MODULE -4b

Sensors and Interfacing

Instrumentation and control systems:
 Instrumentation and control systems Fig. Shows the arrangement of an instrumentation
system.
 The physical quantity that is needed to be measured (e.g., temperature) acts upon a sensor
that
produces an electrical output signal.
 This signal is an electrical analogue of the physical input but note that there may not be a
linear
relationship between the physical quantity and its electrical equivalent.
 Because of this and since the output produced by the sensor may be small or may suffer from
the presence of noise (i.e., unwanted signals).
 Further signal conditioning will be required before the signal will be at an acceptable level and
in an acceptable form for signal processing, display and recording.
 Furthermore, because the signal processing may use digital rather than analog signals an
additional stage of analog-to-digital conversion may be required.
 Fig. shows the arrangement of a control system. This uses negative feedback in order to
regulate
and stabilize the output.
 It thus becomes possible to set the input or demand (i.e., what we desire the output to be) and
leave the system to regulate itself by comparing it with a signal derived from the output (via a
 A comparator
sensor is used tosignal
and appropriate sense conditioning).
the difference in these two signals and where any discrepancy is
detected the input to the power amplifier is adjusted accordingly.
 This signal is referred to as an error signal (it should be zero when the output exactly matches
the demand).
 The input (demand) is often derived from a simple potentiometer connected across a stable
d.c.
voltage source while the controlled device can take many forms (e.g., a d.c. motor, linear
Transducers:
A transducer converts energy from one sort to another. Generally, transducers convert one
type of energy.
For example, mechanical or magnetic, into some thing you can measure on the other end, an
electrical signal.
Working Principle of Transducer
A transducer consisting of a sensing element and transducing element, first responds to a physical
change in the particular factor which the sensing element senses and generates an output. This
output is generally in terms of physical forces like strain or displacement (linear or angular). The
output of the sensing element generally acts as an input for the transducing element which then
converts the output signal of the sensing element into a proportional output as an electrical signal.

Classification of Transducers
There are various types of transducers that have been discussed here:
•Based on operating principle
•Based on the role of the transducing element
•Based on output signals
•Based on applications
Active and Passive Transducers
On the basis of the requirement of electricity, transducers are of two types:
•Active transducers operate on receiving an external electric current. This current is known as
an excitation signal. This signal is modified into an output signal. For example, an LED is an
active transducer because on receiving electrical current it converts the electrical energy into
light energy.
•Passive transducers operate on receiving an external signal, which they then convert into an
electrical signal. For example, an LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer) converts
rectilinear motion into electrical energy.

Primary and Secondary Transducers

On the basis of the role of the transducing element, transducers are divided into:
Primary transducers are generally the transducers that respond to external stimulation and
general output for that signal. The output is generally a change in any factor affecting the
secondary transducer.
Secondary transducers are the ones that convert the output of the primary transducer into an
electrical signal.

Analog and Digital Transducers

Based on the output signal, transducers are classified into:
Analog transducers: These transducers produce an output signal that is proportional to the
input signal. Examples include potentiometers, variable resistors, and strain gauges.
Digital transducers: These transducers produce an output signal that is in digital form.
Examples include encoders, photo interrupters, and hall effect sensors
Sensors and Actuators
Based on their applications, transducers are classified into:
Sensors: These transducers are used to measure physical quantities, such as temperature,
pressure, and flow. Examples include thermocouples, strain gauges, and flow meters.
Actuators: These transducers are used to control physical systems, such as motors and valves.
Examples include electric motors, solenoids, and piezoelectric actuators.
Sensors:
 A sensor is a special kind of transducer that converts energy from one form to
another for any measurement or control purpose .

 A sensor is a device that detects the change in the environment and responds to
some output on the other system.
 A sensor converts a physical phenomenon into a measurable analog voltage(or
sometimes a digital signal)converted into a human-readable display or transmitted
for reading or further processing.
 Sensors can be categorized as either active or passive. An active sensor generates a
current or voltage output. A passive transducer requires a source of current or
voltage and it modifies this in some way (e.g. by virtue of a change in the sensor’s
resistance).
 Sensors can also be classed as either digital or analog. The output of a digital
sensor can exist in only two discrete states, either ‘on’ or ‘off’, ‘low’ or ‘high’, ‘logic
1’ or ‘logic 0’, etc.
Actuator:
Actuator is used for output. It is a transducer that may be either mechanical or
electrical which converts signals to corresponding physical actions

An actuator is a device that produces a motion by converting energy and signals going
into the system. The motion it produces can be either rotary or linear.
Common examples of actuators include electric motors, stepper motors, jack screws,
electric muscular stimulators in robots,
An output device that traduces motion
Types of Sensors
 Thermocouples, RTDs and Thermistors: for measuring temperature
 Strain gages: to measure strain on an object, e.g. pressure, tension, weight, etc.,
 Load cells: for measuring weight and load
 LVDT sensors: LVDTs are used to measure displacement in distance
 Accelerometers: measuring vibration and shock
 Microphones: for capturing sound waves
 Current transducers: for measuring AC or DC current
 Voltage transformers: for measuring high voltage potentials
 Optical sensors: used to detect light, transmit data, and replace conventional sensors
 Camera sensors: used to capture single and continuous 2D images
 Digital sensors: used for discrete on/off counting, linear and rotary encoding, position
measurements, etc.
 Positioning sensors (GPS): used to capture the longitudinal, latitudinal position based
on GPS, GLONASS, and other satellite positioning systems. Different GPS sensors with
different accuracy are available.
 and countless more.
Examples of Sensors and Actuators in Action

1.Home automation systems: In a smart thermostat, temperature sensors measure the ambient
temperature and send the information to the thermostat controller . Based on the user’s settings, the
controller commands an actuator, like a motor, to adjust the HVAC system, maintaining the desired
temperature.

2.Industrial automation: In an assembly line, proximity sensors can detect the presence of a product on a
conveyor belt. If the sensor detects a product, it sends a signal to a controller that, in turn, commands a
robotic arm (actuator) to pick up the product and place it in the correct position.

3.Automotive systems: Modern cars use a combination of sensors and actuators to maintain optimal engine
performance. For example, an oxygen sensor measures the oxygen levels in the exhaust gases, and the
engine control unit adjusts the fuel injection rate (actuator) to maintain the ideal air-fuel mixture.
LED
An electronic device that emits light when a current passes through it. As with any
diode,current can only pass in one direction(from the“anode”tothe“cathode”).
LED is a semiconductor device used in many electronic devices, mostly used for
indication purposes. It is used widely as indicator during test for checking the validity
of results at different stages.

There are two ways to interface an LED to a microprocessor/microcontroller:

 The Anode of LED is connected to the port pin and cathode to Ground: In this approach the port
pin sources the current to the LED when it is at logic high (ie. 1).

 The Cathode of LED is connected to the port pin and Anode to V cc : In this approach the port pin
sources the current to the LED when it is at logic high
(ie. 1). Here the port pin sinks the current and the LED is turned ON when the port pin is at Logic low (ie. 0).
•Interface1willglowLED,onlyifthePINvalueoftheMCisHIGHascurrentflowstowardstheground.
•Interface 2 will glow LED, only if the PIN value of the MC is LOW as current flows towards
PIN due to its lower potential.
 Working of Light Emitting Diode
LED is nothing but a diode made of semiconductors having a P-N junction. LED is based on the
phenomenon of recombination of electrons with holes. When LED is forward biased, the electrons
from the N-region cross the P-N junction and recombine with the holes existing in P-region. For the
electrons to recombine with holes existing in P-region, they must give some of their energy. When
recombination occurs, the recombining electrons release energy in the form of heat and light.

The operation of a light emitting diode(LED) is the phenomenon of electroluminescence. The

emission of light from a semiconductor because of the influence of an electric field is called
electroluminescence.
7-Segment LED Display
· A seven-segment display (SSD), or seven-segment indicator, is a form of electronic
display
device for displaying decimal numerals that is an alternative to the more complex dot
matrix
displays.
 Seven-segment displays are widely used in digital clocks, electronic meters, basic
calculators, and other electronic devices that display numerical information

Light-emitting diodes(LEDs) arranged in the shape of numbers offer an easily

visible display. They are some times called"seven-segmentdisplays"or"seven-
segmentindicators."
Seven-segment LED circuit configuration

LED display devices have two kinds of circuit: common anode

and common cathode.
Common anode: when the common pin is positive
Common cathode: when the common pin is negative

Seven-segment Displays are widely used in Digital clocks,

electronic meters,
Basic calculators, Displays in home appliances,cars,and