Data Structures and Algorithms Using C++

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LU2: Analyze Data Structures and algorithms

2.1 Algorithm Analysis
 2.1.1 Introduction: What is an Algorithm?
=>An Algorithm is a finite set of unambiguous steps or instructions to solve a given
problem.
=>An algorithm is a set of instructions for solving a problem or accomplishing a task.
=>It can also be defined as a process or set of rules to be followed in calculations or
other problem-solving operations, especially by a computer. Knowledge of algorithms
helps us to get desired results faster by applying the appropriate algorithm. We learn by
experience. With experience, it becomes easy to solve new problems.

The properties of an algorithm are:

1. It takes zero or more inputs.
2. It should produce one or more output.
3. It should be Deterministic. It produces the same output if the same input is provided
again.
4. It should be Correct. It should be correct and able to process all the given inputs and
provide the correct output.
5.It should Terminate in a finite time.
6. It should be Efficient. The algorithm should be efficient in solving problems.
2.1.2 Algorithm representation:

● Natural Language
● Pseudocode
● Flowchart
 2.1.3 Algorithm Complexity
The complexity of an algorithm is the amount of Time or Space required by the algorithm to
process the input and produce the output. Algorithm designers strive to develop algorithms with
the lowest possible time and space/memory complexities, since this makes them more efficient
and scalable.

There are two types of Complexity:

1. First is Time-Complexity, how much time is required by an algorithm to produce output for
an input of size 'n'.
Time-Complexity is represented by function T(n) - time required versus the input size n.
2. Second is Space-Complexity, how much RAM or memory that an algorithm is going to
consume to produce output for an input of size 'n'.

Space-Complexity is represented by function S(n) - memory used versus the input size n.

An algorithm is analyzed using Time Complexity and Space Complexity. Writing an efficient
algorithm help to consume the minimum amount of time for processing the logic.
 Experimental Analysis
Write code for every solution, record the time and plot the time on the
graph. Compile and run the following program for both Merge Sort and
selection sort for 10 million elements:
https://shorturl.at/Lb53K Selection sort: 10.000.000 elements

Merge Sort for 10.000.000 elements

The selection sort to finish sorting 10 Million

elements will take 8-10 hours which is very difficult
to wait or handle. Experimental analysis is difficult
to use.
Theoretical analysis of an Algorithm

They are 3 solutions. Without writing the code, you

should be able to tell which is the best and the time
complexity of every solution as well as the time
function: Asymptotic Analysis or
Asymptotic notations
 Asymptotic Analysis or Asymptotic notations
Calculating the running time of any algorithm in mathematical units of
computation is known as Asymptotic Analysis. The efficiency of algorithms is
calculated using asymptotic analysis, independent of the given data set or
programming language.

In most cases, we are interested in the order of growth of the algorithm instead of
the exact time required for running an algorithm. This time is also known as
Asymptotic Running Time.

The performance of an algorithm can change with a change in the input size. That
is where Asymptotic Notations like Big O Notation comes into play. Asymptotic
Notations can describe an algorithm's run time when the input tends toward a
specific or limiting value. Asymptotic analysis helps to analyze the algorithm
performance change in the order of input size.
 Big O Notation
Formal definition: "f(n) is big-O of g(n)" or f(n) = O(g(n)), if
there are two constants c and n1 such that f(n) <=c.g(n) for
all n >= n1; in other words, c.g(n) is an upper bound for f(n)
for all n>= n0. The function f(n) growth is slower than c.g(n).
For a sufficiently large value of input n, the (c.g(n)) will
always be greater than f(n).

Big-O notation in Data Structure represents the upper

bound of the running time of an algorithm or the Worst case
complexity.
Big O Notation is a tool used to describe the time complexity
of algorithms. It calculates the time taken to run an algorithm Mathematical
as the input grows. Representation of
Big-O
 Big O Notation(next)
The formal definition is useful when you need to perform a
math proof. For example, the time complexity for selection
sort can be defined by the function f(n) = n²/2-n/2 as we have
discussed in the previous section.

If we allow our function g(n) to be n², we can find a constant c

= 1, and a N₀ = 0, and so long as N > N₀, N² will always be
greater than N²/2-N/2. We can easily prove this by subtracting
N²/2 from both functions, then we can easily see N²/2 > -N/2
to be true when N > 0. Therefore, we can come up with the
conclusion that f(n) = O(n²), in the other selection sort is “big
Big O Notation for Time Complexity:
Example
Consider the case of Bubble Sort. If the array of N is not sorted, To swap two
elements it take k amount of time, and this must happen N-1 time; the first element
will be swapped with N-1 and take k(N-1) time, the second must be swapped with
N-2 elements which means k(N-2), the last element will be swapped with N-N=0=K
amount of time.
1 2 3 4 5 … .. N

T(N)=k(N-1)+k(N-2)+k(N-3)+.....+K
T(N)=K(1+2+3+4+.......+n-1) // As per PMI, the sum of n first numbers is
∑n=n(n+1)/2
T(N)=K(N-1)*N/2
T(N)=KN2/2-K(N)
The constant K/2 will be ignored. And keep N2,
This means that the time complexity for Bubble Sort is O(N2).
 Complexity analysis of algorithms
The complexity of an algorithm are analysed in three categories:

➤ Worst-Case Complexity: The worst-case complexity represents the maximum

number of steps required to execute an algorithm. It provides us with the upper bound of
an algorithm. Usually, we use this complexity to judge algorithm performance.

➤Best-Case Complexity: The best-case complexity represents the minimum number of

steps required to execute an algorithm. It provides us with the lower bound of an
algorithm.

➤ Average-Case Complexity: The average-case complexity represents the average

number of steps required to execute an algorithm. We take the average of the steps
executed in all the cases to calculate average-case complexity.

Note: Worst-case complexity is used to find the guarantee in how much time some
particular algorithm will finish. This is the most important time complexity. If the type of
complexity is not mentioned, then always consider Worst-Case time complexity.
Graphical representation of the Three categories
 Growth Functions
Let us look at these growth rates of various functions. The size of input is n
Constant Time, O(1)
An algorithm is said to run in constant time if the output is produced in
constant time, regardless of the input size.
Examples: Accessing an nth element of an Array
Linear Time, O(n)
An algorithm is said to run in linear time if the execution time of the algorithm
is directly proportional to the input size.
Examples:
1. Array operations like search element, find min, find max etc.
2.Linked list operations like traversal, find min, find max etc.
Note: If we need to traverse all the nodes of a data structure for some task,
then complexity cant be
less than O(n)
 Growth Functions
Logarithmic Time, O(log(n))

An algorithm is said to run in logarithmic time if the execution time of the

algorithm is proportional to the logarithm of the input size. In each step of an
algorithm, a significant portion (e.g. half portion) of the input is
pruned/rejected out without traversing it.
An example is the Binary search algorithm. We will read about this
algorithm later.
n.log(n) Time, O(n.log(n))
An algorithm is said to run in n*log(n) time if the execution time of an
algorithm is proportional to the product of input size and logarithm of the input
size. In these algorithms, each time the input is divided into half (or some
proportion) and each portion is processed independently.
Examples: Merge-Sort, Quick-Sort (average case), Heap-Sort etc.
 Growth Functions
Quadratic Time, O(n^2)
An algorithm is said to run in quadratic time if the execution time of an
algorithm is proportional to th square of the input size. In these algorithms,
each element is compared with all the other elements.
Examples: Bubble-Sort, Selection-Sort, Insertion-Sort

Exponential Time O(2^n)

In these algorithms, all possible subsets of elements of input data are
generated. Its common example
is the power set.
Factorial Time O(n!)
In these algorithms, all possible permutations of the elements of input data
are generated. Finding permutations is a common example of factorial time.
A list of commonly occurring algorithm Time Complexity in incronin
Commonly encountered time complexities in increasing order

Name Running Time(Tn)

With Big O Notation:
Constant O(1) 1. We ignore constants
2. Focus on the highest power
Logarithmic O(log(n))

Linear O(n)
Examples
n.log(n) O(n.log(n))
1. 7n2+5n+8=>O(n2)
Quadratic O(n^2) Because n2>>>>n
Polynomial O(n^c) c is a constant and c>1 2. n3+n2=> O(n3)
Exponential O(c^m) c is a constant and c>1 3. 5nn+n3=>O(nn)
Factorial O(n!) 4. 5n2+n.log(n)=>O(n2)
N power N O(n*n)
5. n+n log(n)=>O(n.log(n))
 Functions GrowthRate( Approximation)
The time taken by certain algorithms to run varies dramatically with the size of
the input. Some algorithms take minutes or even seconds to run on huge input,
whereas others may take days to complete their execution. To understand how
the rate of growth changes with the size of the input in different functions, the
following table presents the approximate number of steps required to run an
algorithm
 Deriving/Hints an Algorithm's Runtime Function

Constants
If any line of code is a statement with basic operations, e.g., comparisons, assignments, or reading a variable, they take
constant time each. Thus, the time complexity of each statement is O(1).
Loops
In loop, a repetition of a particular code for n times, where n is the size of the loop. Every statement inside the loop has a
runtime of O(1). The running time of a loop is a product of the running time of the statement inside a loop and the number of
iterations in the loop. Time Complexity is O(n)
Nested Loops
The running time of nested loops is a product of the running time of the statements inside the loop multiplied by a product of
the size of all the loops. Time Complexity is O(n^c). Where c is the number of loops. For two loops, it will be O(n^2)
Consecutive Statements
In this case, we add the running time of all the consecutive lines of code.
If-Else Statement
In this case, either "if" will run or "else" will run. So, the block with larger runtime will be considered.
Deriving an Algorithm's Runtime Function
Logarithmic Statement
In this case, each iteration will cut the input size into b pieces and consider one of the pieces for the next iteration. Time
complexity in this situation will be O(log(n)).
 Time Complexity Examples Example 2.2: Nested loops
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
Example 2.1: Single loop int fun6 (int n) {
int fun1(int n) { int m = 0;
int m= : 0; for(int i=0;i<n;i++){
for(int j=0;j<n;j++){
for (int i = 0; i<n; i++) {
m += 1;
m += 1; }
} }
} return m;
}
return m;
// Testing Code
} int main() {
// Testing Code std::cout << "N = 100, Number of instructions
int main() { O(n^2)::fun2(100);
return 0;
std::cout<<"N = 100, Number of instructions 0(n) :: " << }
fun1(100); Output:
return 0; N = 100, Number of instructions in 0(n^2)::10000
} Time Complexity: O(n^2), two nested loop, takes
quadratic time. Both the loop is executed in number
Output:
of times, so the internal statement executed n^2 number
N = 100, Number of instructions in 0(n): :100 of times
Time Complexity: O(n), single loop takes linear time
 Time Complexity Examples Example 2.4: Arithmetic Progression
#include <iostream>
Example 2.3: Nested Loop using namespace std;
Example 1.3: Nested loops int fun6 (int n) {
int fun3(int n) { int i,j, m = 0;
} for(i=0;i<n;i++){
int i, j, k, m = 0; for(j=0;j<i;j++){
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) { m += 1;
for (j= 0; j < n; j++) { }
}
}
return m;
for (k = 0; k < n; k++) { }
m += 1; // Testing Code
} int main() {
return m; std::cout << "N = 100, Number of instructions O(n^2) :: << fun4 (100);
} return 0;
// Testing Code }
int main() { Output:
std::cout << "N = 100, Number of instructions 0(n^3) :: " << N = 100, Number of instructions in O(n^2)::4950
fun3(100);
Time Complexity: Statement inside inner loop executes for 1 time in
return 0; first iteration then 2 times then 3 times and so on for n iterations. Total
Output: number of times the inner statement is executed = 1+ 2+ 3 +..... + n.
N = 100, Number of instructions in 0(n^3) ::1000000
<< fun2(100); This series is an arithmetic progression, which sums to n(n+1)/2. So
Time Complexity: O(n^3), All the three nested loops run for the final time complexity is O(n(n+1)/2) ignoring the constant factors,
n number of iterations. So the statement time complexity will be O(n^2).
inside the innermost loop will run for n^3 number of times.
 Time Complexity Examples Example 2.6: Double the iteration variable
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
Example 2.5 Geometric Progression
int fun6 (int n) {
int fun5(int n) { int i = 1, m = 0;
int i, j, m = 0; while (i < n) {
for (i = 1; i <= n; i *= 2) { m += 1;
for (j = 0; j <= i; j++) { i = i* 2;
m += 1; }
}
return m; return m;
} }
// Testing Code
0122 int main() {
} printf("N = 100, Number of instructions 0(log(n)) :: %d \n", fun6
// Testing Code (100));
int main() {
std::cout << "N = 100, Number of instructions::”<< fun5 return 0;
(100); 0(n) }
return 0; Output:
} N = 100, Number of inst in 0(log(n)) ::7
In each iteration, i value is doubled. So the value of i after k
Output: iterations will be 2^k.
N = 100, Number of instructions in 0(n):: 134 2^k = n... Will be the condition at the time of exit.
Time Complexity: The inner loop will run for 1, 2, 4, 8,... log(2^k) = log(n) ....Taking log both sides.
n times in successive iteration of the outer loop. k = log(n)
T(n) = 0(1+ 2+ 4+...+n/2+n) = O(n) Time Complexity: O(log(n))
 Time Complexity Examples Problem: Given a value N find N!. Where N! = N* (N-1).... 2*1. Use
Example 2.7: Consecutive Statements recursion to solve the problem.
Example 2. 8: Factorial Calculation.
int fun7(int n) {
int i, j, k, m = 0; int factorial (int i) {
for (i = 0; i<n; i++) { /* Base Case or Termination Condition */
if (i <= 1)
for (j = 0; j<n; j++) { }
m += 1; return 1;
} /* Body, Recursive Expansion */
} return i *factorial (i - 1);
for(i = 0; i < n; i++) {
for (k= 0; k <n; k++) { }
m += 1; int main() {
} std::cout << "Factorial: " << factorial (5) << std::endl;
} return 0;
return m; }
} Output:
// Testing Code Factorial:120
int main() { Analysis: We calculate factorial(i) as i*factorial (i-1) recursively.
std::cout << "N = 100, Number of instructions 0(n^2):: “<<
fun7(100); Function F(n) calls F(n-1)
return 0; T(n) = T(n-1) + 1
Output: T(n-1) = T(n-2) + 1
N = 100, Number of instructions in O(n^2)::20000 T(n-2) = T(n-3) + 1
T(n) = T(n-1) + 1 = (T(n-2) + 1) + 1 = T(n-2) + 2 = (T(n-3) + 1) + 2 =
These two groups of loops are consecutive, so their T(n-3) + 3 Similarly, for kth term T(n) = T(n-k) + k
for base case (n-k) = 1 or n-1=k
complexity will add up to form the final complexity of the T(n) = T(1) + n-1 = n
program.
Time Complexity: O(n^2)+ O(n^2) =O(n^2) Time Complexity :O(n)
 Time Complexity Examples
Fibonacci number
Problem: Given N, find the Nth number in the
Fibonacci series.
Solution: Fibonacci numbers are calculated by
adding the sum of the previous two numbers.
Example 1.10:
int fibonacci(int n) { Analysis: Recurrence Relation: T(n) = 1 + T(n-1) + T(n-2)
if (n < 2) {
return n; T(n) = 1 + 2T(n-1) // Approximately
} T(n) = 1 + 2T(n-1)
return fibonacci(n-1) + fibonacci(n - 2); T(n-1) = 1 + 2T(n-2)
}
int main() { T(n-2) = 1 + 2T(n-3)
} T(n) = 1 + 2(1+2T(n-2)) = 1 + 2 + 4T(n-2) = 1 +2 +4 (1 +
std::cout << fibonacci (10) << std::endl;
return 0; 2(T(n-3)) = 1+ 2+ 2²+ 2³T(n-3)
} = 1+ 2+2².... + 2nT(0) = 1(2n+1-1)/2-1 = 2n+1 -1
Output:
55 Time complexity is O(2^n), ignoring the constants.
Time Complexity Examples
Problem: n-digit cast iron padlock

FOR i←0 To 10
FOR j←0 To 10
……………….
…………….
nth loop
IF code = combination
BREAK
ENDFOR (nth loop)
ENDFOR
……..
……….
ENDFOR
Time Complexity Examples

In this algorithm if n is 3, we’ll have 3 loops going from 0 to 9, therefore 10 x 10

x 10 iterations, or 10^ 3 iterations, for n=4, we’ll have 4 loops going from 0 to
9, therefore 10 x 10 x 10x10 iterations, or 10^ 4 iterations.
With Big O notation , we will say that the time complexities of this algorithm
O(10^3) and O(10^4) respectively.
We therefore see that our safe opening algorithm depends on the number
of digits in the code.
If we note n the number of digits of our padlock, the calculation time
complexity if a function of 10^n ; thus, using the notion big O , we can note
that the time complexity of our algorithm is O(10^n) .

We then say that the complexity is exponential and is noted O(log(n)).

Other Asymptotic Notations for Time/Space Mathematical
Representation of
Complexity Omega and Theta

Omega Notation – Ω
it gives the best-case scenario of an algorithm’s complexity, opposite to big-O
notation. We can say that: “the amount of Time/space this algorithm takes will grow no
more slowly than this fix), but it could grow more quickly.”

Theta Notation – θ

Theta notation encloses the function from above and below. Since it represents
the upper and the lower bound of the running time of an algorithm, it is used for
analyzing the average-case complexity of an algorithm

Theta (Average Case) You add the running

times for each possible input combination
and take the average in the average case.
 2.1.4 Space Complexity
Space complexity refers to the total amount of memory space used by an algorithm/program, including the space of input
values for execution. Calculate the space occupied by variables in an algorithm/program to determine space
complexity.The best algorithm/program should have a low level of space complexity. The less space required, the faster it
executes.

Notation
There are different notations we can use to express space complexity measurements. The most widely used is

Big-O Notation describes an asymptotic upper bound. It represents the algorithm’s scalability and performance.

It gives the worst-case scenario of an algorithm’s growth rate. We can say that: “the amount of space this algorithm
takes will grow no more quickly than this f(x), but it could grow more slowly.”

Let’s see a few examples of expressing space complexity using big-O notation, starting from slowest space growth (best)
to fastest (worst):
O(1) – constant complexity – takes the same amount of space regardless of the input size
O(log n) – logarithmic complexity – takes space proportional to the log of the input size
O(n) – linear complexity – takes space directly proportional to the input size
O(n log n) – log-linear/quasilinear complexity – also called “linearithmic”, its space complexity grows proportionally to
the input size and a logarithmic factor
O(n^2) – square/polynomial complexity – space complexity grows proportionally to the square of the input size
 Analyzing Space Complexity of Algorithms

The ability to calculate space complexity is essential in considering an algorithm’s

efficiency. In this section, we’ll analyze the space complexity of a few programs of
differing difficulty. We’ll measure it using big-O notation.

Above all, it’s necessary to mention that space complexity depends on a variety
of things such as the programming language, the compiler, or even the
machine running the algorithm.

We’ll use C++ for our examples, although, each of them could be easily applied to
any technology. To apply them to other programming languages, we can simply
replace the C++ data types with language-specific ones. Then in our calculations,
we’d use the sizes that correspond to the language-specific data types.
Example1: Space Complexity
Consider the simple program that sums two integers (numbers without a fractional part):

int addition(int a, int b) {

return a + b;
}
Copy

In this particular method, three variables are used and allocated in memory:
● the first int argument, a
● the second int argument, b
● and the returned sum result which is also an int like a and b

A single integer variable occupies four bytes of memory. In this example, we have three integer
variables. Therefore, this algorithm always takes 12 bytes of memory to complete (3*4 bytes).

We can clearly see that the space complexity is constant, so, it can be expressed in big-O notation as
O(1).
Example2: Space Complexity
Determine the space complexity of a program
that sums all integer elements in an array. #include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int sumArray(int a[], int size) {
Let’s list all variables present in the above code:
int sum = 0;
● array – the function’s only argument – the for (int iterator = 0; iterator < size;
iterator++)
space taken by the array is equal 4n bytes
{
where n is the length of the array sum += a[iterator];
● size – a 4-byte integer }
● sum – a 4-byte integer return sum;
● iterator – a 4-byte integer }
int main() {
int arr[5]={10,20,30,40,50};
The total space needed for this algorithm to
int size = sizeof(a)/sizeof(a[0]);
complete is 4n + 4 + 4 + 4 (bytes). The highest cout << "The sum is
order of n in this equation is just n. Thus, the "<<sumArray(arr,size)<<endl;
return 0;
space complexity of that operation is O(n). }
Conclusion

1. Time Complexity:
Time complexity is a measure of the amount of
time an algorithm takes with respect to the size
of its input. It helps in understanding how the
running time of an algorithm increases as the
size of the input increases. The common
notations used for denoting time complexity are:
Conclusion(Cont)

● O (Big O) Notation: It gives the upper

bound of the time an algorithm takes to
run, in the worst-case scenario.
● Ω (Big Omega) Notation: It gives the lower
bound of the time an algorithm takes to
run, in the best-case scenario.
● Θ (Theta) Notation: It provides an average
case time complexity.
 Conclusion(Cont)

Common time complexities include:

● Constant Time (O(1)): The algorithm's running time is constant and does
not depend on the size of the input.
● Linear Time (O(n)): The running time of the algorithm increases linearly
with the size of the input.
● Logarithmic Time (O(log n)): The running time of the algorithm increases
logarithmically with the size of the input.
● Quadratic Time (O(n^2)): The running time of the algorithm increases
quadratically with the size of the input.
● Exponential Time (O(2^n)): The running time of the algorithm increases
Conclusion(Cont)

2. Space Complexity:
Space complexity refers to the amount of
memory space that an algorithm requires to solve
a problem. It's a measure of the maximum
amount of memory space used by the algorithm
for a given problem size. Similar to time
complexity, space complexity can also be
denoted using Big O notation.
Conclusion(Cont)

It's important to analyze both time and

space complexities while evaluating
algorithms, as a trade-off between the two
may often exist. Choosing the right
algorithm involves considering both time
and space complexities, along with the
specific requirements and constraints of
the problem at hand.
Read More

1. https://www.scholarhat.com/tutorial/datastruc
tures/complexity-analysis-of-data-structures-
and-algorithms
2. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/complete-gui
de-on-complexity-analysis/
3. https://thegeekplanets.medium.com/the-ultim
ate-guide-to-complexity-analysis-in-data-stru
ctures-and-algorithms-c4f9be147a54
2.2 Introduction to Data
Structure analysis
Observe the figures and describe what you
see;
2.2.1 Introduction to Data Structures
Data Structure is a logical or mathematical model for collecting and organizing data in
such a way that we can perform operations on these data in an effective way. Data
Structures is about rendering data elements in terms of some relationship, for better
organization and Storage.

Example: Library is composed of elements (books) to access a particular book requires

knowledge of the arrangement of the books.
If we arrange some data in appropriate sequence, then it forms a Structure and gives
us a meaning. This meaning is called information. The basic unit of information in
computer Science is a bit, binary digit. So we found two things in information: One is
Data and the other is Structure
 Relationship between Data Structures vs Algorithms
Data structures and algorithms are two interrelated concepts in computer science. Data
structures refer to the organization, storage, and retrieval of data, while
algorithms refer to the set of instructions used to solve a particular problem or
perform a specific task.

Data structures provide a framework for storing and accessing data that
algorithms can operate on.

Data structures and algorithms are often used together to create efficient and effective
software solutions. For example, a sorting algorithm can be used to sort data in an array,
while a search algorithm can be used to find a particular item in a linked list.

Efficient data structures and algorithms are critical to the performance of software
systems. The choice of data structure and algorithm depends on the type of data being
processed and the nature of the problem to be solved. By selecting the most appropriate
data structure and algorithm, software developers can create high-performance solutions
that are both efficient and effective.
 Difference and Relationship between Data Structures vs Algorithms
Aspect Data Structures Algorithms

Definition The way data is organized, stored, and retrieved A set of instructions used to solve a specific problem

Provides a systematic approach to solving problems by

Provides an efficient way to organize and store
Purpose breaking them down into smaller, more manageable
data for easy retrieval and modification
steps
Insertion, Deletion, Search, Update, Traverse,
Operations Sorting, Searching, Optimization, Pathfinding, etc.
etc.

Importance Essential for efficient data storage and retrieval Crucial for developing efficient software solutions

Data structures provide a framework for storing

Algorithms often operate on data structures to process
Relationship and accessing data that algorithms can operate
or manipulate data
on

Performanc The efficiency of data structures determines the The choice of algorithm can have a significant impact on
e efficiency of algorithms that operate on them the performance of the software solution

Array, Linked List, Stack, Queue, Tree, Graph, Sorting, Searching, Graph Traversal, Dynamic
Examples
Hash Table, etc. Programming, Divide and Conquer, etc.
Relationship between Data Structures vs Algorithms Time Complexity
● Data structures are the foundation of efficient algorithms and play a crucial role in
determining the time complexity of a piece of code.
● Different data structures may have different time and space complexity characteristics
for various operations, which can impact the performance of an algorithm. Time
complexity refers to the amount of time it takes for an algorithm to complete, and it is
a measure of how the runtime of an algorithm grows as the input size increases.
● The choice of data structure is often determined by the specific algorithm being
implemented and can significantly impact the time complexity of a solution, making it
faster or slower.
Example: Arrays are the simplest and most basic data structure. They are contiguous
blocks of memory that store elements in a linear fashion. Accessing, inserting, and deleting
elements from an array have a constant time complexity of O(1), meaning the time taken
is independent of the size of the array. However, inserting or deleting elements from the
middle of an array can be expensive, as it requires shifting all the elements after the
insertion or deletion point.
2.2.2 Abstract Data Type
An abstract data type (ADT) is a logical description of the data and its operations. An ADT is
known as a user's point of view of data. An ADT is concerned about the possible values of data
and interfaces exposed by it. An ADT is not concerned about the actual implementation of the data
structure.
Abstract Data Type is a mathematical model of a data structure that specifies the type of data
stored, the operations supported on them and the types of parameters of the operations with no
implementation. Each programming language has its own way to implement abstract data type.
Differently to Data structures, Data Structures are a concrete representations of data and
implementation.
Data structures serve as the basis for abstract data types (ADT). The ADT defines the logical form
of the data type. The data structure implements the physical form of the data type
For example:
A user wants to store some integers and find their mean value. ADT for this data structure would
have two functions, one for adding integers and another to get the mean value. ADT for this data
structure does not talk about how exactly it will be implemented .ADT is more of a logical
description,
2.2.3 Basic types of Data Structures
Anything that can store data can be called as a data structure, hence Integer,
Float, Boolean, Char etc., all are data structures. They are known as Primitive Data Structures. And we also have
some complex Data Structures, which are used to store large and connected data and are called non primitive data
structure or Abstract Data Structure. Example: Array, Linked List, Tree, Graph, Stack, Queue etc
 Linear vs No-linear
A linear data structure is a type of Data Structure where the data elements get linearly or sequentially
arranged. The elements attach themselves to their next and previous adjacents. The structure involves only
a single level- allowing a user to traverse all its components in a single run.

The linear data structure is very easy to understand and implement due to its linear arrangement, for
example, stack, array, linked list, queue, etc.

Non-Linear Data Structure is a form of data structure where the data elements don’t stay arranged
linearly or sequentially. Since the data structure is non-linear, it does not involve a single level. Therefore, a
user can’t traverse all of its elements in a single run.

The non-linear data structure is not very easy to implement as compared to the linear data structure. The
utilization of computer memory is more efficient in this case, for example, graphs and trees.
 Linear vs No-linear
Parameter Linear Data Structure Non-Linear Data Structure

Arrangement In a linear data structure, the data elements The data elements connect to each other hierarchically.
connect to each other sequentially.

Complexity of The linear data structures are comparatively easier The non-linear data structures are comparatively difficult
Implementation to implement. to implement and understand

Levels A user can find all of the data elements at a single One can find all the data elements at multiple levels in a
level in a linear data structure. non-linear data structure.

Traversal You can traverse a linear data structure in a single The users need multiple runs to traverse them
run. completely.

Utilization of It is not very memory-friendly. It means that the The data structure is memory-friendly. It means that it
Memory linear data structures can’t utilize memory very uses memory very efficiently.
efficiently.

Complexity of The time complexity of this data structure is Time complexity often remains the same with an increase
Time directly proportional to input size. in its input size.

Applications Linear data structures work well mainly in the Non-linear data structures work mainly well in image
development of application software. processing and Artificial Intelligence.

Examples List, Array, Stack, Queue. Map, Graph, Tree.

2.2.4 Importance of data structures

The data structures have the following importance for programming:

● Data structures study how data are stored in a computer so that
operations can be implemented efficiently
● Data structures are especially important when there is a large amount
of information to deal with.
● Data structures are conceptual and concrete ways to organize data
for efficient storage and manipulation
 2.2.5 Data Structure Operations
Beside the simple operations performed on data (unary operators, binary operators and
precedence operators) seen previously, the data appearing in our data structures are
processed by means of other operations.
The following are some of the most frequently used operations.
Traversing: Accessing each record exactly once so that certain items in the record may be
processed.
● Searching: Finding the location of the record with a given key value or finding the
locations of all records which satisfy one or more conditions
● Inserting: Adding a new record to the structure.
● Deleting: Removing a record from the structure.
● Sorting: Arranging the records in some logical order (e.g., in numerical order
according to some NUMBER key, such as social security number or accountnumber).
● Merging: Combining the records of two different sorted lists into a single sorted list.
 Array
Arrays are the simplest data structures that store items of the same
data type. Example:
Array ADT Operations
int main() {
Below is the API of an array:
}
1. Adds an element at the kth position. Value can be stored in an int arr[10];
array at the kth position in 0(1) constant time. We just need to store int size= sizeof(arr) / sizeof(int);
value at arr[k]. for (int i = 0; i< size; i++) {
2. Reading the value stored at the kth position. Accessing the value arr[i] = i;
stored at some index in the array is also O(1) constant time. We just }
need to read the value stored at arr[k]. for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) {
3. Substitution of value stored in kth position with a new value. printf("%d ", arr[i]);
4. Time complexity: O(1) constant time. }
return 0;
Output: }
0123456789
Applications of Arrays are:
1. Storing data in tabular format.
2. Used in the creation of Matrices.
3. Used in the creation of various higher level data structures like Stacks, Queues, Heaps, HashTables etc.
Note: Problems based on array data structure are discussed later, especially in the Sorting and Searching topics
 Other Abstract Data Structures
In coming learning units, apart from Array, will
be studying various data structures and their
API so that the user can use them and their
internal implementation.

These include Linked List,Stacks, Queues,

Heaps, Hash Tables, Tree, Graph, Hash Table
among the others.