Sampling Methods

#5
Habtamu. O (MPHE, Assint Prof)

Dep’t of Public Health

07/06/25 1
• Information about a larger population is
often estimated by selecting and
measuring a sample from that population.

• Since population is too large, information

collected from the sample is assumed to
be sufficient.
most (but not all)!

07/06/25 2
• Sampling - the process of selecting a
portion of the population to represent
the entire population.

• Inferences about the population are

based on the information from the
sample drawn from that population.

07/06/25 3
 SAMPLE

POPULATION

07/06/25
SAMPLE 4
 Sample Information

Population

07/06/25 5
• A sample is a collection of individuals
selected from a larger population.
• For example, we may have a single
sample composed of 50 individuals,
representing a population of 1000 people.
• Sample size - The number of individuals
included in the sample. But how many?

• ten seems a bit small, and one hundred would

be difficult to obtain, so 40 is a happy
compromise!

07/06/25 6
• A main concern in sampling:
– Ensure that the sample represents the
population, and
– The findings can be generalized.

07/06/25 7
 Advantages of sampling:
• Feasibility: Sampling may be the best
feasible method of collecting information.
• Reduced cost: Sampling reduces demands
on resource such as finance, personnel, and
materials.
• Greater accuracy: Sampling may lead to a
better quality of data
• Time saving: Data can be collected and
summarized more quickly

07/06/25 8
 Disadvantages of sampling:
1. There is always a sampling error.

• Sampling error is the difference between a value (a statistic)

computed from a sample and the corresponding value (a
parameter) computed from a population (Sampling Error =x – μ)

2. Sampling may create a feeling of

discrimination within the population.

07/06/25 9
 Factors to Consider in Sampling Design

Research objectives Degree of accuracy

Resources Time frame

Knowledge of
target population Research scope

Statistical analysis needs

07/06/25 10
• While selecting a SAMPLE, there are
basic questions:

– What is the group of people from which we

want to draw a sample? (subjects)
– How many people do we need in our
sample? (sample size)
– How will these people be selected?
(sampling method)

07/06/25 11
 Developing a Sampling Plan
1. Define the Population of Interest
2. Identify a Sampling Frame (if possible)
3. Select a Sampling Method
4. Determine Sample Size
5. Execute the Sampling Plan

07/06/25 12
 Defining Population of Interest
• Population of interest is entirely dependent
on Management Problem, Research
Problems, and Research Design.
• Some Bases for Defining Population:
– Geographic Area
– Demographics
– Usage/Lifestyle
– Awareness

07/06/25 13
 Sampling Frame
• A list of population elements (people,
companies, houses, cities, etc.) from which units
to be sampled.
• Difficult to get an accurate list.

• Sample frame error occurs when certain

elements of the population are accidentally
omitted or not included on the list.

07/06/25 14
• Reference population (or target population):
the population of interest to whom the
researchers would like to make
generalizations.

• Sample population: the subset of the target

population from which a sample will be
drawn.

• Study population: the actual group in which

the study is conducted = Sample

• Study unit: the units on which information

will be collected: persons, housing units, etc.
07/06/25 15
 Target population = All
TB patients in West Showa zone

Sample population = All

TB patients in 5 woredas

Sample: e.g. 100 TB patients

07/06/25 16
 Target population:
The conclusion may or
may not be generalizable
ility due to refusals, selection
b
liza biases, etc.
r a
n e
Ge Sampled population:
If sampling is representative,
then the conclusion applies to
the sampled population

Sample:
The conclusion is drawn
from the sample

07/06/25 17
 Population
• Role of statistics
in using information
from a sample to make
inferences about the
population

Information

Sample

07/06/25 18
 E.g.: In a study of the prevalence
of HIV among adolescents in
Ethiopia, a random sample of
adolescents in X Woreda (s) of
West Shewa zone were included.

Sample Target Population: All

adolescents in Ethiopia
Study Population Study population: All
adolescents in West Shewa zone
Target Population
Sample: Adolescents in X
Woreda(s) who were included in
the study

07/06/25 19
 Generalizability
• Is a two-stage procedure:
• We need to be able to generalize from:
– the sample to the study population, &
– then from the study population to the target
population
• If the sample is not representative of the
population, the conclusions are restricted to the
sample & don’t have general applicability

07/06/25 20
 Draw conclusions
Collect information
about a rather
from a relatively
LARGE population
SMALL sample

07/06/25 21
The conclusion is initially drawn from
the sample.
The question is then:
• How far back does the generalization go?
The conclusion usually applies to the
sampled population
It may or may not apply to the target
population(e.g: if not representative)

07/06/25 22
 Sampling Methods
Two broad divisions:

A. Probability sampling methods

B. Non-probability sampling methods

07/06/25 23
07/06/25 24
 A. Probability sampling
• Involves random selection of a sample

• Every sampling unit has a known and non-

zero probability of selection into the
sample.

• Involves the selection of a sample from a

population, based on chance.

07/06/25 25
• Probability sampling is:
– more complex,
– more time-consuming and
– usually more costly than non-probability
sampling.
• However, because study samples are
randomly selected and their probability
of inclusion can be calculated,
– reliable estimates can be produced and
– inferences can be made about the population.

07/06/25 26
• Probability sampling has certain basic
features.
– A sampling frame exists or can be
compiled.
– All units of the population have an equal or
at least a known chance of being included
in the sample.
– Generalization from sample to population
is possible.

07/06/25 27
 Most common probability
sampling methods
1. Simple random sampling
2. Systematic random sampling
3. Stratified random sampling
4. Cluster sampling
5. Multi-stage sampling

07/06/25 28
 1. Simple random sampling (SRS)
• The required number of individuals are
selected at random from the sampling
frame

• Sampling frame: a list or a database of all

individuals in the population

• Each member of a population has an equal

chance of being included in the sample.
07/06/25 29
• To use a SRS method:
– Make a numbered list of all the units in the
population

– Each unit should be numbered from 1 to N

(where N is the size of the population)

– Select the required number (n).

07/06/25 30
 • The randomness of the sample is
ensured by:
• Use of “lottery” methods
• Table of random numbers
• Computer programs

07/06/25 31
 Random number table
• It is a table of random numbers
constructed by a process that
1. In any position in the table, each of the
numbers 0 through 9 has a probability 1/10
of occurring.
2. The occurrence of any number in one part
of the table is independent of the
occurrence of any number in any other part
of the table.

07/06/25 32
 Random numbers
…. 8094 2525 8247 1347 7433 3620 1897 ….
…. 3563 2198 8211 9045 2618 2751 2627 ….
…. 1330 6331 3753 9693 8738 6815 1538 ….
…. 3565 0016 2243 6432 4796 6095 5283 ….
…. 7850 5925 5588 7311 2192 4545 3530 ….
…. 4490 5417 9727 6153 5901 4878 9980 ….
…. 6545 9104 9318 8819 7537 2785 9373 ….

07/06/25 33
 Example
• Suppose the college of medicine and health
science of AU has 500 students and you need
to conduct a short survey on the quality of the
food be served in the cafeteria.
• You decide that a sample of 20 students
should be sufficient for your purposes.
• In order to get your sample, you assign a
number from 1 to 500 to each student.
07/06/25 34
07/06/25 35
• Use a table of randomly generated
numbers to select the sample.

• Pick a starting point in the table (a row and

column number) and look at the random
numbers that appear there.

• In this case, since the data run into three

digits, the random numbers would need to
contain three digits as well.
07/06/25 36
• Ignore all random numbers after 500 because
they do not correspond to any of the students.

• Remember that the sample is without

replacement, so if a number recurs, skip over
it and use the next random number.

• The first 20 different numbers between 001

and 500 make up your sample.

07/06/25 37
• SRS has certain limitations:
– Requires a sampling frame.
– Difficult if the reference population is
dispersed.
– Minority subgroups of interest may not be
selected.

07/06/25 38
 2. Systematic random sampling
• Sometimes called interval sampling

• Selection of individuals from the sampling

frame systematically rather than randomly
• Individuals are taken at regular intervals
down the list
• The starting point is chosen at random
07/06/25 39
• Important if the reference population is
arranged in some order:
• e.g
– Order of registration of patients
– Numerical number of house numbers
– Student’s registration lists
• Taking individuals at fixed intervals
(every kth) based on the sampling
fraction
• e.g. if the sample includes 20%, then
every fifth.
07/06/25 40
 Steps in systematic random
sampling
1. Number the units on your frame from 1 to N
(where N is the total population size).

2. Determine the sampling interval (K) by dividing

the number of units in the population by the
desired sample size.

07/06/25 41
3. Select a number between 1 and K at
random. This number is called the
random start and would be the first
number included in your sample.

4. Select every Kth unit after that first

number

07/06/25 42
 Example
• To select a sample of 100 from a
population of 400, you would need a
sampling interval of 400 ÷ 100 = 4.
• Therefore, K = 4.
• You will need to select one unit out of
every four units to end up with a total of
100 units in your sample.
• Select a number between 1 and 4 from a
table of random numbers or lottery
method.
07/06/25 43
 3. Stratified random sampling
• It is done when the population is known to have
heterogeneity with regard to some factors and
those factors are used for stratification

• Using stratified sampling, the population is

divided into homogeneous, mutually exclusive
groups called strata, and

• A population can be stratified by any variable that

is available for all units prior to sampling (e.g.,
age, sex, province of residence, income, etc.).
07/06/25 44
 Stratified Random Sampling

Stratified random sampling is a

method of
probability sampling
in which the population is divided
into different subgroups and samples
are selected from each

07/06/25 45
• A separate sample is taken independently
from each stratum.

• Any of the sampling methods mentioned in

this section (and others that exist) can be
used to sample within each stratum.

07/06/25 46
• Stratified sampling ensures an adequate
sample size for sub-groups in the
population of interest.

• When a population is stratified, each

stratum becomes an independent
population and you will need to decide the
sample size for each stratum.

07/06/25 47
 Steps in Drawing a Stratified Random
Sample

1: Divide the target population into

homogeneous subgroups or strata

2: Draw random samples from each stratum

3: Combine the samples from each stratum into

a single sample of the target population

07/06/25 48
 Two types of sample size allocation
• Equal allocation:
– Allocate equal sample size to each stratum
• Village A B C D Total
• HHs 100 150 120 130 500
• S. size ? ? ? ? 60

07/06/25 49
 Example: Proportionate Allocation
• Village A B C D Total
• HHs 100 150 120 130 500
• S. size ? ? ? ? 60

07/06/25 50
 4. Cluster sampling
• Sometimes it is too expensive to carry out
SRS
– Population may be large and scattered.
– Complete list of the study population may be
unavailable
– Travel costs can become expensive if it
involves a larger survey.

07/06/25 51
• The clusters should be homogeneous,
unlike stratified sampling where the strata
are heterogeneous

• The population is divided into groups with

similar characteristics of interest.

07/06/25 52
 Steps
• Divide the population into groups or clusters.
• A number of clusters are selected randomly to
represent the total population
• Then units within selected clusters are included
in the sample.
• No units from non-selected clusters are included
in the sample.
• This differs from stratified sampling, where some
units are selected from each group.

07/06/25 53
 Example
• In a school based study, we assume
students of the same school are
homogeneous.

• We can select randomly sections and

include all students of the selected sections
only.

07/06/25 54
 Advantages and Disadvantages
• Advantages
– A list of all the units in the reference
population is not required.
– If a list of all units in the population is not
available, a list of all clusters is either
available or easy to create.
– Cost reduction
• Disadvantages
– Assumes that the characteristic to be studied
is uniformly distributed.

07/06/25 55
 5. Multi-stage sampling
• Similar to cluster sampling but sampling
done at stages
• Appropriate when the population is large
and widely scattered.
• Requires at least two stages.

07/06/25 56
 • The primary sampling unit (PSU) is
the sampling unit in the first
sampling stage.

• The secondary sampling unit (SSU) is

the sampling unit in the second
sampling stage, etc.

07/06/25 57
 West Shewa zone

Woreda PSU

Kebele SSU

Sub-Kebele TSU

HH

07/06/25 58
• First, large groups or clusters are identified
and selected.

• Second, population units are picked from

within the selected clusters (using any of
the possible probability sampling methods)

• For more than 2 stages, the process of

choosing population units within clusters
will continue until a final sample.
07/06/25 59
• Advantages
– No need to have a list of all units in the
population.
– Saves a great amount of time and effort

• Disadvantages
– More information is needed in this type of
sampling, which may not be available

07/06/25 60
 B. Non-probability sampling
• In non-probability sampling, every item has an
unknown chance of being selected.

• There is an assumption that there is an even

distribution of a characteristic of interest within the
population.

• For probability sampling, random is a feature of

the selection process, rather than an assumption
about the structure of the population.

07/06/25 61
• In non-probability sampling, since elements are
chosen arbitrarily, there is no way to estimate
the probability of any one element being
included in the sample.

• Results susceptible to bias

• As a result, many researchers are reluctant to

use it.

07/06/25 62
• Despite these drawbacks, non-probability
sampling methods can be useful
– when descriptive comments about the
sample itself are desired.
– they are quick, inexpensive and convenient.

– when it is unfeasible or impractical to

conduct probability sampling.

07/06/25 63
 The most common types of
non-probability sampling
1. Convenience or haphazard sampling
2. Volunteer sampling
3. Judgment sampling
4. Quota sampling
5. Snowball sampling

07/06/25 64
 Non probability Sampling Methods

Convenience sampling relies

upon convenience and access

Judgment sampling relies upon belief

that participants fit characteristics

Quota sampling emphasizes representation

of specific characteristics

Snowball sampling relies upon respondent

referrals of others with like characteristics

07/06/25 65
 1. Convenience or haphazard
sampling
• Is sometimes referred to as haphazard or
accidental sampling.

• Sample units are selected if they can be

accessed easily and conveniently.

07/06/25 66
• The obvious advantage is that the method is
easy to use, but that advantage is greatly offset
by the presence of bias.

• Although useful applications of the technique

are limited, it can deliver accurate results when
the population is homogeneous.

• For example, a scientist could use this method

to determine whether a lake is polluted or not.

07/06/25 67
 2. Volunteer sampling
• Occurs when people volunteer to be
involved in the study.
• In experiments or pharmaceutical trials
(drug testing), for example, it would be
difficult and unethical to use random
selection.

07/06/25 68
 3. Judgment sampling
• Is used when a sample is taken based on
certain judgments about the overall population.

• The underlying assumption is that the

investigator will select units that are
characteristic of the population.

• The critical issue here is objectivity: how much

can judgment be relied upon to arrive at a
typical sample?
07/06/25 69
• Researchers often use this method in
exploratory studies like pre-testing of
questionnaires and focus groups.

• Judgment sampling is subject to the

researcher's biases and is perhaps even more
biased than haphazard sampling.

• One advantage of judgment sampling is the

reduced cost and time involved in acquiring the
sample.

07/06/25 70
 4. Quota sampling
• Is one of the most common forms of non-
probability sampling.

• Sampling is done until a specific number of

units (quotas) for various sub-populations
have been selected.

• Study units from different categories (or

strata) of the population are selected.

07/06/25 71
• The basis of stratification can be: sex, age,
educational status, occupation, religion, etc.

• The proportions of the subjects from each

stratum are determined.

• Combines judgment and convenience, and

is more structured.

07/06/25 72
5. Snowball sampling
In snowball sampling, you begin by identifying
someone who meets the criteria for inclusion in your
study
You then ask them to recommend others who they
may know who also meet the criteria
Snowball sampling is especially useful when you are
trying to reach populations that are inaccessible or hard
to find. E.g. CSW.
07/06/25 73
 Errors in Sampling
• When we take a sample, our results will
not exactly equal with the results for the
whole population.
• Two types of errors
– Sampling error (random error)
– Non-sampling error (bias)

07/06/25 74
 Sampling Error

Sampling error is any type of bias

that is attributable to mistakes
in either drawing a sample or
determining the sample size

07/06/25 75
 Sampling error (random error)
• The value of the characteristic measured in a
sample differs from that of the total population.
• Because a sample is a subset of a larger group.
• This type of error, arising from the sampling
process, is called sampling error.
• Can’t be avoided or totally eliminated.
• Minimized by increasing the size of the sample.
• When n = N, sampling error = 0

07/06/25 76
 Non-sampling error (bias)
• Systematic error in the design or conduct of a
sampling procedure.
• Results in distortion of the sample and study
results.
• More serious type of error
• Multi-factorial causes
– Selection bias,
– Information bias.
– Observational error
– Respondent errors
– Errors in editing and tabulation of data
07/06/25 77
• Can be eliminated by careful design of the
sampling procedure and not by increasing the
sample size.

• E.g., If you take male students of AU only to

determine the proportion of smokers, result is
an overestimated, since females are less likely
to smoke. Increasing the number of male
students would not remove the bias.

07/06/25 78