to
group the bits.
129
 R
S E
Direction of flow C
E
N E
10100011 11111011 11110110 1111 0111
D I
E V
R E
R

Fig: Synchronous Transmission

130
 Synchronous Transmission
 In this figure we have drawn in
division b/w the bytes.In reality,
these divisions don’t exist, the
sender puts in data onto the line as
one long string.If the sender wishes
to send data in separate bursts, the
gaps b/w bursts must be filled with a
special sequence of 0s and 1s that
means idle.The receiver counts the
bits as they arrive and groups them
in 8-bits units.
131
 Synchronous Transmission
 The advantage of this type is
speed.With no extra bits or gaps to
introduce at the sending end and
remove at the receiving end and by
extension with fewer bits to move
across the link, S.T is faster than A.T.

132
Asynchronous Transmission
 In A.T we send a start bit (0) at the
beginning and 1 stop bit(1) at the end of
each byte.There may be a gap b/w each
byte.
 It is so named because the timing of a
signal is unimportant.
 As long as those patterns are followed, the
receiving device can retrieve the
information without regard to the rhythm in
which it is sent.

133
Contd…
 Patterns are based on grouping the
bit streams into bytes.
 Each group, usually 8 bits, is sent
along the link as a unit.
 The sending system handles each
group independently, passing it to
the link whenever ready, without
regard to a timer.

134
 Start Bit
 Without synchronization, the receiver
cannot use timing to predict when
the next group will arrive.
 To alert the receiver to the arrival of
a new group, an extra bit is added to
the beginning of each byte. This bit,
usually a ‘0’ is called the start bit.

135
 Stop Bit
 To let the receiver know that each byte is
finished, one or more additional bits are
appended to the end of the byte. These bits,
usually ‘1s’ are called stop bits.
 By this method, each byte is increased in size
to at least 10 bits, of which 8 are information
bits and 2 more are signals to the receiver.
 The transmission of each byte may then be
followed by a gap of varying duration. This
gap can be represented either by an idle
channel or by a stream of additional stop bits.

136
 The start and stop bits and the
gap alerts the receiver to the
beginning and end of each byte
and allow it to synchronize with
the data stream.

137
 Why is it Asynchronous in
nature?
 This mechanism is called asynchronous
because, at each byte level, sender and
receiver do not have to be synchronized.
 But within each byte, the receiver must
still be synchronized with the incoming bit
stream.
 That means some synchronization is
required, but only for the duration of a
single byte.
 The receiving device resynchronizes at the
start of each new byte.
138
 Contd.
 When the receiver detects a start bit,
it sets the timer and begins counting
bits as they come in. and after ‘n’
bits the receiver looks for a stop bit.
As soon as it detects the stop bit, it
waits until it detects the next start
bit.

139
 Direction of flow

Stop bit Start Bit

Data
1 11111011 0

Sender Receiver

01101 0 1 11111011 01 00010111 0 1 11

Gaps b/w data units

140
 Advantage of Asynchronous
Transmission
 It is cheap and effective so well suitable
for low-speed communication.
E.g. the connection of a keyboard to a
computer is a natural application for
asynchronous transmission. A user types
only one character at a time, types
extremely slowly in data processing terms,
and leaves unpredictable gaps of time b/w
each character.

141
Disadvantage of Asynchronous
Transmission
 The addition of ‘start’ and ‘stop’ bits
and insertion of gaps into bit stream
make asynchronous transmission
slower than forms of transmission
that can operate without the addition
of control information.

142
 Multiplexing
 In telecommunications and computer
networks, multiplexing (known as
muxing) is a term used to refer to a
process where multiple analog
message signals or digital data
streams are combined into one signal
over a shared medium.
 The aim is to share an expensive
resource. For example, in
telecommunications, several phone
calls may be transferred using one
wire.
143
No Multiplexing
144
 D
1 PATH
M E
U M
X 4
CHANNELS
U
X

MULTIPLEXING
145
 MULTIPLEXING
 Many to one/One to many– In a
multiplexing system, n devices share the
capability of one link. For example in the
figure the communication stations on the left
direct their transmission streams to a MUX
which combines them into a single stream
( many to one).
 At the receiving end that stream is fed into
DEMUX which separates the stream back into
its component transmissions (one to many)
and directs them to their intended receiving
communication stations.
146
 Contd.
 The word PATH refers to the physical
link.
 The word CHANNEL refers to a
portion of a path that carries a
transmission b/w a given pair to
devices.
 One path can have many channels.

147
 MUX: DEMUX: Demultplexing
Multiplexing D
M E
. .
U M
. .
X U
. .
X
1 link, n channels
n n
input Output
lines lines
Fig: Dividing a link into channels
148
 Categories of MUXing

Multiplexing

Frequency Wavelength Time

Division Division Division
MUXing MUXing MUXing
Analog Analog Digital

Synchronou Asynchrono
s us
149
 FDM
 In FDM , signals generated by each
sending device modulate diff. carrier
freq. These modulated signals are
then combined into single composite
signal that can be transported by the
link.
 FDM is used with analog signals.
 It is most commonly used in
television and radio transmission.
150
 +

151
MUX
 FDM Contd.
 The diagram shows the telephones as
the input and output devices. each
telephone generates a signal of a
similar frequency range. Inside the
MUX , these similar signals are
modulated onto different carrier freq.
cf1,cf2,cf3. The resulting modulated
signals are then combined into single
composite signal that is sent over a
media link.
152
 FDM Contd.
 FDM is designed for networks that
use multiple carrier freq. to permit
independent signals to pass through
the transmission media.
 An example of FDM usage is the
phone system which uses full duplex
FSK transmission which encodes the
binary values with different freq. near
the cf.Full duplex means that the
voice conversation can occur in both
directions at the same time on the
transmission media. 153
DEMULTIPLEXING PROCESS
 The DEMUX uses a series of filters to
decompose the multiplexed signals
into its constituent component
signals. The individual signals are
then passed to a demodulator that
separates them from their carriers
and passes them to the waiting
receiver.
154
 DEMUX

Filter

CF
1

Filter

CF
2

Filter
CF
3

155
 WDM
 WDM is the term used to specify
multiplexing techniques on optical
transmission systems.
 WDM is conceptually the same as
FDM except that the multiplexing
and demultiplexing involve light
signals transmitted through fiber
optic channels.
156
 1‫ג‬
1‫ג‬
Fiber optic cable

2‫ג‬ 2‫ג‬
WDM WDM
3‫ ג‬+ 2‫ ג‬+ 1‫ג‬
3‫ג‬ 3‫ג‬

Fig : Wavelength Division Multiplexing

157
 1‫ג‬
1‫ג‬

3‫ ג‬+ 2‫ ג‬+ 1‫ג‬

2‫ג‬ 2‫ג‬
Fiber-optic cable

3‫ג‬
3‫ג‬ Multiplexer Demultiplexer

Fig : Prisms in WDM multiplexing and demultiplexing

158
 WDM contd.
 Fig. gives us a conceptual view of a
WDM multiplexer and demultiplexer.
 WDM functions by sending multiple
light waves on a single optical fiber.
A prism or diffraction grating device
at the transmission source combines
the diff. light waves to make a wider
band of light and transmits the
combined signal over the fiber
optical cable. At the receiver end,
another prism is used to separate the
light into wavelengths.
159
 WDM contd.
 Although the technology is very
complex, the idea is very simple. We
want to combine multiple light
sources into one single light at the
MUX and do the reverse at the
DEMUX.
 Combining and splitting of light
sources are easily handled by a
prism .
160
 TDM
 TDM is an alternative to FDM and is
used with digital signals.
 In TDM the transmission sources use
time slices or take turns at using the
transmission media.
 TDM is a method of putting multiple
data stream in a single signal by
separating the signal into many
segments, each having a very short
duration. Each individual data stream
is reassembled at the receiving end
based on the timing. 161
 TDM contd..
 The circuit that combines signals at
the source end of a communication
link is known as MUX.It accepts the
input from each individual end used,
breaks each signal into segments and
assigns the segments to the composite
signal in a rotating repeating sequence
. The composite signal thus contains
data from multiple senders.

162
 TDM contd.
 At the other end of a long distance
cable, the individual signals are
separated out by means of a circuit
called a DEMUX and routed to the
proper end users.

163
 1
1
Data Flow
D
2 E 2
M
4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 43 2 1M
U U
3 X 3
X

4
4

Fig : TDM (Time Division Multiplexing)

164
 Types of TDM
 We can divide TDM into two different
schemes :
 Synchronous TDM/Slotted TDM

 Asynchronous TDM/ Statistical TDM

165
 STDM
 It means that the MUX allocates exactly
the same time slot to each device at all
times, whether or not a device has
anything to transmit. E.g time slot A is
assigned to device A alone and can’t be
used by any other device.
 Time slots are grouped into frames. In a
system with n input lines, each frame has
at least n slots with each slot allocated to
carrying data from a specific input line.

166
AAAA

IV III II I

A D A DC A D CBA
CCC

DDD
SYNCHRONOUS TDM MUX PROCESS

167
 STDM CONTD.
 In STDM, each transmitting source gets
access to the transmission media and
doesn’t get another turn until the other
devices have had their turns to transmit.
 For example:- There are 3 devices that need
to transmit comp. A, comp. B, comp. C.The I
device that has access to the transmission
media is comp. A.When comp.A is finished
transmitting,comp. B gets its time.When B is
finished,C gets access.Sometimes this type
of media access is referred to as Round-
Robin.
168
 STDM CONTD.
 At the receiver, the demultiplexer

decomposes each frame by extracting each

character in turn.As a character is removed
from a frame,it is passed to the application
receiving device.
 One problem with STDM is that even if the
comp.A and B don’t have information to
transmit,comp. C still must wait until the
allocated time has passed for comp.A and B
before C can transmit.
 To use the media efficiently, STDM can be
used when some systems don’t have
anything to transmit.
169
 ASYNCHRONOUS TDM
 Statistical multiplexing also allocates
time for each device to transmit and
each device must go in order.But if
device has nothing to transmit the
multiplexer skips the device and
goes

170
 Statistical TDM
 In Synchronous TDM, each input has a reserved slot
in the output frame. This can be inefficient if some
input lines have no data to send.
 In Statistical TDM MUXing, slots are dynamically
allocated to improve bandwidth efficiency.
 Only when an input line has a slot’s worth of
data to send, is given a slot in the output frame.
 In Statistical TDM MUXing, the number of slots
in each frame is less than the number of input
lines.
 The multiplexer checks each input line in a
round-robin fashion; it allocates a slot for an
input line if the line has data to send; otherwise
it skips the line and checks the next line.

171
 In Statistical TDM, a slot needs to carry
data as well as the address of the
destination.
 As there is no fixed relationship b/w inputs
and outputs because there are no
preassigned or reserved slots, so we need
to include the address of the receiver
inside each slot to show where it is to be
delivered.
 The frames in the Statistical TDM need not
be synchronized, so we don’t need
synchronization bits.

172
LineA
A1
LineB
B2 B1 M 1 E2 D2 B2 01 D1 B1 A1 0
LineC
U
LineD
LineE
D2 D1 X
E2

Fig : Synchronous TDM

Line
A1
A
LineB
B2 B1 M e E2 d D2 b B2d D1 b B1 a A1
LineC
LineD U
D2 D1
LineE
X
E2

Fig : Statistical TDM

173
 Difference b/w Synchronous TDM and
Statistical TDM
Synchronous TDM Statistical TDM
 Some slots are  No slot is left empty as
empty long as there are data to
Because the be sent by any input line.
corresponding  A slot needs to carry
line does not have data data as well as address of
To send. the destination.
 No need for  Frames do not need to
addressing be synchronized. So it
 Frames needs to be doesn't not require
synchronized. So it Synchronization bits.
needs synchronization
bits.

174
 Transmission Media
 Computer and other telecommunication
devices use signals to represent
data.These signals are transmitted from
one device to another in the form of
electromagnetic energy.Electromagnetic
signals can travel through vacuum,air or
other transmission media.

175
 Transmission Media
 Transmission media can be classified
as guided and unguided media.
 Guided media provide a physical
path along which the signals are
propagated.They include Twisted pair
cable, Coaxial cable and Optical
Fibers.
 A signal traveling along any these
media is directed and contained by
the physical limits of the medium. 176
 Transmission Media
 Unguided Media employ an antenna for
transmission through air, vacuum or water.
 The characteristics and quality of data
transmission are determined both by the
characteristics of the medium and signal.
 In the case of guided media,the limitations
of transmission are decided by the medium.
 For unguided media,the bandwidth of the
signal produced by the transmitting antenna
is more important than the medium in
determining transmission characteristics.
177
 Transmission Media
 In considering the design of data
transmission systems, the key
concerns are data rate and
distance.The greater the data rate
and distance, the better it is.

178
1. Twisted Pair Cable

179
180
181
 Outer Insulator or PVC

Insulators Solid Copper Conductor

Twisted Pair Cable

182
 1. Twisted Pair Cable
 A Twisted Pair Cable consists of 2
conductors (normally of Copper and
typically about 1 mm thick) each with its
own plastic insulators,twisted together.
 The wires are twisted together in a helical
form.
 One of the wires is used to carry signals to
the receiver and the other is used only as
a ground reference.
183
 1. Twisted Pair Cable
 The no. of twists / unit of length (eg. Inch)
determines the quality of the cable; more
twists mean better quality.
 The most common application of the T.P.W
is the telephone system.
 T.P.W can run several KM. Without
amplification but for longer distances,
repeaters are needed..
 The bandwidth depends on the thickness
of the wire and the distance traveled.
184
 1. Twisted Pair Cable
 The most common T.P.W used in
communication is referred to as
unshielded twisted pair.
 T.P. is also called UTP because other
than the plastic coating around the 2
individual bunches of copper wires,
nothing shields it from outside
interference.
185
 1. Twisted Pair Cable
 Data transmission speed of upto
9600 bps or 9600 baud can be
achieved if the distance is not more
than 100 meters.
 UTP cables are an inexpensive
medium of data transmission .
 They are easy to use.

186
 2. Coaxial Cable
 C.C are groups of specially wrapped
and insulated wires lines, which are
able to transmit data at high rates.
 They consists of a central copper
wire surrounded by a PVC insulation
over which a sleeve of copper mesh
is placed.This metal sleeve is again
shielded by an outer shield of thick
PVC material.
187
Structure of a Coaxial Cable

188
 2. Coaxial Cable
 The signal is transmitted by the inner
copper wire and is electrically shielded by
the outer metal sleeve.
 C.C are used on mainframe computer to
link the processor to secondary storage
units and other high speed peripherals.
 They are also used to transmit TV signals
from cameras to broadcast transmitters or
across the country or broadcast into
different regions.
189
 2. Coaxial Cable
 C.C carry signals of higher frequency
ranges than twisted pair cable.
 The construction and shielding of CC
give it a good combination of high
bandwidth and excellent noise
immunity.

190
 3. OPTICAL FIBER CABLE
 An optical fiber is a thin, flexible medium
capable of guiding an optical ray.
 It uses light to transmit information.
 It sends information coded in a beam of light down
a glass or plastic pipe. It was originally developed
in the 1950s to help doctors see inside the human
body without having to cut it open first. In the
1960s, engineers found a way of using the same
technology to transmit telephone calls at the speed
of light (186,000 miles or 300,000 km per second).
191
 Contd..
 An optical fiber cable has a
cylindrical shape and consists of 3
concentric sections—
1. The core

2. The cladding

3. The jacket

192
 JACKET

CLADDING

CORE
193
 3. OPTICAL FIBER CABLE
 The core is the innermost section and
consists of fiber made of glass or plastic.
The core has diameter in the range of 8-100
micrometer.
 Each fiber is surrounded by its own cladding
which is a glass or plastic coating that has
optical properties.
 The jacket is composed of plastic and other
material layered to protect against
moisture, crushing and other environmental
changes.
194
 3. OPTICAL FIBER CABLE
 The main features are:--
 1. Large bandwidth:- It can transmit massive amount of
data at very high speed and long distances. They can have
10-100 times greater bandwidth than coaxial cables.

 2. Low loss:- As compared to electric signals, light signals

can travel at very high speed with no significant loss of
intensity over long distances.

 3. Small size and light weight than T.P or C.C.

 4. Security:-- It offers increased security against

unauthorized tampering of information since it is
extremely difficult and expensive to tap optical signals.
195
 UNGUIDED/WIRELESS
COMMUNICATION
 Wireless communication or
unguided media transmission,
transports electromagnetic waves
without using a physical conductor.
 There are several, wireless media
available for transmitting network
packets:-
1. Microwave System
2. Communication Satellites.
196
1. MICROWAVE SYSTEM

197
1. MICROWAVE SYSTEM

198
Transmitting
antenna

199
 1. MICROWAVE SYSTEM
 Electromagnetic waves having
frequency b/w 1-300 GHz are called
microwaves.
 Microwave systems is a very popular
way of transmitting data, since it
doesn’t incur the cost of laying
cables.
 This system use very high frequency
radio waves signals to transmit data
through space.
200
 1. MICROWAVE SYSTEM
 At microwave frequency,the
electromagnetic waves can’t bend or
pass obstacles like hill.So it is
necessary for microwave transmission
to be in a line of sight-It means that the
transmitter and receiver of a
microwave system which are mounted
on very high tower,should be in a line
of sight.
201
 1. MICROWAVE SYSTEM
 Microwave transmission faces 2
problems:-
1. Line of sight may not be possible for
very long distance transmission.
2. Signals become weaker after
traveling a certain distance and
require power amplification.

202
 1. MICROWAVE SYSTEM
 In order to overcome the problems of
weak signals,microwave system use
repeaters at intervals of about 25-30
kms. In b/w the transmitting and
receiving stations.With the help of
repeaters the signals are
received ,amplified and retransmitted
by each of these stations.
 M.Systems permit data transmission
rates of about 16gbps.
203
 1. MICROWAVE SYSTEM
 The initial installation cost of microwave
links being very high, they’re mostly used
to link big cities with very heavy telephone
traffic b/w them.
 The main problem with microwave
communication is that the curvature of the
earth,mountains and other structures often
block the line of sight.Due to this reason,
several repeater stations are normally
required for long distance
transmission,which increases the cost of
data transmission b/w 2 points.
204
 COMMUNICATION
SATELLITES
 A communication satellite is basically a
microwave relay station placed in outer
space.
 The availability of communication satellite
has made it possible to transmit microwave
signals over thousands of miles.
 These satellites are launched either by
rockets or space shuttles and are precisely
placed/positioned 36000kms. Above the
equator with an orbit speed which exactly
matches the earth’s rotation speed.
205
COMMUNICATION
SATELLITES

206
COMMUNICATION
SATELLITES

207
COMMUNICATION
SATELLITES

208
 COMMUNICATION
SATELLITES
 In satellite communication microwave signal
at 16ghz to 14ghz is transmitted from a
transmitter on the earth to the satellite
positioned in space.By the time this signal
reaches the satellite , it becomes weak to
36,000 kms. travel.
 A transponder which is mounted on the
satellite, amplifies the weak signal and
transmits it back to the earth at a freq. Of
4ghz or 11ghz.This signal is received at the
receiving station on the earth.
209
 COMMUNICATION
SATELLITES
 A transponder can typically support 1200
voice channels each of 4800 bps.a satellite
has many transponders. So a single
satellite has enormous data
communication capability.
 A transponder is a high freq. Radio
receiver, a freq.down converter and power
amplifier which is used to transmit the
down link signal.

210
 ERROR DETECTION AND
CORRECTION
 Network must be able to transfer data from
one device to another with complete
accuracy. Anytime data can get corrupted in
passage during transmission from one device
to another. The ability to detect when a
transmission has been changed is called
Error Detection.
 In most cases when error are detected the
message is discarded, the sender is notified
and the message is sent again. In other
cases when an error is detected, it may
actually be fixed without a second
transmission. This is called Error
Correction. 211
 Error
 When data is being transmitted from one
machine to another, it may be possible
that data become corrupted on its way.
 Some of the bits may be altered,
damaged or lost during transmission,
such a condition is known as error.
 The error may occur because of noise on
line, attenuation and distortion. For
reliable communication, it is important
that errors are detected and corrected.
212
 Types of Errors
 There are 2 types of errors:
1. Single Bit error
2. Burst error

213
 Single Bit error
 The term single bit error means that
only one bit of a given data unit
(such as a byte , character , data unit
or packet) is changed from 0 to 1 or
1 to 0.
 For example: if 8 wires are used to
send all 8 bits of I byte at the same
time and one of the wires is noisy,
one bit can be corrupted in each
byte.
214
 Contd…
 The fig. illustrates single bit
error .here ----00000011 had been
sent but 00001011 was received.

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
sent
0 changed to 1

0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1
received

215
 Contd..
 Single bit error can happen in parallel
transmission where all the data bits
are transmitted using separate wires.
Single bit errors are the least likely
type of error in serial transmission.

216
 BURST ERROR
 Burst error means that 2 or more
than 2 bits in the data unit or packet
have changed form 0 to 1 or 1 to 0.
sent Length of burst error 5 bits

0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1

receiver Bits corrupted by burst error

0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1

217
 Contd..
 A burst error does not necessarily means that
the error occurs in consecutive bits. The diff.
b/w the I corrupted bit and last corrupted bit
is called the length of the burst error.
 Burst error is most likely to occur in a serial
transmission.
 The noise occurring for a longer duration
affects multiple bits.
 The number of bits affected depends on the
data rate & duration of noise.

218
 Contd..
 Burst error can happen in a serial
transmission because duration of noise is
normally longer than the duration of a bit
which shows that when noise affects data
it also affects the set of bits.
 The no. of bits affected depends on the
data rate and duration of noise.

219
 Methods of Error Detection
 We transmit the data from one device to
another. If the receiving device does not
have an original copy of the transmitted
data it is not easy to detect error without
comparison of the received data and the
original date.
 One error mechanism that would satisfy
these requirements would be to send
every data unit twice. The receiving device
can compare both versions of data bit by
bit. any discrepancy would indicate an
error and an appropriate correction
mechanism could be set in place. 220
 Contd…
 This procedure would be completely
accurate but it would be very slow
because transmission time of data will be
doubled and additional time would be
needed for the comparison of both
versions of data bit by bit.
 The concept of including extra information
in the transmission solely for the purpose
of comparison is a good one. But instead
of repeating the entire data stream a
shorter group of bits may be appended to
the end of each unit. This technique is
called Redundancy because extra bits
are redundant to the info. And they are
discarded as soon as the accuracy of the
transmission has been determined.
221
 Data Unit Group of bits

1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0

Appended group of bits

1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0

Data Transmission
Receiver

If accepted,
Checking Function redundant bits
are discarded

1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1
222
 Contd..
 The sender sends data unit after the
addition of group of bits and the
receiver checks the concept of bit
stream through the checking function.
If the received bit stream passes the
checking criteria the data portion of the
data unit is accepted ,subsequently the
redundant bits are discarded.

223
 Contd..
 4 types of redundancy checks are
used in data transmission:
1. Parity check/Vertical Redundancy
Check.
2. Longitudinal Redundancy Check.
3. Cyclic Redundancy Check.
4. Checksum

224
 1.PARITY CHECK/VERTICAL
REDUNDANCY CHECK
 The most common approach is parity
checking which involves counting all
the 1 bits in the data and adding 1
more bit to make the total no. of 1
bit even (even parity) or odd (odd
parity).
 The extra bit is called parity
redundant bit. This method is also
called VRC.
225
 Parity Bit
1 1 0 0 0 1 0 Even Parity Generator

1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1

Is the total no. of 1s

CHECKING FUNCTION even?

YES Receiver accepts

the data
1 1 0 0 0 1 0

Parity Check
226
 CONTD.
 Before transmitting we pass the data unit
through a parity generator.It counts 1s
and appends the parity bit (1) to the end.
 The system now transmits the entire
expanded unit across the n/w data
link.When it reaches the destination,the
receiver puts all 8 bits through the even
parity checking function.If the receiver
(1100001 ---- 11000011) sees 11000011, it
counts four 1s the even 1s, the data unit
passes.
227
 CONTD.
 If instead of 11000011 the receiver sees
11001011, the parity checker counts the
1s-5-odd no. the receiver knows that an
error has been introduced into the data
and therefore rejects the whole unit.
 Some systems may be using odd parity
checking,where the no. of 1s should be
odd.The principle is same as of even-
parity,only calculation is different.

228
 Longitudinal Redundancy
Check (LRC)
 This approach is also known as 2-
dimensional parity check.
 In this technique a block of bits is
organized in the form of rows and
columns.
 For example: Suppose the sender
wants to send a block of 32 bits.
Before transmitting ,we organize the
32bits in a table form which consists
of 4 rows and 8 columns.
229
 Contd.---
 We then calculate the parity bit for
each column and create a new row
of 8 bits which are the parity bits
for the whole block. Here the first
parity bit in the 5th row is
calculated based on all first bits.
 We then attach the 5th row which
consists of 8 parity bits to the
original data
(32 bits) and send them to the
receiver.
230
11100111 11011101 00111001 10101001

I row 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1
II row 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1
III row 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1
IV row

V LRC
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0

11100111 11011101 00111001 10101001 10101010

231
11100111 11011101 00111001 10101001 10101010

Original data LRC

11100111 11011101 00111001 10101001 10101010

LRC uncorrupted data

The receiver checks the LRC block, 10101010 and

follows the even parity rule. After this , the block of
data unit is accepted.

232
 3. CHECKSUM
 The error detection method used by
the higher layer protocols is called
checksum.
 Checksum is based on the concept of
redundancy.
 Here the sender uses checksum
generator and receiver uses
checksum checker.
233
 CHECKSUM GENERATOR
 It subdivides the data unit into equal
segments of n bits (usually 16).These
segments are added together .
 The complement of the result
obtained by adding the segments ,
called the checksum field is added to
the end of the original data unit as
the redundancy unit. The sender
transmits the data unit plus
checksum.
234
 Contd.--
Example of checksum generator:
 The example data unit consists of 16
bits are 10101001 , 00111001.
 The data unit is divided into 2
segments of 8 bits as 10101001 and
00111001. Both segments are added
using 1’s complement arithmetic as:

235
 Contd.--

10101001
00111001 SUM

11100010
Checksum is the complement of the
sum ie. 00011101.The checksum is
added to the data unit. The pattern
sent is 10101001 00111001
00011101.
236
 CHECKSUM CHECKER
The receiver receives the above pattern.
The receiver then adds the 3 sections
together and will get all 1s which after
complementing is all 0s.This shows that
there is no error in the transmission ie.
10101001 Data segment

00111001 Data segment

00011101 checksum

11111111 Sum

00000000 Complement

Thus the complement contains only 0s.So

the receiver accepts the data. 237
 CYCLIC REDUNDANCY CHECK
(CRC)
 One of the most common and one of the most
powerful of the redundancy checking technique
is cyclic Redundancy Check.
 PR and VRC are based on addition while CRC is
based on binary division.
 In CRC instead of adding bits to achieve a
desired parity, a sequence of redundant
bits,called CRC or CRC remainder is appended
to the data unit so that the resulting data unit
becomes exactly divisible by a second
predetermined no.
238
 Contd…
 At its destination , the incoming data unit is
divided by the same no. If at this step there
is no remainder, the data unit is assumed to
be intact and is therefore accepted.A
remainder indicates that the data unit has
been damaged in transit and therefore must
be rejected.
 The redundancy bits used by CRC are
derived by dividing the data unit by a
predetermined divisor,the remainder is CRC.

239
 Contd.---
 A CRC must have 2 qualities:
1. It must have exactly one less bit
than the divisor.
2. Appending it to the end of he data
string must take the resulting bit
sequence exactly divisible by the
divisor.

240
Data Data CRC
000…0
n bits

Divisor n+1 Divisor

bits Data CRC
Remainder

n bits Remainder
CRC
Zero– accept
Non-zero--reject

SENDER RECEIVER

CRC GENERATOR AND CHECKER

241

CRC Generator
CRC generator uses modulo-2 division.
 Process of Division:
1. The 4 bit divisor is subtracted from I 4 bits of dividend.
2. Each bit of the divisor is subtracted from corresponding
bit of the dividend without disturbing the next higher bit.
3. The next unused bit from the dividend is then pulled
down to make the no. of bits in the remainder equal to
the no. of bits in the divisor.
4. A) In this process,the divisor always begins with 1.
B) The divisor is subtracted from a portion of the
previous-dividend/remainder that is equal to it in length.
C) The divisor can only be subtracted from a
dividend/remainder whose leftmost bit is 1.
D) Anytime the leftmost bit of remainder is 0 , a string of
0s of same length as divisor replaces the divisor.
242
 CRC Checker
 A CRC checker functions exactly as
generator does.
 After receiving the data appended
with CRC,it does the same mosulo-2
division.
 If the remainder is all 0s the CRC is
dropped and data is accepted
otherwise the received stream of bits
is discarded and the data is resent.
243
 1101 100100 0 0 0 111101 Quotient
divisor
110 1

10 0 0
11 0 1

1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1

1 1 1 0
1 1 0 1
When the leftmost bit
0 1 1 0 of remainder is 0 , we
0 0 0 0 must use 0000 instead
of the original divisor.
1 1 0 0
1 1 0 1

0 0 1 REMAINDER
BINARY DIVISION IN CRC GENERATOR 244
1101 100100001 111101
Data plus CRC received
1101

1000
1101

1010
1101

1110
1101

0110
0000 When leftmost bit is
zero,use 0000 = no. of
110 1 bits in the divisor.
1 101
000 Result

BINARY DIVISION IN CRC CHECKER

245
 ERROR CORRECTION
 In most cases when errors are detected,

the message is discarded, the sender is

notified and the message is sent again.In
other cases when an error is detected, it
may actually be fixed without a second
transmission.This is called error correction.
 The sender never knows that the message
was damaged and subsequently fixed.The
bottom line is that the message eventually
is delivered correctly.For reliable
transmission,errors must be detected and
corrected.

246
 Single bit error correction
method—HAMMING CODE
 The single bit error correction method
developed by R.W.Hamming involves
creating code word from data to be sent.
 Hamming Code requires the insertion of
multiple parity bits in the bit before
sending.
 When the frame is sent, the receiver
recalculates the parity checks.If they fail,
the combination of failures tells the receiver
which bits are affected.the receiver then
can set the bits to their correct values.
247
 Contd.--
 This technique is quite common for memory
addressing and transferring this from
registers to RAM and back.
 To correct a single bit error in an ASCII
character- the error correction code must
determine which of the 7 bits has been
changed and for that we need to determine
8 states– no error,error in I position or II or
so on that means we need redundancy bits
to show all states.
248
 Contd.--
 If we take 3 redundancy bits-they
represent 8 combinations ie. 3 bits can
satisfy only 8 possibilities.So we need
more additional bits.
 If m=no. of data bits

r= no. of redundancy bits

there are 2r combinations of
success or failures
Where 2r>m+r+1
249
 Contd.--
 A 7 bit ASCII character requires 4
required bits and their position is
0
decided as 2 21 22 23

1 2 4 8

m1 m2 m3 r8 m4 m5 m6 r4 m7 r2 r1

11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

250
REDUNDANT BITS
 Contd.--
 As there are 4 redundant bits so combinations can be 24 =16 but
our data stream is of 11 bits so we’ll refer table up to 11.

Decima r8 r4 r2 r1
0l 0 0 0 0 No error

1 0 0 0 1 R1 is the parity bit for comb.

Of 1,3,5,7,9,11.
2 0 0 1 0
R2 ----- 2,3,6,7,10,11
3 0 0 1 1
4 0 1 0 0 R4---- 4,5,6,7
5 0 1 0 1
6 0 1 1 0 R8---- 8,9,10,11
7 0 1 1 1
8 1 0 0 0
9 1 0 0 1
10 1 0 1 0
11 1 0 1 1 251
 Now let data stream is 1001101.

7 bits data we have.

4 redundant bits we need.

1 0 0 r8 1 1 0 r4 1 r2 r1

11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Step 2---- calculate even parity bit for various combi. R1.

r1 1 0 R1
0 r8 1 1 0 r4 1 r2
1

11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

We are assuming even parity bit system and there are three 1’s
so put 1 at r1 position.

252
Step 3

r2 1 0 0 R2 R1
r8 1 1 0 r4 1
0 1
11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Already four 1’s put o at r2. Combi. 2,3,6,7,10,11
Step 4
11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4r4 3 2 1
r4 1 0 0 r2 r1
r8 1 1 0 1
0 0 1
11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Already two 1’s put o at r4. Combi. 4,5,6,7
Step 5

r8 r4 r2 r1
r8 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1
11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Already one 1’s put 1 at r8. Combi. 8,9,10,11

253
Now this stream is ready for transmission.
Actual stream--- 1001101
Transmitted stream--- 10011100101 11 bit data
Now imagine that by the time the above transmission is
received,the no. 7 bit has been changed from 1 to 0.

r8 r4 r2 r1
1 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1

11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

r8 r4 r2 r1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1
11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Single bit error

254
 r1=1
r8 r4 r2 r1
r1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1
11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

r8 r4 r2 r2=1
r1
r2 1 0 0 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1
11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

r8 r4 r2 r4=1
r4 r1
1 0 0 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1

r8 r8 r4 r2 r1 r8=0
1 0 0 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1

11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

0 1 1 1
The bit in position 7 is in error
255
and needs to be corrected.
 Network Topologies
 The term network topology refers to
the way in which computers or other
devices that need to communicate in
a network are linked together.
 The topology of a network is the
geometric representation of the
relationship of all the lines and
linking devices (usually called nodes)
to one another.
256
 Criteria of choosing a
Network Topology
The choice of N/W topology for installing a
computer network depends upon a
combination of factors, such as:
 The desired performance of the system.
 The desired reliability of the entire system.
 Size (number of nodes and their
geographical distribution) of the system.
 Expandability of the system.

257
 Contd…
 Cost of the components and services
required to implement the network.
 Availability of communication lines.
 Delays involved in routing
information from one node to
another.

258
 Types of Network
Topologies
 Bus Topology
 Star Topology
 Ring Topology
 Tree Topology
 Mesh Topology
 Hybrid Topology

259
 Bus Topology
 The n/w that uses a bus topology usually
consists of a single, long cable to which
computers are attached.
 Any computer attached to a bus can send
a signal down the cable and all computers
receive the signal.
 Because all computers attached to the
cable can sense an electrical signal, any
computer can send data to any other
computer.
260
 Computers

Single Communication Line

Shared by all nodes

Fig : A multi-access Bus N/W

261
 Contd…
 The computers attached to a bus
network must coordinate to ensure
that only one computer sends signal
at a time.
 In bus topology , the failure or
removal of a device doesn’t cause
the n/w to fail.

262
Advantages of Bus Topology
 1. Connecting a computer/peripheral
to a linear bus is easy.
 2. It requires least amount of cabling
to connect the computers and less
expensive than other cabling
arrangements.
 3. It is easy to extend a bus since 2
cables can be joined into one longer
cable with a computer.
263
 Disadvantages of Bus
Topology
 Entire n/w shuts down if there is a
failure in the backbone.
 Heavy traffic can slow down a bus
because computer on such n/ws
don’t coordinate with each other to
reserve time to transmit.

264
 2. STAR TOPOLOGY
 The Star topology is the oldest
communication design method,
which roots in telephone switching
systems.
 A n/w uses a star topology if all
computers attach to a central point.
 In Star topology each device has a
link only to a central controller
usually called a hub.
265
 Host
Computer

Fig: A Star Configuration

of computer network

266
 Contd..
 The devices aren’t directly linked to one
another.The controller acts as an
exchange.
 If one device wants to send data to
another , it sends the data to the
controller which then relays the data to
another connected device.
 A hub is a control device that joins single
cable segments or individual LANs into one
n/w.
267
 Advantages
 1. Easy to install and wire.
 2. The n/w is not disrupted even if a
node fails or is removed from the
n/w.
 3. Fault detection and removal of
faulty parts is easier.

268
 Disadvantages
 1. Requires a long length of cable.
 2. If hub fails , nodes attached to it
are disabled.
 3. The cost of the hubs makes the
n/w expensive as compared to bus
and ring topology.

269
 3. RING TOPOLOGY
 The Ring topology is a continuous path for
data with no logical beginning or ending
points and thus no terminators.
 Workstations and file servers are attached
to the cable at points around the rings.
 When data is transmitted onto the ring ,it
goes around the ring from node to node ,
finds it destination and then continues
until it ends at the source node.
270
Fig : A ring configuration of computer network
271
 Contd..
 A ring n/w may be either unidirectional or
bidirectional.
Unidirectional– means that all transmissions
travel in the same direction. Thus each
device can communicate with only one
neighbour.
Bidirectional– means that data transmissions
travel in either direction and a device can
communicate with both its neighbours.

272
 Contd..
 The ring topology is easier to
manage than the bus as the
equipment used to build the ring
makes it easier to locate a defensive
node or cable problem.
 Overall the ring topology enables
more reliable communication than
bus.
273
 Advantages
 1. Easy to install and configure.
 2. Every computer is given equal
access to the ring and hence no
single computer can monopolize the
n/w.

274
 Disdavantages
 1. Failure in any cable or node breaks
the loop and can take down the
entire n/w.
 Minimum ring length and no. of
nodes are limited.

275
 4. TREE TOPOLOGY
 A Tree topology is a variation of star.
 As in Star, nodes in a tree are linked
to a central hub that controls the
traffic to the n/w.Here not only every
device plugs directly into the central
hub.The majority of devices connect
to a secondary hub that in turn is
connected to the central hub.
276
 Contd..
 A good example of Tree topology can
be seen in cable TV technology,
where the main cable from the main
office is divided into main branches
with each branch divided into small
branches and so on.The hubs are
used when a cable is divided.

277
 TREE TOPOLOGY

HUB

HUB
HUB
HUB HUB

278
 Advantages of Tree
Topology
 1. The distance to which a signal can
travel increases as the signal passes
through a chain of hubs.
 2. Tree topology allows isolating and
prioritizing communication from different
nodes.
 3. Tree topology allows for easy expansion
of existing n/w which enables organization
to configure a n/w to meet their needs.
279
 Disadvantages of Tree
Topology
 1. If the backbone line breaks, the
entire segment goes down.
 2. It is more difficult to configure tree
than other topologies.

280
 5. MESH TOPOLOGY
 The Mesh topology has a direct
connection b/w every pair of devices
in the n/w.
 Communication becomes very simple
because there is no competition for
common lines.
 If 2 devices want to communicate ,
they do so directly without involving
other devices.
281
 Advantages of Mesh
Topology
 The use of large no. of links
eliminates n/w congestion.
 If one link becomes unusable , it
doesn’t disable the entire system.

282
 Disadvantages of Mesh
Topology
 The amount of reqd. cabling is very
large.
 As every node is connected to the
others, installation and reconfiguration
is very difficult.
 The amount of h/w required in this type
of topology can make it expensive to
implement.

283
Fig : A Completely Connected computer networ
OR MESH TOPOLOGY
284
ig : A Hybrid Network (combination of ring, star and
completely connected n/w)

Completely
Ring Star Connected

285
 COMPUTER NETWORKS
 A n/w is a set of devices( often referred to
as nodes) connected by communication
links.A node can be a computer,printer or
any other device capable of sending and/or
receiving data generated by other nodes on
the n/w.
 The links connecting the devices are often
called communication channels.
 A computer n/w may be defined as an
interconnected collection of automated
computers.Two computers are said to be
interconnected , if they are able to
exchange information.
286
 NETWORK CRITERIA
 A network must be able to meet a certain
no. of criteria. The most important of these
are Performance,reliability and security.
1. Performance– The preference of a n/w
depends on a no. of factors including the
no. of users, the type of transmission
medium, the capabilities of the connected
H/W and the efficiency of the S/w.

287
 Contd..
 2. Reliability– The reliability is
measured by the frequency of failure
and the time it takes a link to recover
from a failure.
 3. Security– N/W security issues
include protecting data from
unauthorized access.

288
 CLASSIFICATION OF N/W
 Broadly speaking, there are 2 types
of n/w based on transmission
technology:
1. Broadcast Networks.
2. Point-to-Point Networks.

289
 Contd..
 A.1. Broadcast Networks– They have a single
communication channel that is shared by all
the machines on the n/w.
 Short messages called packets in certain
contexts sent by any machine are received by
all the others.
 Broadcast systems generally also allow the
possibility of addressing a packet to all
destinations by using a special code in the
address field.When a packet with this code is
transmitted it is received and processed by
every machine on the n/w.This mode of
operation is called Broadcasting.
290
 2. Point-to-Point Networks
 This type of n/w consists of many
connections b/w individual pairs of
machines.
 To go from the source to the
destination , a packet on this type of
n/w may have to first visit one or
more intermediate machines.

291
 Contd..
 B. Network categories can be specified
on size,ownership , the distance it
covers and its physical architecture.
 There are following categories:
1. Local Area Networks (LAN)
2. Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)
3. Wide Area Networks (WAN)
4. Multimedia Networks

292
 1.LAN
 LANs are normally referred to simply as LANs
are used to interconnect distributed
communities of computers based data terminal
equipment located within a single building or
localized group of buildings.
 Depending upon the needs of an organization
and the type of technology used , a LAN can be
as simple as 2 PCs and a printer in someone’s
home or it can extend throughout a company
and include audio and video peripherals.

293
LAN

294
Fig : A single Building LAN

295
Fig : Multiple building
LAN

296
 Contd..
 Currently, LAN size is limited to a few Kms.
 LANs are designed to allow resources to be
shared b/w PC or workstations.The
resources to be shared can include
H/W(printer) , S/W- an application program
or data.
 In addition to size, LANs are distinguished
from other types of n/w by their
transmission media and topology.

297
 Contd..
 In general , a given LAN will use only
1 type of transmission medium.The
most common LAN topologies are
Bus, Ring and Star.
 LANs have data rates- 4-16 mbps
range.

298
 MAN
 MAN is basically a bigger version of a LAN
and normally uses similar technology.
 A MAN is designed to extend over an
entire city.
 It may be a single n/w such as a cable TV
n/w or it may be a means of connecting a
no. of LANs into a large n/w so that
resources may be shared LAN-to-LAN as
well as device-to-device.
299
Public City N/W

Fig : MAN
300
MAN

301
 Contd..
 For example. A computer can use a MAN
to connect the LANs in all its offices
throughout a city.
 A MAN may be wholly owned and operated
by a private computer or it may be service
provided by a public computer such as a
total telephone computer.
 The high speed links b/w LANs within a
MAN are made possible by fiber-optic
connections.
302
 Difference b/w LANs and WANs
Factor LAN WAN
GeographicalRestricted to limited geographical
May extend over several
Distribution area, provide facilities within thousand
a kilometers, may opera
building or a campus. nationwide or worldwide

Data Rate Transmission rates range fromTransmission rate ranges from

10 Mbps to 1 (Gbps) 1200 bits per second to 2 Mbps
Error Rate Generally experience fewer dataGenerally experience more bit
Transmission errors. error rates.
ommunication
Most commonly used links are Telephone lines, Microwave link
ink twisted pair, coaxial cable and
And satellite channels
fiber optics
Ownership Formed by interconnecting LAN
Usually owned by single Org.
Each of which may belong to a
Different Organization
Cost Negligible Expensive, because of use of
teleph. Lines, satellites, MLink
303
 3. WAN
 A WAN provides long distance
transmission of data,voice,image and
video information over large geographic
areas that may comprise country, a
continent or even the whole world.
 A WAN may utilize public,leased or private
communication equipment usually in
combinations and can therefore span an
unlimited no. of miles.

304
WAN

305
WAN

306
 Contd..
 One WAN is composed of 2 or more LANs
that are connected across a distance of
more than 30 miles.
 Large WANs may have many constituent
LANs and MANs on different continents.
 The most well known WAN is the Internet
which consists of thousands of LANs and
MANs throughout the world.

307
 4. MULTIMEDIA NETWORK
 The term multimedia is used to
indicate that the info./data being
transferred over the n/w may be
composed of one or more of the
following media types:
 1. Image
 2. Text
 3. Audio
 4. Video
308
 Contd..
 There are 5 basic types of communication
n/w that are used to provide m/m
communication services:--
 1. Telephone networks
 2. Data networks--- E-mail
 3. Broadcast television n/w– analog Tv and
radio prog.
 4. Integrated service digital n/w-
voice,video,data.
 5. Broadband multiservice n/w– multimedia
communication application.
309
 SWITCHING
 Every time we access the Internet or
another n/w , our messages are sent
through transmission media and
connection devices.
 The mechanism for moving
information b/w different networks
and network segments is called
Switching.
310
 Contd..
 The switching devices that provides
the communication facility are called
Switches or Routers.
 These routers are connected in a ster
topology to the point-to-point
transmission links.
 This communication n/w is called is
called Switched Communication
Network.
311
 Types of Switching
 There are 3 types of switching:--
1. Circuit Switching
2. Packet Switching
3. Message Switching

312
 Circuit Switching

 In the case of Circuit Switching , a

direct physical connection path is
established b/w computers.
 This is similar to a telephone call.
For example when we call up
somebody over the phone , a
dedicated connection is established
b/w the 2 phones and remains
intact until call is intact.
313
 Circuit Switching
 The same concept is used in Circuit
Switching. When a computer wants
to communicate with another
computer, a dedicated connection
is established b/w them over the
switches.
 Communication via Circuit
Switching involves 3 phases:
1. Circuit establishment
2. Data Transfer
3. Circuit Disconnect.
314
 Contd..
 1. Circuit establishment– In this phase,
an end-to-end connection is established
b/w the source and destination nodes
before the transmission of data.
 2. Data transfer– During the data
transfer phase, data is transmitted from
one station to other through an
established path. Data may be
transmitted, depending on the agreed
transfer rate b/w the source and
destination, the max. data transfer rate
supported by the channel.
315
 Contd..
 3. Circuit disconnect:-- After the
completion of data transfer, the
established connection is terminated
and notification signal is propagated
to all the nodes in the established
path to release the dedicated
resources.

316
 Switches

D
A

C
G

Circuit Switch b/w 2 computers

317
 2. PACKET SWITCHING
 Packet Switching has emerged as the
standard switching technology for
computer-to-computer communications
and therefore used by most of the
communication protocols such as X.25 ,
TCP/IP , Frame Relay and ATM etc.
 Unlike in a circuit switching, in packet
switching data to be sent is divided into
and then sent as discrete blocks called
packets of variable length.

318
 Contd..
 Packet Switching can be classified into 2
types:
1. Datagram Approach
2. Virtual Circuit Approach

1. Datagram Approach– In this approach,

each packet/datagram is considered as a
totally independent packet from all
others.
Even when there are multiple packets
sent by the same source to tha same
destination for the same message, each
packet is independent of all other
packets. 319
 Contd..
 Virtual Circuit Approach– In this
case, all the packets belonging to the
same message take the same route
from source to the destination.
 Based on the n/w conditions as the
beginning , a logical connection is
established before any packets are
sent.
 All packets follow the same route and
arrive at the destination in the same
order as they are sent.
320
 3. MESSAGE SWITCHING
 Also known as the store-and-forward
approach for an entire message
(packet switching is store and
forward at the packet level).
 In this method , a comp. receives a
message, stores it on its disk until
the appropriate route is free and
then sends it along that route.
321
 Contd..
 Since there is no direct link b/w the
source and destination, the store and
forward approach is considered as a
switching technique.

322
 M M
M
A B

Store
Store
and
and
Forward
Forward

Message Switching

323
 Internetworking/
Internetworks
 In simple words when 2 or more
devices have to be connected for
sharing data or resources or
exchanging messages, we call it
networking.
 When 2 networks need to be
connected for the same purpose , we
call it internetworking.
324
 Contd..
 The main difference b/w networking and
internetworking is that whereas in networking
all the devices are compatible with each other,it
may or may not be the case with
internetworking.
 When 2 or more n/w are involved in an
application , we normally refer to the mode
working b/w systems as internetworking.
 We use the term internetwork to refer to the
composite network e.g. LAN/MAN/WAN.Each
constituent n/w of the internetwork is a sub-
network or subnet.
325
 PRINCIPLES OF
INTERNETWORKING
 The main requirements for an
Internetworking facility are as
follows:--
 Provide a link b/w networks.
 Provide for the routing and delivery
of the data b/w process on different
networks.
 The Internetworking facility must
accommodate a no. of differences
among n/w.
326
 Reason of Internetworking
 The main reason for having an internetwork
is that each comp. n/w is designed with a
specific task in mind e.g. a LAN is typically
used to connect comp. in a smaller area and
it provides fast communication b/w those
comp.On the other hand,WAN technologies
are used for comm. over long distances. As a
result n/ws become specialized entities.In
many cases these n/w don’t use the same
technology in terms of the H/W or comm.So
the basis of internetworking is to have a n/w
of physically separate n/ws.
327
 Intenetwork Protocol
 The IP is a protocol which helps to
communicate b/w networks.
 IP provides a best effort n/w layer services
for connecting comp. To form a comp. n/w.
 Each comp. is identified by one or more
globally unique IP addresses.
 IP transports data in packets called
Datagrams, each of which is transported
separately.

328
Problems in Internetworking
 Electrical as well as S/W
incompatibility makes it impossible
to form a n/w merely by
interconnecting wires from 2 n/w.
 One n/w could use a packet size of
128 bytes whereas another could use
256 bytes packets.
 The method of acknowledgement or
error detection/recovery could be
entirely different.

329
 Contd…
 Thus any 2 n/w can’t directly
communicate with each other by just
connecting a wire b/w them.Since there
are many incompatible networking
technologies in terms of signaling,data
representation and error
detection/recovery etc.Therefore, the
concept of universal service through
internetworking is not simple to
achieve.
330
 Internetworking Devices
 There are 2 types of Internetworking
devices:--
1. Routers:-- Internetworking b/w
compatible networks.
2. Gateways:-- Translation services b/w
incompatible networks.

331
 ROUTER
 A router is termed as an intelligent device
and is useful for interconnecting 2 or more
networks.
 These networks can be heterogeneous which
means that they can differ in their physical
characteristics such as frame
size,transmission
rates,topologies,addressing etc.
 Thus if a router has to connect such different
n/w, it has to consider all these issues.

332
 Contd..
 In an environment consisting of several network segments
with different protocols and architecture, a bridge may not
be adequate for ensuring fast communication among all of
the segments.
 A complex network needs a device, which not only knows
the address of each segment, but also can determine the
best path for sending data and filtering broadcast traffic to
the local segment. Such device is called a Router.
 Routers work at the Network layer of the OSI model
meaning that the Routers can switc h and route packets
across multiple networks.
 They do this by exchanging protocol-specific information
between separate networks.
333
 Contd..
 Routers have access to more information in packets than
bridges, and use this information to improve packet deliveries.
Routers are usually used in a complex network situation
because they provide better traffic management than bridges
and do not pass broadcast traffic.
 Routers can share status and routing information with one
another and use this information to bypass slow or
malfunctioning connections.
 Routers do not look at the destination node address; they only
look at the network address. Routers will only pass the
information if the network address is known. This ability to
control the data passing through the router reduces the amount
of traffic between networks and allows routers to use these links
more efficiently than bridge

334
 X Y
NETWORK A ROUTER

NETWORK B
BUS
335
 Contd..
 A router has to determine the best possible
transmission path among several available.
 A router can forward packets across
different n/w types.However all the
dissimilar networks must use a common
transmission protocol such as TCP/IP.If they
are not using the same protocol, a router
would not be able to forward packets from
one n/w to another.

336
 2. GATEWAY
 A Gateway is typically used to
connect huge and incompatible
networks.
 A gateway can forward packets
across different networks that may
also use different protocols.

337
 Contd..
 Gateways make communication possible between different
architectures and environments. They repackage and
convert data going from one environment to another so
that each environment can understand the other's
environment data.
 A gateway repackages information to match the
requirements of the destination system. Gateways can
change the format of a message so that it will conform to
the application program at the receiving end of the
transfer.

338
 Contd..
 A gateway links two systems that do
not use the same:
 Communication protocols
 Data formatting structures
 Languages
 Architecture

339
 Contd..
 For example, electronic mail gateways, such as X.400
gateway, receive messages in one format, and then
translate it, and forward in X.400 format used by the
receiver, and vice versa.
 To process the data, the gateway:
 Decapsulates incoming data through the networks
complete protocol stack. Encapsulates the outgoing data in
the complete protocol stack of the other network to allow
transmission.

340
 NETWORKING DEVICES
 There are 2 types of devices:
1. Repeaters
2. Bridges

341
 1. Repeaters
 A repeater also called a regenerator
is an electronic device that simply
regenerates a signal.
 Signal travelling across a physical
wire cable,when travel some
distance become weak (called
attenuation) or get corrupted as
other signals/noise interface.
342
 Contd..
 This means that the integrity of the
data that the signal carrier is in
danger.A repeater receives such a
signal,which is likely to become weak
or corrupted and regenerates it.
 That is the repeater simply recreates
the bit pattern of the signal and puts
this regenerated signal back onto the
transmission medium.
343
 Contd..

The only responsibility of a repeater

is to take a stream of bits,in the form
of a signal,regenerates it so that the
signal is accurate now and send it
forward.

344
 Contd..
 Network repeaters regenerate incoming electrical,
wireless or optical signals.
 Repeaters attempt to preserve signal integrity and extend
the distance over which data can safely travel.
 A network device used to regenerate or replicate a signal.
Repeaters are used in transmission systems to regenerate
analog or digital signals distorted by transmission loss.
Analog repeaters frequently can only amplify the signal
while digital repeaters can reconstruct a signal to near its
original quality.

345
 Contd..
 In a data network, a repeater can relay messages between
subnetworks that use different protocols or cable types.
 Hubs can operate as repeaters by relaying messages to all
connected computers. A repeater cannot do the intelligent
routing performed by bridges and routers.
 As signals travel along a network cable (or any other medium of
transmission), they degrade and become distorted in a process
that is called attenuation. If a cable is long enough, the
attenuation will finally make a signal unrecognizable by the
receiver.
 A Repeater enables signals to travel longer distances over a
network. Repeaters work at the OSI's Physical layer. A repeater
regenerates the received signals and then retransmits the
regenerated (or conditioned) signals on other segments.

346
347
 Repeate
01100110 r 01100110

348
 2. BRIDGES
 A bridge is a comp. That has its own
processor,memory to connect to 2
portions of a n/w.
 A bridge facilitates host to host
communication within a n/w.
 The main idea of using a bridge is to divide
a big n/w into smaller sub-networks called
segments.
 The bridge splits the entire n/w into 2
segments shown with dotted lines.
349
 Contd..
 Like a repeater, a bridge can join segments
or workgroup LANs. However, a bridge can
also divide a network to isolate traffic or
problems.
 For example, if the volume of traffic from
one or two computers or a single
department is flooding the network with
data and slowing down entire operation, a
bridge can isolate those computers or that
department.
350
351
 Contd..
 Bridges can be used to:
 Expand the distance of a segment.
 Provide for an increased number of
computers on the network.
 Reduce traffic bottlenecks resulting
from an excessive number of
attached computers.

352
 Contd..
 Bridges work at the Data Link Layer of the OSI model. Because
they work at this layer, all information contained in the higher
levels of the OSI model is unavailable to them. Therefore, they do
not distinguish between one protocol and another.
 Bridges simply pass all protocols along the network. Because all
protocols pass across the bridges, it is up to the individual
computers to determine which protocols they can recognize.
 A bridge works on the principle that each network node has its
own address. A bridge forwards the packets based on the address
of the particular destination node.
 As traffic passes through the bridge, information about the
computer addresses is then stored in the bridge's RAM. The bridge
will then use this RAM to build a routing table based on source
addresses.

353
 SEGMENT 1

REPEATER

BRIDGE

REPEATER

SEGMENT 2

354
 Network switch

 A network switch (also called switching hub, bridging hub,

officially MAC bridge) is a computer networking device that
connects devices together on a computer network, by using
packet switching to receive, process and forward data to the
destination device.
 Unlike less advanced network hubs, a network switch forwards
data only to one or multiple devices that need to receive it,
rather than broadcasting the same data out of each of its ports.
 A switch is a device used on a computer network to physically
connect devices together.
 Switches manage the flow of data across a network by only
transmitting a received message to the device for which the
message was intended.

355
356
 Contd..
 Switches may operate at one or more
layers of the OSI model, including the
data link and network layers. A
device that operates simultaneously
at more than one of these layers is
known as a multilayer switch.

357
 Difference between a network hub,
switch, and router
 A network hub is designed to connect computers to each other with
no real understanding of what it is transferring. Typically, a network
hub is used for a private network, one that does not have any
connections to sources other than local computers (meaning, no
Internet access). When a hub receives a packet of data from one of
the connected computers, it broadcasts that data packet to all the
other connected computers, no matter which one is the final
destination of that data packet.
 A network router is quite different from a switch or hub since its
primary function is to route data packets to other networks, instead of
just the local computers. A router is quite common to find in homes
and businesses since it allows your network to communicate with
other networks including the Internet. Essentially, a router bridges the
gap between other networks and gives your network access to more
features, e.g. a Firewall, QoS, traffic monitoring, VPN, and more.

358
 Contd..
 A wireless router allows wireless devices (e.g. your
smartphone, tablet, wireless laptop) to connect to your
network and because it is a router it also allows all devices
to connect to the Internet.
 If cost is a concern and you only want to connect a few
computer to each other, a switch is the ideal solution since
they are cheaper than a router.
 In some situations you may need more than one router or
switch. If you are in a big area such as an office you may
need a router to connect all the computers to the Internet
or other network and then use other routers, switches, or
access points to connect other parts of the building to the
same network.

359
 WIRELESS TECHNOLOGIES
 Today , wireless technologies are fundamental
part of personal and business life.
 Modern digital wireless systems have better
performance but the basic idea is same.
 Wireless transmission can be divided into
three broad groups:
 Radio Waves
 Microwaves
 Infrared Waves

360
 Wireless Transmission
Wireless
Transmission

Radio Waves Microwave Infrared Waves

361
 Electromagnetic waves ranging in
frequencies b/w 3 KHz and 1 GHz are
normally called Radio Waves.
 Waves ranging in frequencies b/w 1
and 300 GHz are called
Microwaves.
 Waves with frequencies from 300
GHz to 400 THz are InfraredIn
Signals which can be used for short
range communication.

362
 Infrared Waves
 Infrared signals having high frequencies cannot
penetrate walls.
 This advantageous characteristic prevents
interference b/w one system and another.
 A short range communication system in one
room cannot be affected by another system in
next room.
 When we use our infrared remote control, we
do not interfere with the use of remote by our
neighbors.
 But we can’t use infrared signals for long range
communication.
 We can not use infrared waves outside a
building because the sun’s rays contain infrared
waves that can interfere with the
communication. 363
 WIRELESS NETWORKS

Wireless Networks can be divided into

three categories:
 1.Wireless LANs

 2.Wireless WANs

 3.System Interconnection

364
 WIRELESS LANs
 The first step in wireless networking is
wireless LANs.These are the systems in
which computers has a radio modem and
antenna with which it can communicate
with each other systems.
 There is an antenna so that the machines
can talk to each other.
 However if the systems are close enough,
they can communicate directly with one
another.
365
 WIRELESS LANs
 Wireless LANs are becoming increasingly
popular in small offices and homes.
 There is a standard for wireless LAN called
IEEE 802.11 which most systems
implement and is becoming widespread.
 Wireless LANs can operate at rate upto
50Mbps over distance of 10 metres.

366
Wireless LAN (Bluetooth)
 Bluetooth is a wireless protocol utilizing
short-range communications technology
facilitating data transmission over short
distances from fixed and/or mobile
devices, creating wireless personal area
networks (PANs).
 The intent behind the development of
Bluetooth was the creation of a single
Digital wireless protocol, capable of
connecting multiple devices and
overcoming problems arising from
synchronization of these devices.
367
 Contd…
 Bluetooth provides a way to connect and
exchange information between devices
such as mobile phones, telephones,
laptops, personal computers, printers,
digital cameras.
 Bluetooth is a standard and
communications protocol primarily
designed for low power consumption, with
a short range (power-class-dependent: 1
meter, 10 meters, 100 meters) based on
low-cost transceiver microchips in each
device. Bluetooth enables these devices to
communicate with each other when they
are in range. 368
 Table of range of Bluetooth of
different devices
Class Maximum Permitted Range
Power (approximate)
mW (dBm)
Class 1 100 mW (20 dBm) ~100 meters
Class2 2.5 mW (4 dBm) ~10 meters

Class 3 1 mW (0 dBm) ~1 meter

* Where The milliwatt (symbol:mW) is equal to one thousandth

(10-3) of a watt.
* And dBm (sometimes dBmW) is an abbreviation for the power
ratio in decibels (dB) of the measured power referenced to one
milliwatt (mW).
369
Fig : A typical Bluetooth mobile phone handset

370
 Contd…
 Bluetooth exists in many products, such
as telephones, modems and headsets.
The technology is useful when
transferring information between two or
more devices that are near each other
in low-bandwidth situations.
 Bluetooth is commonly used to transfer
sound data with telephones (i.e. with a
Bluetooth headset) or byte data with
hand-held computers (transferring files).

371
Applications of Bluetooth
 Wireless control of and communication
between a mobile phone and a hands-free
headset. This was one of the earliest
applications to become popular.
 Wireless networking between PCs in a
confined space and where little bandwidth is
required.
 Wireless communications with PC input and
output devices, the most common being the
mouse, keyboard and printer.
372
 WIRELESS WANs
 The other kind of wireless network is used
in wide area systems called WANs.
 The radio network used for cellular
telephones is an example of wireless
WANs.
 In this high bandwidth wide area wireless
networks are also developed.
 The standard used for this is called IEEE
802.16.
373
SYSTEM INTERCONNECTION
 System interconnection is all about
interconnecting the components of a computer
using short-range radio.
 Some companies have got together to design a
short-range wireless network called BLUETOOTH to
connect the devices without wires.
 Bluetooth also allows digital
cameras,headsets,scanners and other devices to
connect to a computer by merely being brought
within the range.
 No cables, no driver installation, just put them
down, turn them on and they work.
374
 Switched Multimegabit Data
Services (SMDS)
Switching Basics:---
Often , multiple devices have to be
connected over long distances so that they
can communicate with each other.At such
times Bus and Ring topologies can’t be
used because of the distance and large no.
of nodes; Mesh is also not possible and
Star is not useful if central node becomes
defunct the whole n/w stops.

375
 Contd..
 In such situations, the switching
mechanism is used.
 A Switched N/W is made up of
interlinked nodes called Switches. A
Switch is a hardware device that
allows a connection to e established
b/w 2 or more devices, which are
linked to it , but the devices are not
connected to each other.
376
 D E F G

C 5

1 6 H

B 4

2 7 I

A 3
J
L K
Fig: Switched N/W
377
 Contd..
 In this fig. , comp. A through comp. L are
connected to various switches, numbered
1 to 7. Each of these switches is connected
to multiple links and thus allows a
connection b/w 2 computers.
 This concept is very similar to a telephone
exchange , which connects the telephones
of different users to each other directly,
rather than having to connect every
telephone in the world to every other
which would have meant wires
everywhere.
378
 SMDS
 SMDS is a high speed MAN
technology.
 It is aimed at fulfilling the needs of
the orhanization that have a no. of
LANs spread across the different
locations in a city.
 It is a packet switched service for
high speed MAN data transmissions.
379
 Contd..
 It is provided by common carriers and since
it is a switched technology , the subscribers
pay only for the time that they have used
its services.
 Bell communications Research developed
the SMDS specifications in 1980.
 A LAN can be connected to SMDS n/w by a
Router- (a device useful for interconnecting
2 or more n/w which may be heterogeneous
i.e they differ in their physical
characteristics as transmission rates ,
topologies and addressing etc.
380
 Architecture of SMDS

R SMDS R

LAN R

LAN

LAN 381
 Contd..
 Here many LANs are connected together to form
a SMDS MAN.
 The SMDS n/w acts like a high speed LAN
backbone which allows packets from any LAN to
travel to any other LAN on the SMDS.e
 The connection is based on the dual bus
technology. At the LAN end , we have a router
and the SMDS end , we’ve a switch.
 This switch belongs to a telephone company’s
switching office , which in turn routes the LAN
traffic to other LANs of the organization which are
connected to the SMDS service.

382
 Bus B
LAN Switch SMDS
R
Bus A

ig: The Dual bus connection b/w LAN and SMDS

383
 Contd..
 SMDS allows for each data packet to
contain up to 9188 bytes.
 It is a connectionless service wherein
a host connected to a SMDS n/w can
send a packet to any destination any
time.
 SIP (SMDS Interface Protocol) is used
for the purpose of communications.

384
 Contd..
 Basically it is a telecommunications
service that provides
connectionless , high performance ,
packet switched data transport.
 It is neither a protocol nor a
technology.
 It supports protocols and allows
users to transparently extend their
communications capabilities over a
wide geographical area.
385
 ISDN (Integrated
Services Digital
 Integrated Network)
services digital network is
a set of communications standards
enabling traditional telephone lines to
carry voice, digital network services, and
video..
 Prior to the ISDN, the phone system was
viewed as a way to transport voice, with
some special services available for data.
 The key feature of the ISDN is that it
integrates speech and data on the same
lines, adding features that were not
available in the classic telephone system.
 ISDN uses UTP (unshielded twisted pair
cable) for transmission.
386
 ISDN (contd…)
 ISDN is a circuit-switched telephone
network system, that also provides
access to packet switched networks,
designed to allow digital transmission
of voice and data over ordinary
telephone copper wires, resulting in
better voice quality than an analog
phone.
 It offers circuit-switched connections
(for either voice or data), and packet-
switched connections (for data), in
increments of 64 kbit/s. 387
 Contd…
 In a broad sense ISDN can be considered a suite
of digital services existing on layers 1, 2, and 3 of
the OSI model. ISDN is designed to provide
access to voice and data services simultaneously.
 Another major use case is Internet access, where
ISDN typically provides a maximum of 128 kbit/s
(which can be considered to be broadband speed,
since it exceeds the narrowband speeds of
standard analog 56k telephone lines).
 In a videoconference, ISDN provides simultaneous
voice, video, and text transmission between
individual desktop videoconferencing systems
and group (room) videoconferencing systems.

388
 ISDN Element
 Integrated Services refers to ISDN's
ability to deliver at minimum two
simultaneous connections, in any
combination of data, voice, video,
and fax, over a single line. Multiple
devices can be attached to the line,
and used as needed.

389
 Contd…
 Digital refers to its purely digital
transmission, as opposed to the analog
transmission of plain old telephone service
(POTS). Use of an analog telephone modem
for Internet access requires that the Internet
service provider's (ISP) modem converts the
digital content to analog signals before
sending it and the user's modem then
converts those signals back to digital when
receiving. When connecting with ISDN there
is no digital to analog conversion.

390
 Contd…
 Network refers to the fact that ISDN
networks extend from the local telephone
exchange to the remote user and
includes all of the telecommunications
and switching equipment in between.
 The purpose of the ISDN is to provide
fully integrated digital services to the
users. These services fall under three
categories: bearer services,
supplementary services and teleservices.

391
 Features of ISDN
 Support of voice and non-voice
applications using a limited set of
facilities.
 ISDN uses the existing twisted pair wires.
 ISDN works in the physical, data link and
n/w layers of the OSI model.
 ISDN is used heavily by the broadcast
industry as a reliable way of switching
low latency, high quality, long distance
audio circuits
392
 Services Provided by
ISDN
 Bearer Services: bearer services
provide the means to transfer
information (voice, data and video)
b/w users, without the manipulating
the contents of data.
 Teleservices: In teleservices, the
n/w may change or process the
contents of the data.
 Supplementary Services: These
services which provide additional
functionality to the bearer services
and teleservices. 393
 Telefax Telephony
Teleconferencing

Teleservices

Circuit Packet Frame

Switching Switching Switching

Bearer Services

Message
Call Waiting
Handling
Supplementary Services 394
 Architecture of ISDN
 The fundamental concept of ISDN is the
digital bit pipe.
 This is a conceptual pipe through which
bits flow b/w the end user and ISDN
exchange (Co).
 The key point about this bit pipe is that it
is bi-directional – bits can originate at the
customers premises or at the ISDN
exchange.
 The digital bit pipe supports Time Division
MUXing techniques to provide for multiple
independent channels.
395
 Co
Digital Signals
Digital
Telephone
N/W

Co
Digital Signals

ISDN Architecture
396
 Services of ISDN
 There are two levels of service: the Basic
Rate Interface (BRI), intended for the home
and small enterprise, and the Primary Rate
Interface (PRI), for larger users.
 Both rates include a number of B-channels
and a D-channels.
 Each B-channel carries data, voice, and
other services.
 Each D-channel carries control and
signaling information.
397
 X.25 PROTOCOL
 X.25 is a packet switching protocol used in
wide area network (WAN).
 It was developed in mid 1970s by ITU-T.
 It describes standards for establishing ,
maintaining and terminating connections
b/w them.
 X.25 works at the bottom most 3 layers of
the OSI model – Physical layer, Data Link
layer and Network layer.
 It incorporates elaborate flow control and
error control mechanisms to handle
frequent transmission errors.
398
 Understanding how X.25
works
 Let us assume that we have 2 offices of an
organization (XYZ Corp.ltd.) which are
geographically apart , say one in Delhi and
other one in New York.
 Suppose the Delhi office needs to send a 100
page document using the postal services to
the New York office. The doc. Can’t be sent in
one envelope rather every page has to be sent
separately in its own envelope. Then the
following steps will be there:
399
 Contd..
 1. One person (A) at Delhi office will
keep a copy of each of the 100 pages
with it.
 2. A will write recipient’s address
(New York Office), sender’s address
and page no. like 1 of 100, 2 of 100
on each page and then put each
page inside a separate envelope.
400
 Contd..
 3. However A can’t put address of New
York office and post it because a rule of
XYZ corp. says that each envelope has
to travel via a no. of branches located
b/w New Delhi and New York. At each of
these offices, the envelope has to be
opened , contents are checked and if are
accurate , forwarded to next branch
office.
401
 Contd..
 So A sends 100 envelopes to B in
Singapore. B’ll check the contents . If
the contents become illegible , another
copy is sent by A and if found legible
B’ll create a copy of the page and
sends original page to next branch
office and an acknowledgement back
to A. Then A will destroy the copy of
that page.
402
 Contd..
 4. This process continues from B-C and
so on in each subsequent branch office
and will stop in New York Office.
 The X.25 protocol works more or less in
the same manner. The basic concept of
delivery, error checking,
retransmissions etc are extremely
similar so that they are implemented in
X.25.
403
 Characteristics of X.25
 X.25 standards describes the
communication protocols including
delivery, error control, flow control,
routing etc. b/w a computer (called
data Transmission Equipment i.e.
DTE) and a n/w end point (usually a
router or gateway also called Data
Communications Equipment ie. DCE)
404
 Contd..
 1. Packet Networks::-- X.25 is a
packet n/w.This means that the data
to be sent is broken into packets at
the source and the packets are sent
to the destination, one by one.
 2. Protocol Layers::-- X.25 standard
defines the communication protocols
b/w DTE and DCE at 3 layers –
physical, data link and network.

405
 Network
X.25 n/w Layer
DTE DCE DCE DTE Data Link
Layer
Physical
X.25 Protocol X.25 Protocol Layer
X.25 Layers

406
 Contd…
3. Types of services::-- X.25 supports 2 types
of services namely Permanent Virtual Circuit
(PVC) and Switched Virtual Circuit (SVC).
 A virtual circuit is created when a
computer sends a packet to the network and
once established, packets can be sent over
the connection always arriving in the order.
 PVC - A single route and dedicated b/w 2
users.
 SVC – Only single route exist during
transmission, although the n/w could pick an
alternate route in response to failure.

407
 X.25 operation
 Let us understand how X.25 works for
this consider that there are 2 hosts X and
Y in WAN and X has to send a packet to
Y.
 Let us assume that there’re 9 packet
switches named ‘A’ to ‘I’ which use X.25
packet switching.
 There are two broad level processes
here:
408
 Contd…
a) The Ist stage happens at the data link
layer and other at network layer.
 At the data link layer, every switch
sends an acknowledgement of the data
packet back to its previous neighbor.
b) The 2nd stage happens at the n/w layer.
Here the final destination (Y) sends an
acknowledgement back to its
immediately previous switch (G) which
sends back an acknowledgement of
acknowledgement. This process then
continues for all previous switches.

409
 A D G

8
2 7
X B E H Y
1
4 6
5
3

C F I

g : X.25 packet transmission at Data Link Laye

410
 A D G

9
15 10
X B E H Y
16
13 11
12
14

C F I

Fig : X.25 packet transmission (contd)

at Network Layer
411
 Packet Transmission using
X.25 b/w X and Y at data link
layer
(1) A virtual circuit is created b/w X and Y
over the path X-B-F-G-Y. The sender host
X sends a packet to the next switch on
the virtual circuit i.e. B. X retains a copy
of the packet until it receives an Acknw
from switch B.
(2) Switch B now forwards the packet to the
next switch, but before that it sends an
acknw for the packet received to host X
after verifying the CRC and ensuring that
there is no error. Then X destroys the
copy of original packet.
412
 Contd…

(3) Switch B forwards the packet to the

next switch i.e. F. B retains a copy of
packet until it receives an acknw.
Packet from F and this process goes
on till the packet reaches the
destination Y.

413
 Contd…
 Then at Network Layer, final
destination Y sends back acknw to
previous immediate switch (G) which
acknowledges the acknowledgement.
 The acknw. Also travels by the
same path as X.25 is based on virtual
circuit, where the routing and path
determination are done at the
beginning of the transmission.
414
 Contd…
 As each host/switch retains a copy of
the packet until it receives an acknw
from the next node – hence this is
also known as store-and-forward.
 As the process in the x.25 takes a
considerable time, the process is very
slow. So Frame Relay has emerged
as an improvement over X.25.
415
 FRAME RELAY
 Frame Relay is a high performance WAN
protocol at the Physical Layer and Data
Link layers of the OSI reference model.
 It was originally designed for use across
Integrated Services Digital Networks
(ISDN).
 It is an example of a Packet-Switching
technology. Packet switching n/w enable
end stations to dynamically share the n/w
medium and the available bandwidth.
416
 Contd..
 Frame Relay is often described as a
streamlined version of X.25 as it offers
higher performance and greater
transmission efficiency than X.25.
 Frame Relay designed in the late 1980s and
widely developed in 1990s is in many ways a
II generation X.25.
 It is extensively used today to allow LANs on
different Corporate campuses to send data
to one another at reasonably high speeds.

417
 ADVANTAGES
 1. It operates at a higher speed 1.544
mbps and recently 44.376 mbps.
 2. It allows bursty data (data with gaps).
Users don’t have to adhere to a fixed data
rate as in case of X.25.
 3. It allows a frame size of 9000 bytes
which can accommodate all local area n/w
frames.
 4. It is less expensive than other
traditional WANs.
418
 DISADVANTAGES
 1. Although some frame relay networks
operates at 44.376 mbps still this is not
high enough for protocols with even higher
data rates.
 2. Because of varying details, which are
not under user control, Frame relay is not
suitable for sending delay sensitive data
such as real time voice or video.
 3. It is not suitable for teleconferencing.
419
 Frame Relay Network
 The Frame Relay provides switched
virtual connection service to the end
systems called DTEs (Data Terminal
Equipment) and DCEs (Data
Communications Equipment).
 This technology can be used as a low
cost, high speed communication
WAN infrastructure for connecting
420
End System

Frame Relay
DTE DTE
DCE DCE

421
 Contd..
 Frame Relay technology can be as a
low-cost , high speed communication
WAN infrastructure for connecting
LAN
LANs.
LAN
Frame Relay
Network LAN
LAN
LAN

LAN 6 LANs connected using a Frame Relay Network

422
Data Rate

Total data sent – 20 mbps.

Seconds

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

A) Fixed rate data in X.25

Data Rate

B) Bursty data in Frame

Relay

12 mbps 8 mbps
Seconds
423
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
 Frame Relay versus X.25
 1). X.25 is defined for layers 1,2,3 of OSI
model while Frame Relay is defined for
layers 1 and 2 only,It means that Frame
Relay has significantly less processing to
do at each node.
 2). X.25 prepares and sends packets while
Frame Relay prepare and sends Frames.
 3). Frame Relay operates at speed 20
times greater than X.25.

424

Contd..
4). X.25 packets contain several fields used
for error and flow control while none of which
is needed by Frame Relay.
 5). X.25 has a fixes bandwidth while Frame
Relay can dynamically allocate bandwidth as
the load dictates.
 6). X.25 was designed to provide error-free
delivery using high error-free links while
Frame Relay takes advantage of new , lower
error rate links,enabling it to eliminate many
of the services provided by X.25.
425
 Asynchronous Transmission
Mode (Mode)
 ATM is an extremely ambitious transmission
n/w that is expected to replace most of the
existing n/wing protocols.
 ATM uses small packets called cells for
transmission. A cell is a fixed size packet.
ATM is sometimes also called Cell Relay.
 Like Frame Relay (and unlike X.25) , ATM
doesn’t provide any flow control or error
control at the data link layer.

426
 Contd…
 Like X.25 and frame relay, ATM
supports muxing of multiple logical
connections over a single physical
channel.
 ATM can serve as a LAN or WAN
backbone, without requiring any major
replacement.
 ATM is a modern WAN switching
technique devised by telephone
companies to deliver, voice, data or
even video.
427
 Contd…
 At a very broad level, an ATM n/w uses
switches. Multiple hosts connect to
each switch. It means that in case of
ATM, the communication b/w the 2
hosts is via the switch.
 ATM is designed to offer extremely high
data rates. As a typical ATM connection
b/w a host and a switch can offer a
data transmission rate of 155 mbps.

428
 Contd…
 ATM is designed to be a full-duplex
data transmission n/w, it uses 2
optical fibers.

ATM Switch

Fig : ATM Switch 429

 ATM
Switch

This fiber carries This fiber carries data

Data from the switch to from the host to switch
the host.

ATM connection uses 2 optical fibers

430
 Architecture of ATM
 ATM is a cell switched n/w.
 ATM works with 2 cell formats which are
(a) User Interface N/W (UNI)
(b) N/W – N/W – Interface (NNI)
 The user access devices, called the end
points, are connected through a UNI to
the switches inside the N/W. The
switches are connected through NNI.

431
UNI NNI NNI UNI

Architecture of an ATM N/W

432
 Asynchronous TDM
 ATM uses asynchronous time-division
muxing, that’s why it is called
Asynchronous Transfer Mode – to
multiplex cells coming from different
channels.
 ATM multiplexes fill a slot with a cell
from any input channel that has a
cell, the slot is empty if none of the
channels has a cell to send.
433
A3 A2 A1

C3 B2 A3 C2 B1 A2 C1 A1
B2 B1
MUX
C3 C2 C1

ATM Multiplexing

434
 ATM Layers
 The ATM protocol consists of 3 layers

(1) Physical Layer

(2) ATM Layer
(3) Application Adaptation Layer
AAL Layer
(AAL)
ATM Layer

ATM Layers Physical Layer

435
 Contd….
 Physical Layer : Deals with issues
related to transmission media, bit
transmissions and encoding
techniques.
 ATM Layer : deals with cell routing,
switching, multiplexing and traffic
management.
 AAL Layer : facilitates interaction b/w
an existing n/ws and ATM.

436
 ATM Characteristics
 Asynchronous
 Virtual Circuit Approach
 Order of cells
 Equal delays
 Automatic error detection and
correction

437
 PROTOCOL
ISDN
COMPARISONS
PARAMETER ATM Frame Relay X.25

1.Bandwidth 64-128 Kbps 1.544 Mbps 64kbps-1.544 64 Kbps

Mbps

Packet switch
Packet/circuit Packet-
2.Type Cell switch
switch switched
frames
Reliable,secu Variable Point to point
Secure,reliab re,all types of packets,point connection,rel
3.Features le,bursty traffic to point iable,global
traffic connectivity acceptance

Lack of
4.Weak Difficult to standards Expensive,req Not a high
points install and uires speed WAN
configure dedicated protocol438
 Unit III– Layered
Architecture of a Computer
Network
 Decomposition of the organization into
offices and each office into hierarchical
functional levels and the interaction
procedures define the overall orgn.
Structure.
 A comp.n/w is also positioned into end
systems interconnected using a subnetwork
and the communication process is
decomposed into hierarchical functional
layers.
439
 Contd..
 Just like in an office , each layer has
a distinct identity and a specific set
of functions assigned to it.
 Each layer has an active element, a
piece of H/W or S/w which carries out
the layer functions.It is called layer
entity.

440
 Contd..
 The criteria for defining the boundaries
of a layer are:
1. Each function is distinctly identified and
implemented precisely in one layer.
2. Functions are carried out in logical
sequential manner by proper design of
the hierarchy.
3. Volume of communication b/w adjacent
layers is minimized by suitably choosing
the layer boundaries.
441
 Contd..
 4. Boundaries of a layer are defined
by considering the existing
acceptable implementation.
 5. The implementation details of a
function in a layer are hidden so that
any change in the implementation
does not affect other layers.

442
 Contd..
 There are several network architectures
developed by manufacturers and by
standardization organizations.Some of the imp.
N/w architectures are:
1. IBM’s system Network Architecture(SNA)
2. Digital’s Digital Network Architecture(DNA)
3. Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference
model developed by ISO (International Orgn. Fo
Standardization)
4. Internet Architecture

443
 End System

Layer N

Layer N-1

Functional
layers

Layer 1

Interconnecting Medium

LAYERED ARCHITECTURE OF AN END SYSTEM 444

 Contd..
 The basic concept of layering
network responsibilities is that each
layer adds value to services provided
by sets of lower layers.
 In this way , the highest lavel is
offered the full set of services
needed to run a distributed data
application.
445
 Contd..
 There are several advantages to use a
layered architecture like a layered
architecture facilitates peer-to-peer
communication protocols where a given
layer in one system can logically
communicate with its corresponding
layer in another system.This allows
different computers to communicate at
different levels.
446
 Contd..
 With layered architecture
communication b/w 2 corresponding
layers requires a unit of data called
Protocol Data Unit (PDU).

447
 source Destination
NETWORK

Peer to Peer communications

Layer N+1 Layer N+1

Layer N+1 to layer N+1

Layer N
Layer N to layer N Layer N

Layer N-1 Layer N-1 to layer N-1 Layer N-1

Peer to Peer communications 448


Contd..
On receiving machine each header and
trailer are removed and messages are
accepted.
 Layers are divided into 3 groups:

 A) Network Support Layer—1,2,3

( Physical,Data Link,N/W)
 B) User Support Layer—

5,6,7(Session,Presentation,Application)
 C) Network Layer itself– 4(Transport Layer)

449
 Functions
 1. N/W Support Layer-----
a) Physical connection
b) Physical addressing
c) Transport timing
d) Reliability

450
 Contd..
 2. User Support Layer---
Interoperability among unrelated s/w
systems.
 3. N/w Layer---
Link to subgroup to ensure data
transmission.

451
 7. APPLICATION LAYER

6. PRESENTATION LAYER

5. SESSION LAYER

4. TRANSPORT LAYER

3. NETWORK LAYER

2. DATA LIMK LAYER

1. PHYSICAL LAYER

452
7 LAYERS OF ISO-OSI MODEL
ISO-OSI REFERENCE MODEL
 ISO: ISO stands for International
Organization for Standardization
established in 1947.
 This orgn. Is dedicated to world-wide
agreement on international
standards.
 It covers all aspects of network
communication which is called OSI
model.
453
ISO-OSI REFERENCE MODEL
 OSI:- Open System Interconnection.
 A set of protocols that would allow
any 2 systems to communicate
regardless of their underlying
architecture is called Open System.
 The open system Interconnection
model is a layered framework for the
design of network system that allows
for communication.
454
ISO-OSI REFERENCE MODEL
 It consists of seven separate but
related layers each of which defines a
segment of the process of moving
information across a network.
 The seven layers are as follows:
 1.Physical
 2.data Link
 3.Network
 4.Transport
 5.Session
 6.Presentation
 7.Application
455
 7. APPLICATION LAYER

6. PRESENTATION LAYER

5.SESSION LAYER

4.TRANSPORT LAYER

3. NETWORK LAYER

2. DATA LINK LAYER

1. PHYSICAL LAYER

LAYERED ARCHITECTURE OF OSI MODEL

456
ISO-OSI REFERENCE MODEL
 Each layer defines a family of
functions distinguished from rules of
other layer.
 In one machine each layer calls upon
service of the layer just below it ie.
Layer 3 uses the service provided by
layer 2 and provides services to layer
4.
457
 OSI guidelines specify:

 1. How network devices contact each

other and how devices using
different protocols communicate.
 2. How a network device knows when
to transmit or not to transmit data.
 3. How the physical network devices
are arranged and how they contact.

458
 OSI guidelines specify
 4. Methods to ensure that network
transmissions are received correctly.
 5. How network devices maintain a
consistent rate of data flow?
 6. How electronic data is represented
on the network media?

459
 Principles applied to seven
layers of OSI model:
 1. A layer should be created where a
different level of abstraction is
needed.
 2. Each layer should perform a well
defined function.
 3. The function of each layer should
be chosen with an eye towards
defining internationally standardized
protocols.
460
 Principles applied to seven
layers of OSI model
 4. The layer boundaries should be
chosen to minimize the information
flow across the interfaces.
 5. The no. of layers should be large
enough that distinct functions
needn’t be thrown together in the
same layer out of necessity and
small enough that the architecture
doesn’t become unwieldy.
461
 Functions of OSI model
layers:--

1.PHYSICAL
required LAYER
The physical layer coordinates the functions
to transmit a bit stream over a physical
medium.
 Thus it converts sequence of binary digits into
electric signals or light signals depending upon
whether the two nodes are on a cable circuit or
fiber optic.
 The physical layer is concerned with the
following:-
 1. Physical characteristics of interfaces and
media:-The physical layer defines the
characteristics of the interface b/w the devices
and the transmission medium.
462
 1.PHYSICAL LAYER
 2.Transmission mode:-The physical layer also
defines the direction of transmission b/w 2
devices—simplex/half-duplex/full- duplex.
 3. Representation of bits:-It consists of a
stream of bits to be transmitted, bits must be
encoded into signals.
 4.Data rate:-The no. of bits sent each second
is also defined by the physical layer.
 5.Physical topology:-It defines how devices
are connected to make a network.Devices can
be connected using a mesh topology, a ring or
bus topology.
463
 2. Data Link Layer
 DLL receives data unit from III layer and
put it into physical layer with extra
information(header and trailer).
Header + Trailer + data= frame
It makes the physical layer appear error free
to the upper layer(network layer).
Specific responsibilities of DLL are as
follows:

464
 Data Link Layer
 1.Framing:-The DLL divides the
stream of bits received from the
network layer into manageable data
units called frames.
 2.Physical addressing:-If frames are
to distributed to different systems on
the network, the DLL adds a header
to the frame to define the physical
address of the sender and receiver.
465
 Data Link Layer
 3.Flow Control:- If the rate at which
the data rate are absorbed by the
receiver is less than the rate
produced in the sender, the DLL
imposes a flow control mechanism.
 4.Error Control:- The DLL adds
reliability to the physical layer by
adding mechanisms to detect and
retransmit damaged or lost frames.
466
 From Network layer To Network layer

L3 data L3 data

frame DLL
H2 DLL H2

00110010110 00110010110

To Physical layer
From Physical layer

DLL b/w adjacent nodes 467

 3. NETWORK LAYER
 This layer is responsible for source to
destination (end-to-end) delivery of
packets across multiple network links.
 It ensures that each packet gets from its
point of origin(main source) to its final
destination successfully and efficiently.
 It uses switching and routing service for
end to end delivery.
 Two popular n/w layer protocols are X.25
protocol and the Internet Protocol (IP).
468
 3. NETWORK LAYER
 The specific responsibilities of the network
layer includes:
 1.Logical Addressing:-The physical
addressing implemented by the data link layer
handles the addressing problem locally.If a
packet passes the network boundary, we need
logical addressing system.
The n/w layer adds a header to the packet
coming from the upper layer that includes the
logical address of the sender and receiver.

469
 3. NETWORK LAYER
 2. ROUTING:- It selects best path for
sending the packet from one point to
next-- a)when more than one path is
available b) different packets may
take different path c) reassembling is
needed for it.
 3.SWITCHING:-It sets temporary
connection b/w a physical link. b)
establishes dedicated link.
470
 3. NETWORK LAYER
 4. MULTIPLEXING:-It uses a single
physical line to carry data b/w many
devices at the same time.

471
 From transport layer To transport layer

L4 data L4 data

frame n/w
H3 n/w H3
layer
laye
r

L3 data L3 data

To Physical layer
From Physical layer

N/w layer b/w adjacent

472
nodes
 4. TRANSPORT LAYER
 This layer is responsible for source to
destination delivery of the entire message.
 It ensures that the whole message arise
intact and in same order.
 This layer makes sure for error control and
flow control at source to destination level.
 Two most popular T.L protocols are TCP &
UDP (User Datagram Protocol).

473
 4. TRANSPORT LAYER
 The specific responsibilities of the
transport layer include the following:
 1.Segmentation and
reassembly:-A message is divided
into segments, each segment
containing a sequence no. These nos.
enable the transport layer to
reassemble the message correctly
upon arriving at the destination.
474
 4. TRANSPORT LAYER
 2.Flow Control:- Like DLL, The
transport layer is responsible for the
flow control of the segments.
 3.Error Control:- Transport layer is
responsible for error control.
 4. Host-to-host message delivery:-
T.L.ensures that all the packets of a
message sent by a source node
arrive at the intended destination .
475
 4. TRANSPORT LAYER
 6.Connection:-The transport layer
might create a logical connection b/w
the source and the destination for
the duration of the complete
message transfer for better control
over the message transfer.

476
 5. SESSION LAYER
 Session layer establishes, maintains and
synchronizes the interaction b/w
communicating systems.
 The specific responsibilities of the session
layer include the following:
 1. Dialog Control:- The session layer allows
2 systems to enter into a dialog. It allows
the communication b/w 2 processes to
take place either in half duplex (one way at
a time ) or full duplex( 2 ways at a time).

477
 5. SESSION LAYER
 2.Synchronization:- The session layer allows
a process to add checkpoints into a stream
of data e.g. if a system is sending a file of
2000 pages, it is advisable to insert
checkpoints after every 100 pages to
ensure that each 100 page unit is received
and acknowledged independently. In this
case if a crash happens during the
transmission of page 523, retransmission
begins at page 501. Page 1-500 need not
be retransmitted.
478
 6. PRESENTATION LAYER
 The presentation layer is concerned
with the syntax and semantics of the
information exchanged b/w 2
systems.
 It ensures inter-operability among
communicating devices.
 Specific responsibilities of the
presentation layer are as follows:
479
 6. PRESENTATION LAYER
 1.Translation:- The translation b/w the
sender’s and receiver’s message is
done by the presentation layer if the
two formats are different.
 2.Compression:-For efficient
transmission, the presentation layer
performs data compression before
sending and decompression at the
destination.Data compression reduces
the no. of bits to be transmitted. Data
compression becomes particularly
important in the transmission of
multimedia such as text,audio and
video.
480
 6. PRESENTATION LAYER
 3.Encryption and Decryption:- To
carry sensitive information , a
system must be able to assure
privacy. Encryption means that the
sender transforms the original
information to another form and
sends the resulting message out over
the network. Decryption reverses the
original form. The presentation layer
performs data encryption and
decryption for security.
481
 From application layer To application layer

L7 data L7 data

Encoded,encrypted & h Encoded,encrypted & Pre.

frame Pre. H6
decrypted data 6 decrypted data layer
laye
r

L6 data L6 data

To session layer
From session layer

presentation layer b/w

482
adjacent nodes
 7. APPLICATION LAYER
 The application layer , the topmost
layer in the OSI model, enables a
user to access the network.
 This layer provides user interface for
network applications such as E-mail,
remote database access and
transfer, shared database
management etc.
483
 7. APPLICATION LAYER
 The users and application programs
interact with a physical network at
this layer.
 The application layer provides an
abstracted view of the layers
underneath, and allows the users
and applications to concentrate on
their tasks, rather than worrying
about lower level network protocols.
484
 7. APPLICATION LAYER
 The specific services provided by the
application layer includes the following:-
 1.File transfer, access and management:-
This application layer allows a user to
access files in a remote computer, to
retrieve files from a remote computer and
to manage or control files in remote
computer.

485
 7. APPLICATION LAYER
 2. Mail Services:- This layer provides the
basis for e-mail forwarding and storage.
 3. Directory services:- This layer provides
distributed database service sources and
access for global information.
 4. WWW:- Accessing the web pages is
also a part of application layer.

486
E- E-mail www
FTP WWW ftp www
mail

Application layer
Application layer

L7 data L7 data

To presentation layer From presentation layer

487
Node Node
1 Process A 2 Process B

App. protocol

Layer 7(app.) Layer 7(app.)

interface interface
Layer Pre.pro. Layer
6(presentation) 6(presentation)
interface Session pro. interface
Layer Layer
5(session) 5(session)
interface interface
Trans.pro.
Layer Layer
4(trans.) 4(trans.)
interface
interface
Layer N/w pro. Layer
3(n/w) 3(n/w)
interface interface
Layer DLL pro. Layer
2(DLL) 2(DLL)
interface interface
Layer Phy.pro. Layer
1(physical) 1(physical)
488
 Example of message transfer
in OSI model
 1.Let us assume that a process as the
sending node wants to send a message M
to a process at the receiving node.
 2.The sending node’s process builds the
message M and passes it to the
application layer(7) on its machine.
 3.The Application layer s/w adds a
header(H7) to M and passes the message
to the Presentation layer(6) via interface
b/w 7 & 6.
489
 Contd..
 4.The Presentation layer s/w
performs text compression,code
encryption for security on the
received message and after adding
the header(H6) to it, it passes the
resulting message on to the session
layer(5).

490
 Contd..
 5.Depending on the type of dialog, the
session layer s/w establishes a dialog
b/w the sender and the receiver
process.It also regulates the direction
of message flow.A header(H5) is added
to the message at this layer and the
resulting message is passed on the
transport layer(4).

491
 Contd..
 6.The Transport layer s/w now splits
the message into smaller units (M1 &
M2) called packets and adds a
header(H4) to each packet.These
headers contain the sequence no. of
message packets which are then
passed on to the n/w layer(3)

492
 Contd..
 7.The N/w layer s/w makes routing
decisions for the received packets
and

493
 PROTOCOL HIERARCHIES
 To reduce the design complexity, most
networks are organized as a series of
layers or levels, each one built upon the
one below it ie arranged in the form of a
hierarchy.
 The number of layers, the name of each
layer, the contents of each layer and the
function of each layer differ from network
to network.

494
 PROTOCOL HIERARCHIES
 However, in all networks , the purpose of
each layer is to offer certain services to
the higher layers, shielding those layers
from the details of how the offered
services are actually implemented
 Layer n on one machine carries on a
conversation with layer n on another
machine. The rules and regulations used in
this conversation are collectively known as
the layer n protocol.

495
 PROTOCOL HIERARCHIES
 Basically a protocol is an agreement
between the communicating parties on how
the communication is to proceed.
 In a hierarchy , each layer passes data and
control information to the layer immediately
below it , until the lowest layer is reached.
 Below layer 1 is the physical medium
through which actual communication occurs.

496
 Contd..
 Between each pair of adjacent layer there
is an interface. The interface defines
which primitive operations and services
the lower layer offers to the upper one.
 A set of layers and protocols is called a
network architecture and a list of
protocols used by a certain system , one
protocol per layer is called protocol stack.

497
 Protocol hierarchy

Layer 5 protocol
Layer 5 Layer 5
Layer 4/5
interface
Layer 4 protocol
Layer 4 Layer 4
Layer ¾
interface Layer 3 protocol
Layer 3 Layer 3
Layer 2/3
interface
Layer 2 protocol
Layer 2 Layer 2

Layer ½
interface
Layer 1 protocol
Layer 1 Layer 1

Physical medium
498
 TCP/IP REFERENCE MODEL
 TCP/IP is comprised of several
interactive modules that provide
specific functionality.
 The OSI seven layer model specifies
exactly which functions each layer
performs , while TCP/IP is comprised
of several relatively independent
protocols that can be combined in
many ways, depending upon system
needs.
499
 Contd..
 The TCP/IP protocol suite is made
up of 5 layers:
5. Application layer
1. Application layer
2. Transport layer 4. Transport layer

3. Internet/Network layer 3. Network layer

4. Network access layer
2. Network access layer
5. Physical layer
1. Physical layer

500
 Functions of layers:--
 1. Application layer:-- It is the
topmost layer which contains all the
higher level protocols like FTP,SMTP
and Telnet , NNTP, HHTP.
 It contains the programming required
to support the user’s application.
 Different modules are required for
each application such as file or mail
transfer.

501
 2. Transport layer
 This layer is responsible for providing
reliable communication including
error checking procedures.
 It is designed to allow peer entities
on the source and destination hosts
to carry on a conversation .
 Two end-to-end protocols are used
here– TCP and UDP.
502
 3.Internet layer
 This layer uses IP to route data b/w
networks when necessary.
 It defines an official packet format
and packet routing is clearly the
major issue in this layer.

503
 4. Network Access Layer
 It handles the connection b/w the end
system and the n/w to which it is attached.

 5. Physical layer:-- This layer specifies

the physical (connectors,plugs,adapters)
and electrical (voltage and currents)
interface b/w the data comm. devices and
the n/w , and this varies by the type of the
n/w.

504
What is the difference between
OSI and TCP/IP?
 The major differences between the OSI
and TCP/IP are:

 The application layer in TCP/IP handles the

responsibilities of layers 5, 6 and 7 in the
OSI model

 OSI has both the session layer and the

presentation layer whereas TCP/IP
combines both into an application layer.

505
 What is the difference between
OSI and TCP/IP?
 Basically OSI-Open System Interconnection is
a model designed to explain the
characteristics/way to achieve data
communication using different layers (7
Layers )never been physically used to make
communication. Because it is just a model
designed by ISO.
Whereas TCP/IP- Transmission Control
Protocol/ Internet Protocol contains only 5
layers And is the system using which data
communication can be achieved practically
506
What is the difference between
OSI and TCP/IP?
 In OSI model it contain 7 layers and in TCP/IP it has
5 layers

 OSI model is a 'reference model' that describes how

the protocols should interact with each one another
invented by the Department of Defense. Where as
TCP/IP model becomes one of the standards that
enabled the Internet what it is today.
 The application layer of TCP/IP model can handle the
responsibilities of the layers 5 6 7 in OSI model. The
transport layer in TCP/IP does not always guarantee
reliable delivery of packets at the transport layer
while the OSI model does. TCP/IP also offers an
option called UDP that does not guarantee reliable
pack
507
what is the difference between
osi and tcp/ip?
 The OSI implies Open Source
Interconnection which is a 7 layer network
technology but tcp/ip implies transmission
control protocol+internet protocol which
used to develop a connection between
client and server.
 OSI is a 7 layer architectural model but
TCP is a 5 layer model.

508
 INTERFACE AND SERVICES
 In any network model, the function of
each layer is to provide services to
the layer above it.
 Between each pair of adjacent layers
there is an interface which defines
the services the lower layer offers to
the upper layer.
 The active elements in each layer are
often called entities.
509
 INTERFACE AND SERVICES
 An entity can be a s/w entity or h/w entity.
 The entities in layer n implement a service
used by layer n+1. So layer n is called
service provider and n+1 is service user.
 Services are available at SAPs (Service
Access Points). The layer n SAPs are the
places where layer n+1 can access the
services offered.

510
 INTERFACE AND SERVICES
 Each SAP has an unique address that
uniquely identifies it .E.g. in the
postal system the SAP address is
street address and post box no.
 In order for 2 layers to exchange
information , there has to be an
agreed upon set of rules about the
interface.
511
 INTERFACE AND SERVICES
 At a typical interface, the layer n+1
entity passes an IDU(Interface Data
Unit) to the layer n entity through the
SAP.
 The IDU consists of SDU(Service
Data Unit) and some control
information called as ICI (Interface
Control Information).
512
 INTERFACE AND SERVICES
 The SDU is the information passed
across the network to the peer entity
and then up to layer n+1.
 In order to transfer the SDU, the
layer n entity may’ve to fragment
into several pieces, each of which is
given a header and sent as a
separate PDU(Protocol Data Unit)
such as a packet.
513
 INTERFACE AND SERVICES
 The PDU headers are used by the
peer entities to carry out their peer
protocol. They identify which PDUs
contain data and which control
information, provide sequence no.
and counts and so on.

514
 Contd..
 There can be various types of
services at each service
interface,which are expressed as:
1. Name of the service provider
2. Service name
3. Service primitive
4. Associated parameters

515
 Contd..
 Each layer provides a set of services each of
which is identified by a name written in
upper case.Some of the services and their
names are given below:
 A) Establishing a connection– CONNECT
 B) Transferring a data unit on an established
connection– DATA
 C) Disconnecting a connection- DISCONNECT
 D) Transferring a data unit in connectionless
mode of operation-UNITDATA

516
 Contd..
 Services names are associated with
service primitives and parameters for
providing and using the services.
 The four basic primitives
standardized by ISO are Request ,
Indication , Response and
Confirmation.

517
 NOVELL NETWARE

 The most popular network system in

the PC World is Novell Netware.
 It was designed to be used by
companies downsizing from a
mainframe to a network of PCs.
 It is based on Client-Server model.

518
 NOVELL NETWARE
 In such systems , each user has a desktop
PC functioning as a client. Some no.of
powerful PCs operate as servers providing
file services, database services and other
services to a collection of clients.
 Netware uses a proprietary protocol stack
based on the old Xerox Network System–
XNStm.
 It looks more like TCP/IP model than OSI.
519
 LAYERS

APPLICATION
SAP FILE SERVER ………….

NCP SPX TRANSPORT

IPX NETWORK

ETHERNET TOKEN RING ARC net DATA LINK

ETHERNET ARC net PHYSICAL

TOKEN RING

NOVELL NETWARE REFRENCE MODEL

520
 NOVELL NETWARE
 The physical and DLL can be chosen
from among various standards
including Ethernet.
 The N/W layer runs unreliable
connectionless internet work
protocol(IPX). It passes packets
transparently from source to
destination, even if the source and
destination are on different
networks.
521
 NOVELL NETWARE
 Above IPX comes a connection
oriented transport called
NCP(Network Core Protocol). It also
provides various other services
besides user data transport and is
really the heart of netware.
 A second protocol SPX is also
available but provides only transport.

522
 NOVELL NETWARE
 At Application layer, each server
broadcasts a packet giving its
address and telling what services it
offers . These broadcasts use the SAP
(Service Advertising Protocol).

523
 Internet Protocols Stack
 A protocol stack (sometimes
communications stack) is a
particular software implementation
of a computer networking protocol
suite. The terms are often used
interchangeably.
 The suite is the definition of the
protocols, and the stack is the
software implementation of them.

524
 Contd…
 Individual protocols within a suite are
often designed with a single purpose
in mind. This modularization makes
design and evaluation easier.
 Because each protocol module
usually communicates with two
others, they are commonly imagined
as layers in a stack of protocols.

525
 Telnet FTP SMTP DNS Applicatio

Transport
TCP UDP

N/W
IP

Protocols
Fig : Internet Protocols Stack
526
 TELNET : Telnet (Telecommunication
network) is a network protocol used on the
Internet or local area network (LAN)
connections.
 FTP : (File Transfer Protocol) is an application
layer protocol that transfers files b/w two
sites.
 SMTP : (Simple Mail Transfer Transfer
Protocol), is the TCP/IP protocol that defines
electronic mail service (e-mail) on the
internet.
 DNS : (Domain Name System), is a TCP/IP
application service that converts user-friendly
names to IP addresses.
 UDP : (User Datagram Protocol) is a
connectionless TCP/IP transport layer protocol
527
 Contd…
 The lowest protocol always deals
with "low-level", physical interaction
of the hardware. Every higher layer
adds more features. User
applications usually deal only with
the topmost layers.

528
example protocol stack and the corresponding laye

HTTP Application

TCP Transport

IP Network

Ethernet DLL

RJ45/CAT5 Physical

529
 Unit IV Data Link layer
functions and Protocols
 Data Link layer protocols are
Data Link layer protocols are
concerned with the transmission of
data on a single circuit.
 Data link protocols are fundamentals
to data transmission because the
journey of a message through a n/w
begins with its transmission through
the first circuit.

530
 Data Link Layer Protocol
Functions
 1. Communication Startup:-- There must be
rules to specify the way communication will
be indicated whether there is automatic
startup or it is to be initiated by any station.
 2. Character identification and framing:-
There must be a way for the data terminal
equipment (DTE) to separate the string of
bits coming down the communication line
into characters.

531
 Contd..
3. Message Identification:-- The DTE
must separate the characters on the
communication line into messages.
 4. Error Control:-- The protocol must
contain rules that specify what
happens when an error is detected ,
what to do if communication
suddenly unexplainably ceases.
 5. Termination:-- Rules must exist for
ending the communication under
normal and abnormal circumstances.

532
 FRAMING
 The DLL uses the services provided by the
physical layer and provides services to n/w
layer.
 The physical layer accepts a raw bit stream
and deliver it to the destination but this bit
stream is not guaranteed to be error –free.
The no. of bits received may be less than or
equal to or more than the no. of bits
transmitted and have different values.It is
up to the DLL to detect and correct error.

533
 Contd..
 To detect the errors – DLL breaks the bit
stream into discrete packets and this process
is known as Framing and compute the
checksum for each frame.
 When a frame arrives at the destination ,
checksum is recomputed.If newly computed
checksum is different from the one contained
in the frame , DLL detects the error and takes
steps to deal with them.

534
 Approaches to Framing
 There are a no. of approaches to
dividing a stream of bits into a
frame:
1. Character count approach
2. Character stuffing approach
3. Bit stuffing approach

535
 1. Character Count
Approach
 The no. of characters in the frame is
specified before the characters of
information.
4789 52137 614331

Frame 1 Frame 2 Frame 3

4 char 5 char 6 char

536
 contd/..
 When DLL at the remote computer
sees the I header count , it can count
the no. of characters in the frame.
 It can then read the next frame and
so on.
 A problem arises if the header count
gets corrupted , then the frame get
mixed up.
537
 Contd..

4789 7 213761 14331

Frame 1 Frame 2 Frame 3

wrong character unit

This approach relies on synchronization , which if lost can lead to

subsequent frames not being received correctly.

This technique is rarely used anymore.

538
 2. Character Stuffing
Approach
 A second approach to framing is
character stuffing.
 Each frame has a special sequence

of letters to start the frame

<DLE> <STX>-- Data Link ESCAPE
Start of Text
And a special sequence of letters to
end the frame
<DLE> <ETX>-- Data Link Escape End
of Text
539
 Contd..
 This means that the DLL on the
destination comp. should always
know where the start and stop of
each frame is.
 Two comp. A and B want to send
each other a sequence of messages
(For example “Hello World” and
“Goodbye World”).
540
 Contd..
 Comp. A prepends DLE ETX to the
start of the frame for the “Hello
World” message and appends DLE
ETX to the end of the frame and
follows the same procedure for the
“Hello World” message.
A B

<DLE> <STX> Hello World <DLE> <ETX> <DLE> <STX> Goodbye World
541
<DLE> <ETX>
 Contd..
 It is possible for the comp. Or a user to
have these combinations of letters in a
message by accident.
 To counteract this , DLL on the source

comp. adds a second <DLL> before any

<DLE> occurring the data part of a frame.
 Therefore when it gets to destination

comp., the 2 <DLE> can be identified as

not meaning a start or stop frame.
DLE STX A DLE DLE B DLE ETX
Stuffed byte
542
 Bit Stuffing Approach
 A frame may consist of characters –8
bits or multiple of 8 bits.
 Bit stuffing allows frames to have
different no. of bits and allows
character codes to be represented by
an arbitrary no. of bits per character.

543
 Contd..
 Here each frame begins and ends
with a special bit pattern 011111110
called a flag byte.
 Whenever the sender’s DLL
encounters 5 consecutive ones in
data,it automatically stuffs a 0 bit
into the ongoing bit stream and
whenever the receiver sees 5
consecutive incoming 1 bits followed
by a 0 bit , it automatically
destuffs/deletes the 0 bit.
544
 Contd..
 If the user data contain the flag
pattern 01111110 , this flag is
transmitted as 011111010 but stored
in receiver’s memory as 01111110.
 Example of bit stuffing:

011011111111111111110010
Original data

Bit Stuffing

01101 11 110111 11011111010010

Data stored in
Stuffed bits receiver’s
memory after
011011111111111111110010 545
destuffing
 FLOW CONTROL
 The most important responsibilities of
DLL are flow control and error
control.Collectively these are known as
Data Link Control.
 Flow control is the technique/set of
procedures which implies on DLL that
tells the sender how much data it can
transmit before it must wait for an
acknowledgement from the receiver.

546
 Contd..
 Any receiving device has a limited
speed at which it can process
incoming data and a limited amount
of memory in which to store
incoming data.
 So the sending station must not send
frames at a rate faster then the
receiving station can absorb them.
547
 Techniques of Flow Control
 Two techniques have been
developed to control the flow of
data across communication links:
1. Stop-and-Wait flow control
2. Sliding Window flow control

548
 1. Stop-and –Wait flow
control
SOURCE– TRANSMITTING STATION DESTINATION– RECEIVING STATION

Message Frame 1
Wait
time
ACK

Wait Message Frame 2

time
ACK
ACK
Message Frame 3
Wait
time (EOT)
ACK

Time Time 549

 Contd..
 This is the simplest form of flow control.
 In this , the transmitting station sends
one message frame and then waits for
an acknowledgement before sending the
next message frame.
 After it receives an acknowledgement, it
transmits the next frame.
 The transmit/ acknowledgement
sequence continues until the source
station sends an end-to-transmission
sequence. 550
 Contd..
 ADVANTAGE::--- The primary advantage of
stop-and-wait flow control is simplicity.Each
frame is checked and acknowledged before
the next frame is sent.
 DISADVANTAGE::-- The primary
disadvantage is speed and loss of time as it
is slow as each frame must travel all the
way to the receiver and an ack must travel
all the way back before the next frame can
be sent.

551
 2. Sliding Window Flow
Control
 With this type of flow control , a
source station can transmit several
frames in succession before
receiving an acknowledgement.There
is only one ack for several
transmitted frames,thus reducing the
total transmission time considerably
over the stop-and-wait technique.
552
 Contd..
 The term sliding window refers to
imaginary boxes at source and
destination stations with the capacity
of holding several frames of
data.Message frames can be
acknowledged any time before the
window is filled with data.

553
 Contd..
 The frames are numbered module-n ie. 0
to n-1.If frames are numbered as
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,0,1,2---.
 The sliding window of the sender shrinks
from left and expands to right when an
acknowledgement is received.
 The sliding window of receiver shrinks
from left when frames of data are received
and expands to right when an ack. Is sent.

554
 Sender Window

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 12 3 4 5 6 7 0 12 3 4 5 6 7

This wall moves to This wall moves to the right when an ack. is
the right when a received.
frame is sent.
Sender Sliding Window
Receiver Window

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 12 3 4 5 6 7 0 12 3 4 5 6 7

This wall moves to This wall moves to the right when an ack. is
the right when a sent.
frame is received.
Receiver Sliding Window
555
FLOW CONTROL MECHANISM

 Device A is sending frames to device

B.
 Let us assume that the window size
is 7 and the window is initially
located on data frames D0-D6.
 A initiates the transmission with its I
frame D0 followed by frames D1,D2
etc. A can send frames up to D6
without getting any ack from B.
556
 ERROR CONTROL
 Error control is both error detection and
error correction.It allows the receiver to
inform the sender of any frames lost or
damaged in transmission and coordinates
the retransmission of those frames by the
sender.
 In the DLL the term error control refers
primarily to methods of error detection and
error control in DLL based on Automatic
Repeat request (ARQ) which is the
retransmission of data.
557
 contd..
 Error detection in DLL is implemented
simply:anytime an error is detected in
an exchange a negative ack(NAK) is
returned and specified frames are
retransmitted.This process is called
ARQ.

558
 Error control mechanisms
 There are 3 common error control
mechanisms:
1. Stop-and-Wait ARQ Sliding
Window
2. G0-Back-N ARQ ARQ

3. Selective repeat/reject ARQ

559
 1. STOP-AND-WAIT ARQ
 It is the simplest error control
mechanism.
 It is based on the stop-and-wait control
technique.
 The sender transmits a single frame and
then must await an acknowledgement.
 No other data frames can be sent until
the receiver’s reply (ack) arrives at the
source station(sender)

560
 Contd..

 It has following features:

1. The sending device keeps a copy of the last

frame transmitted until it receives an ack for
that frame.
2. For identification purposes,both data frames
and ack are numbered alternately 0 and 1. A
data 0 frame is acknowledged by ack 1 which
indicates that data frame 0 is received and
expecting data frame 1.
561
 Contd..
 3. If receiver detects an error in the
received frame , it simply discards
the frame and sends no ack.
 4. The sender has a control variable ,
which we call S that holds the no. of
recently sent frame.The receiver has
a control variable called R that holds
the no. of the next frame expected.
562
 Contd..
 5. The sender starts a timer when it sends
a frame.If within that time ack is not
received , the sender assumes that frame
was lost/damaged and resends it.
 6. The receiver sends only +ve ack for
frames received safely.It is silent about
the frames damaged/lost.The ack. No.
defines the no. of next expected frame.

563
 Contd..
 In the transmission of a frame , we
can have 3 situations:--
1. Normal operation
2. Frame is lost
3. Ack. Is lost.

564
 1. Normal Operation
 The sender sends frame 0 and waits
to receive ack 1.When ack1 is
received , it sends frame1 and waits
to receive ack0.The ack must be
received before the time out.

565
 Sender Receiver

S=0
Frame 0

Ack 0
S=1 R=0
Frame 1

Ack 1
S=2 R=1
Frame 2

Ack 2
R=2
S=3

Time Normal Operation Time

566
 2. Lost/damaged Frame
 There is a chance that a frame when
arrives at the destination is damaged.
 When the receiver receives a damaged
frame , it discards it which essentially
means that the frame is lost.
 The sender waits for an ack for a specified
timing after transmitting the frame.If no
ack is received by the time the timer
expires , the same frame is transmitted
again.
567
 Sender
Receiver

S=0
Frame 0

Ack 0
R=0
S=1
Frame 1

R=1
S=1 Frame 1
Lost

Ack 1 R=1
S=2

Lost/damaged frame
Time
out Time Time 568
 3. Lost Acknowledgement
 The ack may be damaged during
transmission.
 The sender transmits a single frame and the
receiver receives the frame correctly. Then
the receiver responds with an ack to the
sender.
 The ack is damaged during transmission.If
no ack is received by the time , that the
timer expires , the sender again transmits
the same frame .
 Now as the receiver has already received
frame 1 and expecting frame 0 it discards
the second copy of frame 1. 569
 Sender Receiver

S=0
Frame 0

Ack 0
S=1 R=0

Frame 1

Ack 1
R=1
S=1
lost
Frame 1
Ack 1
R=1

Time out Lost ack Expecting

frame 0 ,
frame 1
Time Time discarded.
570
 B. Sliding window ARQ
 Two techniques are included in
sliding window ARQ:
1. Go-back-N ARQ
2. Selective Reject ARQ

571
 1. Go-back-N ARQ
 The form of error control based on sliding
window flow control is must commonly
used is called go-back-N ARQ.
 It is a procedure which is implemented in
some communication protocols to provide
reliability.
 It is one of the error recovery procedure to
detect and retransmit the frames that
have been corrupted due to to errors in
physical link.
572
 Contd..
 In go-back-n , receiver maintains a window of
size 1. The receiver can therefore accept
only the next data frame in
sequence.Whenever it notices a missing
frame , it requests retransmission of the
missing data frame.If any other data frame
other than N is received before frame N, the
receiver discards it and rejection indicates
request for retransmission of all data frames
starting with frame N.

573
Sender Receiver
Go-Back-N ARQ Normal Operation

Frame 0

Frame 1

Ack 2

Frame 2

Ack 3

Frame 3

Time 574
Time
 Contd..
 Here we have 2 conditions:
1. Lost/damaged conditions
2. Lost Ack

575
 1. Lost/Damaged frame
 If a frame is lost and other next
frame is sent that is if frame 2 is lost
and if receiver receives frame 3, it is
discarded because the receiver is
expecting frame 2 not 3.
 After the timer for frame is 2 expires
at the sender site , the sender sends
frames 2 and 3.
576
 Sender Receiver
Go-Back ARQ- LOST FRAME

Frame 0

Frame 1
Frame 2
Frame 3

NACK 3 Frame 4
Lost
Retransmitted

Frame 3
Retransmitted
Frame 4

Time Time
577
 2. LOST ACK
 If an ack is damaged or lost- 2
situations:
 If next ack arrives before the
expiration of any timer there is no
need to transmit the frame because
acks are cumulative ie ack4 means
ACK of all earlier frames.
 If ack arrives after expiration all the
frames are to be retransmitted
578
Sender Receiver
Go-back ARQ LOST ACK

Frame 0

Frame 1
Frame 2

ACK 3

lost

Frame 0
Frame 1

Frame 2

Time 579
Time
 SELECTIVE REJECT/REPEAT
ARQ
 In selective reject ARQ, only the
specific damaged or lost frame is
retransmitted.
 If a frame is corrupted in transmit , a
negative ack (NACK) is returned and
the frame is retransmitted out of
sequence.

580
 Contd..
 The receiving device must be able to
send the frames it has and insert the
retransmitted frame into its proper
place in sequence.
 The receiver in a selective reject
system continues to accept new
frames while waiting for an error to
be corrected.
581
 Sender Receiver
Selective Reject/Repeat ARQ

Frame 0

Frame 1

Frame 2
Nack 2
Error in frame
Frame 3

Frame 4

Frame 5
Frame 2
Frame 2
retransmitted
0 1 22 45
Time
Time
582
 Sliding Window Protocol
 SWP is a bi-directional data transmission
protocol in the DLL of OSI model used to
keep a record of the packet sequences sent
and their respective acknowledgements
received by both the users.
 In flow control , sliding window is a variable-
duration window that allows a sender to
transmit a specified no. of data units before
an ack is received or before a specified
event occurs.

583
 Contd..
 There are 3 variants of SWP:
1. One –Bit SWP
2. Go-Back N
3. Selective repeat

584
 1. One Bit SWP
 One bit SWP is also called Stop-and-Wait
protocol.
 In this protocol , the sender sends out one
frame , waits for ack before sending next
frame , thus the name stop and wait.
 Problem with stop and wait protocol is that
it is very inefficient.. At any one moment ,
only one frame is in transition.

585
 Contd..
 The sender will have to wait at least
one round trip before sending wait.
 The waiting can be long for a slow
n/w such as satellite link.

586
 2. Go-Back-N
 If there is one frame K missing , the
receiver simply discard all
subsequent frame K+1 , K+2----
sending no ack.
 So the sender will retransmit frames
from K onwards. This effctively sets
the receiver window size to be 1.
 This can be a waste of bandwidth.
587
 3. Selective repeat
 Another strategy is to re-send only the
ones that are actually lost or damaged.
 The receiver buffers all the frames after
the lost one.
 When the sender finally noticed the
problem for example no ack for the lost
frame is received within time-out limit ,
the sender retransmits the frame in
question.
588
SLIP- SERIAL LINE INTERNET
PROTOCOL
 This protocol was devised by
Rick Adams in1984.
 SLIP is used at data link layer for
serial line connection to the
internet.
 SLIP assembles frames by
adding flag byte (character
stuffing) to a raw IP packet.
 Some SLIP protocols just add the
flag at the end while some add
at both front and rear. 589
SLIP- SERIAL LINE INTERNET
PROTOCOL
 It is TCP/IP protocol used for
communication b/w 2 machines that
are configured for communication with
each other for example: Your ISP may
provide you with a SLIP connection so
that the provider’s server can respond
to your requests, pass them on to the
internet and forward your requested
internet responses back to you.

590
SLIP- SERIAL LINE INTERNET
PROTOCOL
 It is used with line speeds b/w 1200
bps and 19.2 kbps.
 It is basically a packet framing
protocol which defines a sequence of
characters that frame IP packets on a
serial line.
 To send a packet, a SLIP host simply
starts sending the data in a packet.
591
SLIP- SERIAL LINE INTERNET
PROTOCOL
 Today SLIP is largely replaced by PPP
which is more feature rich and
flexible.
 The limitations of SLIP are as follows:

 It doesn’t do any:---

 error detection ,

 correction

 data compression.

592
 PPP- POINT-TO-POINT
PROTOCOL
 It is a data link layer protocol that
operates over a point-to-point link--- a link
connecting 2 communicating links.
 It has been carefully designed to retain
compatibility with most commonly used
h/w.
 It helps in multiplexing different n/w layer
protocols simultaneously over tha same
link.
593
 PPP- POINT-TO-POINT
PROTOCOL
 PPP supports many operating
modes and types of transmission.
 PPP can operate at any
transmission speed that the DTE
and DCE can handle.
 PPP performs authentication, data
compression, error detection and
correction and packet sequencing.
 It has largely replaced an older
protocol called SLIP.
594
 PPP- POINT-TO-POINT
PROTOCOL
 PPP provides several services:
 1. It defines the format of the frame to
be exchanged b/w devices.
 2. Supports multiple n/w layer protocols
running over the physical link.
 3. Is able to detect bit errors in the
received frame.
 4. Is able to detect a failure at Dll and
signal this error condition to n/w layer.

595
 PPP- POINT-TO-POINT
PROTOCOL
 PPP frame
11111111 structure is as follows:-
11000000

1 BYTE
FL AD CO PRO DATA FCS FLAG
TOC
AG DRE NT
OL
SS RO
L

596
 PPP- POINT-TO-POINT
PROTOCOL
 1.Flag– A single byte that indicates
the beginning or end of a frame. The
flag field consists of the bit sequence
01111110.
 2.Address- A single byte that
contains the bit sequence 11111111
which is the address of the broadcast
message.
597
 PPP- POINT-TO-POINT
PROTOCOL
 3.Control-A single byte that contains
the bit sequence 00000011 which
calls for the transmission of user
data in an unsequenced frame.
 4. Protocol- The protocol field defines
what is being carried in the data field
user data or other information.

598
 PPP- POINT-TO-POINT
PROTOCOL
 5. Data field– A variable length field
which carries either the user data or
other information.
 6. Frame check sequence(FCS field:--
It normally contains CRC check
characters.

599
 PPP- POINT-TO-POINT
PROTOCOL
 Transition States:-

 A PPP connection goes through

different phases:
 1.Idle state– When the link is not being
used.
 2. Establishing state– When one of the
endpoints starts the communication.

600
 PPP- POINT-TO-POINT
PROTOCOL
 3. Authenticating state– An optional
state where verification is done.
 4. Networking state– The heart of
transition states where the exchange
of user control and data packets
starts.
 5. Terminating state– Closing the
link.
601
 PPP- POINT-TO-POINT
PROTOCOL
 PPP stack:=----
 PPP uses a stack of other protocols to
establish the link, to authenticate the
parties involved and to carry the n/w
layer data.
 Three sets of protocols are defined to
make PPP a powerful protocol:
 1.LCP
 2.AP
 3.NCP
602
 PPP- POINT-TO-POINT
PROTOCOL
 1. Link Control Protocol(LCP)– It is
responsible for establishing, maintaining
,configuring and terminating links.
 2. Authentication Protocol(AP)–
Authentication means validating the
identity of a user who needs to access a
set of resources. So AP plays an
important role in PPP because it is
designed for use over dialup links where
verification of user identity is necessary.

603
 PPP- POINT-TO-POINT
PROTOCOL
 3. N/W Control Protocol(NCP)--- A set
of protocols to allow the
encapsulation of data coming from
n/w layer protocols into PPP frame.

604
 HDLC-HIGH LEVEL DATA
LINK CONTROL PROTOCOL
 Two major classes of protocols widely used
by DLL are:
 1.Bit oriented protocols
 2.Character oriented protocols
 By bit oriented protocols we mean that the
protocol treats frames as bit streams.
 Out of many bit oriented protocols- one
important protocol devised by ISO is HDLC.

605
 HDLC-HIGH LEVEL DATA LINK
CONTROL PROTOCOL
 It falls within the layer 2 ie. DLL of
OSI model.
 This protocol supports half duplex
and full duplex communications.
 HDLC is adapted as part of X.25 and
uses bit-stuffing.

606
 FEATURES OF HDLC:----
 .It supports for half and full-duplex
communications.
 .It efficiently works over links with high
data rates.
 It provides high reliability. Problems
like data loss, data corruption don't
occur.

607
 Frame format /structure of
HDLC

FLAG ADDRESS CONTROL DATA CRC FLAG

608
 Frame format /structure of
HDLC
 In HDLC protocol,data is transmitted in the
form of frames.
 The frame consists of 6 fields:
 1.FLAG 1 BYTE
 2.ADDRESS 1 BYTE
 3.CONTROL 1 BYTE
 4.DATA >=0BITS
 5.CRC 2 BYTES
 6.FLAG 1 BYTE
609
 Frame format /structure of
HDLC
 1.FLAG:-This frame is used for indicating
the start and end of a frame.A special 8-bit
sequence 01111110 is referred to as a
flag.Every frame starts and ends with a
flag.
 2.ADDRESS:--This field contains the
address of the secondary station/target
station.
 3.CONTROL:--This field identifies the
function and purpose of the frame.
610
 Frame format /structure of
HDLC
 4.DATA:-This field contains the user
data to be transmitted.
 5.FCS(Frame Check Sequence)- Each
and every frame is checked for its
validity.The 16-bit FCS performs this.
 6.It identifies the errors that occur in
the data during the transit

611
 TYPES OF FRAMES
 Three types of frames are used with
control field:
 1.Information frames– frames which
carry data.
 2.Supervisory frames- performs basic
link control function.
 3.Unnumbered frames– To perform
supplementary link control function.
612
 TYPES OF STATIONS
 Three types of stations run the HDLC
protocol:
 1.Primary station– Also called as the host
station or control station and manages
data flow by issuing commands to other
stations and acting on their response.
 2.Secondary station– Also called as the
target station or guest station.It is under
the control of primary station and
responds to commands issued by a
primary station.
613
 TYPES OF STATIONS
 3.Combined station:-- It can act as
both primary and secondary
station.It can issue commands to and
respond to commands from another
combined station.

614
 HDLC MODES
 Stations running HDLC can communicate in
one of a mode:--
 1.Normal Response Mode(NRM)- In NRM,
primary station controls the
communication.This operation mode is
common in 2 configurations- In point-to-
point link the primary station communicates
with single secondary station.In a multipoint
link- the primary station can communicate
with seversl secondary stations.

615
 HDLC MODES
 2.Asynchronous Response Mode (ARM)–
Involves communication between a
primary station and one or more
secondary stations.It is most common in
point-to-point links.
3. Asynchronous Balance Mode (ABM)– It
is used in configurations connecting
combined stations.Either station can send
data,control information or commands .
616
 IEEE
 The Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers, in Feb.1980, formed project 802
(after the year and month of the project star
to help define certain LAN standards.
 The IEEE standards for computer networks
ensure that various devices having different
network hardware can easily connect over th
network and exchange data.
 The IEEE 802 standards also make sure that
network connectivity and management are
easier.
617
 The most widely used standards are for
Ethernet, Bridging and Virtual Bridged
LANs, Wireless LAN, Wireless PAN,
Wireless MAN.
 An individual Working Group provides
the focus for each area.

618
LLC (Logical
( Link Control)
 The logical link control (LLC) is the upper
sublayer of the data link layer of the open
system interconnections (OSI) reference model
for data transmission. It acts act an interface
between the network layer and the medium
access control (MAC) sublayer of the data link
layer.
 The LLC sublayer is mainly used for its
multiplexing property. It allows several
network protocols to operate simultaneously
within a multipoint network over the same
network medium.
619
 IEEE
 802.3– Ethernet
 802.4- Token Bus LAN
 802.5- Token ring LAN
 802.3– Ethernet:- The Ethernet protocol
implements a logical bus n/w that can
transmit at 10mbps. Every computer
receives the information, but only the
intended destination acknowledges the
transmission. Ethernet uses CSMA/CD
to share the n/w media.
620
 IEEE

 802.4- Token Bus LAN:-The Token

bus protocol implements a bus n/w
where each comp. Receives the
information , but only the addressed
comp. Responds . This protocol uses
token passing to determine which
comp. May transmit at any one
moment.
621
 IEEE
 802.5- Token ring LAN:- It is logical
ring n/w that looks like a star n/w
because the ring is actually formed
inside a central hub.Token ring
devices can transmit at 4 or 16 mbps
and token passing is used to
determine who may transmit at any
one moment.
622
ETHERNET-IEEE STANDARD
802.3
 Ethernet is the name of a popular
packet switching LAN technology.
 Ethernet was invented at Xerox PARC
in early 1970s and standardized
in1978.
 It is extremely popular LAN
technology used by several thousand
local area n/w around the world.
623
ETHERNET-IEEE STANDARD
802.3
 It uses a single coaxial cable as the
transport medium. All hosts in the
Ethernet LAN connect to this cable.
 A device called
transceiver(abbreviation for
transmitter and receiver ) is used to
establish the connection b/w a comp.
and the Ethernet.
624
 ETHERNET-IEEE STANDARD
802.3
 Transceiver is responsible for sensing voltage
on the cable and interpreting the signals.
 At any point of time , the Ethernet bus can
be in any of the 3 states:
 1.The bus is idle ie. no host is sending or
receiving any message.
 2.The bus carries a legitimate signal ie. It is
busy.
 3.The bus carries an erratic signal generated
by a collision.

625
ETHERNET-IEEE STANDARD
802.3
 Ethernet Properties:

 1.It uses the bus technology and has

a transmission speed of 10mbps.
 2.It is broadcast n/w because the
transceiver of every host receives
every transmission from any host on
the n/w.
626
ETHERNET-IEEE STANDARD
802.3
 3.The control to the transmission cable
is distributed, That is in case of
Ethernet , there is no single centralized
authority that dictates if a host can
transmit data.
 4.Data is transmitted over the n/w in
discrete packets(frames)
 It supports a wide array of data types.
 Each device on a Ethernet n/w
operated independently and equally.627
ETHERNET-IEEE STANDARD
802.3
 Ethernet Address:-In case of Ethernet
, a physical address is 48-bit long
and is called Ethernet address.
 An Ethernet address is always unique
and is hard coded on NIC.
 Thus if we replace the NIC of a comp.
Its Ethernet address wouls change.

628
 ETHERNET FRAME
 The Ethernet is a DLL connection b/w
hosts.Therefore the unit of data
exchanged by hosts over the
Ethernet is called a frame rather
than a packet.
 The various fields in an Ethernet
frame are as follows:-

629
 ETHERNET FRAME
 1.Preamble:-- It contains 8 bytes or
64 bits of alternating 0s and 1s to
help the receiving hosts to
synchronize.
 2. Destination Address:- The 6 byte
or 48 bit address of the destination
to which the frame is addressed is
contained in this field.This is the h/w
NIC address.
630
 ETHERNET FRAME
 3. Source Address:- The NIC of the
sending host inserts the h/w NIC
address of the sender in this field.
 4. Frame type:- This field identifies
the type of data carried in the frame.
 5. Frame data:- This field contains
the actual data of the frame, which
can be of variable length.
631
 ETHERNET FRAME
 CRC:- This 4 byte or 32 bit field helps
the destination NIC to detect
transmission errors. The h/w of the
NIC of the sending comp. Computed
the CRC of the data and updates this
field.

632
 MEDIUM ACCESS CONTROL
(MAC) SUBLAYER
 The DLL is divided into logical link
control(LLC)sub layer and Medium
Access Control (MAC) sub layer.
 The MAC is a sub-layer of DLL and
provides an interface to the physical
medium below it(the part that
transmits and receives signals that
contain data).
633
 MEDIUM ACCESS CONTROL
(MAC) SUBLAYER
 The MAC sub layer communicates
with the sub layer above it to access
and speak to the upper layer n/w
protocols.
 The MAC sub layer governs the
operation of the access method.
 It also frames the data received from
the upper layer.
 The MAC sub layer provide an
addressing mechanism called physical
address or MAC address. 634
7. Application layer

6. Presentation layer

5. Session layer

4. Transport layer

3. Network layer

LLC
2. DLL
MAC
1. Physical layer

635
 CARRIER SENSE MULTIPLE
ACCESS(CSMA) PROTOCOL
 Protocols in which stations listens for a
carrier(transmission) and act accordingly are
called carrier sense protocols.
 CSMA is the result of an evolution from
multiple access(MA) to CSMA.
 In this system, any workstation wishing to
transmit must listen for existing traffic on the
line. A device listens by checking for a
voltage.IF no voltage is detected, the line is
considered idle and transmission is initiated.
636
 MEDIUM ACCESS CONTROL
(MAC) SUBLAYER
The first carrier sense protocol is 1-
persistent CSMA.When a station has
data to send- it first listens to the
channel to check if anyone else is
transmitting at that moment.If the
channel is busy- station waits until it
detects an idle channel. When the
station detects an idle channel, it
transmits a frame. If a collision occurs,
it waits for a random amount of time
and starts all over again.
637
 MEDIUM ACCESS CONTROL
(MAC) SUBLAYER
The second is non-persistent protocol.Here
before sending, a station senses the
channel.If no one else is sending,the station
begins sending data. However, if the
channel is in use- the station doesn’t
continuously sense it to send data- after
detecting the end of previous
transmission.Instead, it waits for a random
period of time and repeats the process.
This leads to a better channel utilization
and longer delays than 1-persistent CSMA.
638
 CSMA with Collision
Detection(CSMA/CD)
 The interference b/w 2 signals is called
Collision.
 A collision doesn’t harm the h/w , it
produces a garbled transmission , it
prevents either of the 2 frames form being
received correctly.
 To ensure that no other comp. transmits
simultaneously , the Ethernet std.requires a
sending station to monitor signals on the
cable. If the signal differs from the signal on
the cable differs from the signal differs from
the signal that the station is sending , it
means the collision has occurred. 639
 Contd..
 Technically monitoring a cable during
transmission is known as Collision Detection
(CD) and the Ethernet mechanism is known
as carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Detection(CSMA/CD).
 Whenever a collision is detected , a sending
station immediately stops transmitting.
 In other words , if 2 stations sense the
channel to be idle and begin transmitting
simultaneously , they will both detect
collision almost immediately.
640
 Contd..
 Rather than finish transmitting their
frames , they should stop
transmission as soon as the collision
is detected.Quickly terminating saves
time and bandwidth.
 This protocol CSMA/CD is widely used
on LAN in MAC sub layer.

641
 TOKEN BUS:- IEEE
STANDARD 802.4
 In token bus, a single bus topology is
used to share a single transmission
media by a no. of stations.
 A controlled access scheme is
obtained by passing one control
frame called “Token” around the
stations.
 Token Bus combines features of
Ethernet and Token Ring.
642
 TOKEN BUS:- IEEE
STANDARD 802.4
 It combines the physical
configuration of Ethernet( a bus
topology) and the collision
free(predictable delay) feature of
token ring.
 It is a physical bus that operates as a
logical ring using tokens.

643
A C E

BUS CABLE

B D

TOKEN BUS
644
MEDIA ACCESS CONTROL(MAC) IN
TOKEN BUS
 In this, the stations are logically
organized into a ring and the access
to the interconnecting bus is
regulated by a token.
 At any time, only the station that
holds the token has the right to
transfer its data frames on the bus
and all the stations must
communicate via a common bus.

645
MEDIA ACCESS CONTROL(MAC) IN
TOKEN BUS
 Each frame carries source and destination
addresses.A station may send one or more
frames while it is holding the token.
 All stations are ready to receive frames at
any time except when holding a token.
 The token must be released before
timeout with the address of the next
station in the sequence.

646
MEDIA ACCESS CONTROL(MAC) IN
TOKEN BUS
 The released token is taken over by the
station whose address is on the token.To
maintain continuity of communication, it is
necessary for each station to take over the
token even if it doesn’t have any frame to
send.It can release the token immediately
for the next station.
 In one cycle, each station gets 1 opportunity
to transmit.Thus each station gets a chance
to send its frames in round robin fashion.

647
MEDIA ACCESS CONTROL(MAC) IN
TOKEN BUS
 Example:--
 5 stations A,B,C,D,E are connected to a
bus.
 If the logical order is A-B-C-D-E, then A
starts by sending a token to B along the
bus.
 As with Ethernet, each station is capable
of receiving it, but the token’s destination
address specifies which station it goes to.
648
MEDIA ACCESS CONTROL(MAC) IN
TOKEN BUS
 When B receives the token, it has permission
to send a frame. If it has no frame, it sends
token to C and C sends either a token or
data frame to D and so on.
 Generally a station receives a token from its
predecessor and sends a token to its
successor.
 The physical location of a station on bus isn’t
considered for assigning logical address.

649
 IEEE 802.4 TOKEN BUS
FRAME FORMAT
 The format of token bus protocol is:
 1.Preamble 1byte
 2.Start of format 1 byte
 3.Frame control 1 byte
 4.Destination address 2-6 bytes
 5.Source address 2-6 bytes
 6.Information frame 0-8182 bytes
 7.FCS 4 bytes
 8.End of frame 1 byte
650
Preamble Start Frame Destination Source
of Control address address
frame

651
 IEEE 802.4 TOKEN BUS
FRAME FORMAT
 1.Preamble--- A 1 byte preamble is used to
synchronize the receiver’s clock.
 2.Start and end of frame– Used to mark the
frame boundaries.Symbols other than 0’s
and 1’s are used to avoid the occurrence of
these in the transmitted data.
 3.Frame control--- This frame is used to
identify the data frames from the control
frames.


652
 IEEE 802.4 TOKEN BUS
FRAME FORMAT
 4.Destination and source address–
used for identification of the source
and the destination.
 5.Information field– This field is used
to send data.The max. length of this
field is 8182 when the address is 2
bytes and 8174 when 6 byte address
is used.
 FCS– This field is for error detection.
653
 TOKEN RING:IEEE STANDARD
802.5
 Unlike the Ethernet that uses a bus
topology, the token ring n/w is based
on ring topology.
 A token ring n/w employs a
mechanism called token passing.
 Like Ethernet, the token ring is a
MAC protocol sitting b/w the LLC and
the physical layer in the OSI model.
 In case of token ring, the hosts are
arranged to form a circular ring.
654
 TOKEN RING:IEEE STANDARD
802.5
 When a host on the ring wants to
transmit data, it can’t send it
immediately. It must wait for the
permission to do so. However once a
host gets the permission for data
transmission, it is guaranteed that no
other host would be allowed to
transmit data at the same time.Thus,
a host has exclusive control over the
transmission medium when it is
about to transmit data.
655
 TOKEN RING

2. Makes a
copy and sets
the indicator

Sender
Destination

1.
Initiates
transfer
3. Receives it
back and checks
the indicator 656
 TOKEN RING:IEEE STANDARD
802.5
 Token ring resolves the uncertainty
of collision requiring that stations
take turns sending data. Each station
may transmit only during its turn and
may send only one frame during
each turn. The mechanism that
coordinates this rotation is called
Token passing.
657
 MEDIUM ACCESS CONTROL
(MAC) BY TOKEN RING
 The token ring doesn’t employ CSMA/CD.,
rather token ring h/w ensures that the
permission for data permission is granted
to each host on the token ring,in turn.The
h/w facilitates this coordination by using a
special 3byte frame called token.
 A token contains a bit pattern that is
completely different from any other data
frame, so that the token and data frames
can be easily distinguished from each
other.
658
 MEDIUM ACCESS CONTROL
(MAC) BY TOKEN RING
 A token is the permission for data
transmission.
 Thus, before sending a frame , a host must
wait for the token frame to arrive.
 Once a host receives the token frame, it
temporarily removes the token frame from
the transmission medium and sends its own
data frame to transmission medium.
 Once the data frame comes back to it by
completing its full journey, the transmitting
host then sends back the token frame onto
the medium.
659
 MEDIUM ACCESS CONTROL
(MAC) BY TOKEN RING
 When the token is withdrawn from
the ring, no other host can send any
data frame. This takes care of media
access in shared medium.
 If a host has 2 or more frames to
transmit, it must send 1 frame at a
time.

660
Token passing mechanism
used for enforcing MAC
T

B
A

C D

661
 Contd..
 A) Host A wants to transmit a data
frame . Therefore it is waiting for the
token frame to arrive before it can
transmit the data frame. The token
frame (T) is circulating along the
ring.

662
 A B

DF

C D

663
 Contd..
 B) When host A receives the token
frame , it captures it and sends its
data frame (DF) addresses to host D
on token ring. The data frames would
travel as C-D-B-A.

664
 B
A

DF

C D
DF

665
 Contd..
 C) Host D checks the CRC and if OK ,
makes a copy of DF. It sets a flag bit
in frame to indicate a correct
receipt.Node B simply forwards it
without copying it.

666
T

667
 Contd..
 D) When DF comes back to host A , it
checks the flag bit and if OK ,
releases the token frame. This
means token ring is again free for
any data transmission by another
host.

668
 ADDRESSING MECHANISM
 The token ring addressing
mechanism is very similar to that of
the Ethernet with 48 bit NIC address
being used for all transmissions.

669
 TOKEN RING PROPERTIES
 1.Data rate:- It supports data rates
up to 10mbps.
 2.Transmission medium:-The ring in
the token ring n/w consists of a
series of shielded twisted pair wire
sections that link to their immediate
neighbours.

670
 TOKEN RING FRAME
 The token ring specifications
describes 3 frame formats:
 1.Data
 2.Token
 3.Abort

671
 DATA FRAME
 1.Preamble:- Used for synchronization
purpose.
 2.Destination address:-6 byte or 48 bit
address of NIC in the destination to
which the frame is addressed.
 3.Source address:-The NIC of sending
host adds the NIC address of the
sender to this field.
 4.Frame data:-Contains the actual
data of frame. 672
 DATA FRAME
 5.CRC:-This 32-bit field helps the source
and destination NIC to detect transmission
errors.
 6.ED(End Delimiter):-This 1 byte field
signifies that the sender’s data and control
information ends here.
 7.FS(Frame Status):-This 1 byte field is the
last one in the data frame. It arrives after
the CRC has been checked and is an
implicit ack.
673
 TOKEN FRAME
 It acts like a placeholder.The field of
this frame serve the following
purposes:
 1.Start delimiter-signifies to a host that
a frame is coming.
 2.Access control:-Indicates to a host
that the arriving frame is a token
frame.
 3.End delimiter:-Signifies to a host the
end of frame. 674
 Abort frame
 This frame doesn’t contain any
meaningful information. It is used by
a sender to abort an ongoing
transmission.
 1.Start delimiter—signifies to a host
that a frame is coming.
 2.End delimiter– signifies to a host
that end of the abort frame.
675
 FIBER DISTRIBUTED DATA
INTERFACE(FDDI)
 FDDI n/w architecture is a LAN protocol
standardized by ANSI(American
National Standards Institute) and other
organizations.
 It supports data transmission rates of
up to 100mbps and is an alternative to
Ethernet and Token Ring architecture.

676
 FIBER DISTRIBUTED DATA
INTERFACE(FDDI)
 Originally it was developed using
optical fiber as the transmission
medium because only optical fiber
could support data rates of
100mbps.These days even copper
wires can support such rates so copper
version of FDDI is CDDI.
 It uses glass fibers for data
transmission and therefore encodes
data bits in the form of pulses of light.
677
 FIBER DISTRIBUTED DATA
INTERFACE(FDDI)
 It is used for normal LANs that have
a large no. of users or need to
operate at very high speed.

678
 FDDI PROPERTIES
 1.Token passing for MAC:-- Like Token
ring protocol, FDDI also uses the
concept of a token frame to regulate
medium access.It is also a ring like
structure where the n/w medium starts
from a computer, passes through all
the hosts in the n/w and ends back at
the original host.

679
 FDDI PROPERTIES
 2. Self-handling mechanisms:-- The
h/w in FDDI provides the
mechanisms for detecting and
correcting problems on its own.

680
 WORKING/OPERATION OF
FDDI
 FDDI operates exactly like token ring
with one difference.
 Token ring employs a single wire
through all the hosts in the n/w, FDDI
employs two.
 One which is used to send data when
everything is working correctly and
another that is used only when the
first fails.
681
 WORKING/OPERATION OF
FDDI
 Thus FDDI h/w uses 2 independent
Thus FDDI h/w uses 2 independent
rings to connect to every host.
 The working like token ring– the
NIC of each host examines all the
frames that circulates around the
ring, comparing the destination
address in the frame with its
own.A host keeps a copy of the
frame if 2 address match else it
simply forwards it along the ring.
682
Inner ring unused except
FDDI
during failure

Outer ring used for

data
683
 WORKING/OPERATION OF
FDDI
 The rings in FDDI are called
counter rotating as data flows
around the second ring opposite
of the direction data flown
around the main ring.

684
SELF-HEALING MECHANISM
 The self-healing of FDDI n/w is made
possible by the second ring.
 When a n/w error occurs or a host is
down, the NIC uses the second ring
which is used as a backup for such
failures , for data transmission.This is
called Loop back.

685
The disconnected/ This host implements loop
Failed host back.

This host
implements
loop back.

The loop back Mechanism using the II ring in case of N/W problems.
686
 FDDI FRAME
 The FDDI specification describes the
frame format which is very similar to
the token ring data frame format
with a few changes.
 1.Preamble– This field internally
contains 2 sub-fields , each
consisting of one byte.It is used for
synchronization purpose.
687
Preamble Frame ED
Data
Destination FS
Source CRC
address
address

2 bytes 6 bytes 6 bytes up to 4 bytes 1 byte 1 byte

4500 bytes

688
 FDDI FRAME
 2.Destination address:-The 6-byte or
48-bit address of NIC in the
destination to which the frame is
addressed is contained in this field.
 3.Source address:-The NIC of sending
host adds the NIC address of the
sender to this 6-byte or 48-bit field.

689
 FDDI FRAME
 4.Frame data:-It contains the actual
data of the frame and is of variable
length upto a max. of 4500 bytes.
 5.CRC:- This 32-bit field helps the
source and the destination NIC to
detect transmission error.
 6.ED(End Delimiter):- 1-byte field
signifies that the sender’s data and
control information ends here.
690
 FDDI FRAME
 7.FS(Frame status) It indicates that
the frame was received correctly.

691
 COMPARISON OF
ETHERNET,TOKEN RING,FDDI
N/W Access Add.len Data Error
mechanism gth rate control
(ack)
1.ether Csma/cd 48-bits 1-10 no
net mbps
2.t.ring Token 48-bits 10-16 yes
passing mbps

3.FDDI Token 48-bits 100 yes

passing mbps
692
 SATELLITE
COMMUNICATIONS
NETWORK
 A comm. Satellite functions as an
overhead wireless repeater station
that provides a microwave comm.
Link b/w 2 geographically remote
sites.
 Each satellite is equipped with
various transponders consisting of a
transceiver and an antenna tuned to
a certain part of the allocated
spectrum.
693
 SATELLITE NETWORK
 The incoming signal is amplified and
rebroadcast on a different frequency.
 In recent times, the use of satellites
in packet data transmission has been
on the rise..they’re typically used in
WAN n/w where they provide
backbone links to geographically
dispersed LAN’s and MAN’s.
694
 SATELLITE NETWORK
 SATELLITE NETWORK channels are
characterized by :-
 1.Wide area coverage of earth’s
surface.
 2.Long transmission delays.
 3.Broadcast transmission
 4.Large channel bandwidth.
 5.Transmission costs independent of
distance.
695
 SATELLITE NETWORK
 MAC protocols for satellites links:
 Satellite channels have some unique
characteristics that require special
considerations at DLC(Data Link
Control) layer of OSI model.
 Since they provide a broadcast
channel, media sharing channels are
needed at MAC sub layer of DLC.


696
 SATELLITE NETWORK
 The traditional CSMA/CD used in LAN
can’t be used with satellite n/w
channels.
 Typical MAC schemes are:

697
TDMA(Time Division Multiple
Access)
 In this method channels are time
multiplexed in a sequential
fashion.Each earth station gets to
transmit in a fixed time slot only.More
than 1 time slot can be assigned to
stations with more bandwidth
requirements. This method requires
time synchronization b/w the earth
stations(ES) which is generated by one
of ES and broadcast via satellites.

698
TDMA(Time Division Multiple
Access)
 TDMA satellite channel consists of
multiple slots in a framed structure.
 At any instant a TDMA frame consists of
fixed no. of reserved and empty slots.
 This is used around the world for low
speed (300bps-19,200bps) data
communications such as credit card
processing and verification,point-to-
point sale inventory control and general
business data connectivity.

699
TDMA(Time Division Multiple
Access)
 Typical TDMA n/w employs a large
satellite hub system.The hub manages
access to all n/w terminals.and
performs data routing. Large no. of
terminal transmit data to and from hub
in short bursts on shared satellite
channels.The terminals transmit back
to the hub on their assigned inbound
carriers, using TDM protocols.

700
 VSAT TECHNOLOGY
 VSAT technology is a
telecommunication system based on
wireless satellite technology.
 VSAT or Very Small Aperture
Terminal refers to a small fixed earth
station.

701
 VSAT TECHNOLOGY
 It uses a sophisticated
communication technology that
allows for the use of small fixed
satellites, using small diameter
antenna dishes(0.6 to 3.8 meter) to
provide a highly reliable comm. b/w a
central hub and a no. of
geographically dispersed sites.
702
 VSAT TECHNOLOGY
 VSAT n/w offer value-added satellite
based services capable of supporting
the internet,data,satellite based
video,audio LAN,voice or fax comm.
 VSAT TECHNOLOGY represents a
cost-effective solution for users
seeking an independent comm. N/w
connecting a large no. of
geographically dispersed sites.
703
 Components of VSAT
system
 There are 3 components of a VSAT
n/w:
 1.Master Earth Station
 2.Remote Earth Station
 3.Satellite

704
 Components of VSAT
system
 1. Master Earth Station:- It is also
known as central hub station& controls
the entire operation of comm. N/w. It
has a large 6-meter antenna,required
electronic equipments for transmission
and reception,self-contained backup
power system and a regulated air-
conditioning system.

705
 Remote Earth Station
 It is installed on customer’s premises
and comprises of 3 major units:
 1.Outdoor Unit(ODU)
 2.Indoor Unit(IDU)
 3.Inter-facility Link(IFL)

706
 VSAT TOPOLOGIES
 VSAT n/w comes in various shapes and
sizes, ranging from point-to-point,point-
to-multipoint and on demand for
thousands of sites based on a dedicated
facility located at their own site.
 The n/w of VSATs at different locations
adopt different topologies depending on
end applications traffic flow
requirements.
 The most general topologies are Star and
Mesh.
707
VSAT advantages and
Disadvantages

708