Electronics

Digital Electronics
 Introduction
Unlike a linear, or analogue circuit which contains signals
that are constantly changing from one value to another,
such as amplitude or frequency, digital circuits process
signals that contain just two voltage levels or states,
labelled logic "0" and logic "1".

The voltages used to represent a digital circuit are called

"logic levels". Generally, a logic "1" represents a higher
voltage, which is referred to as a HIGH and a logic "0" is
referred to as a LOW
 Analogue Circuits
Electronic circuits can be divided into two main categories.
Analogue Circuits - Analogue or Linear circuits amplify or
respond to continuously varying voltage levels over a
period of time.

The output from the potentiometer varies as the wiper terminal is

rotated producing an infinite number of voltage points between 0
volts and V max. As the voltage output varies either slowly or
rapidly there is no sudden change between two voltage levels
giving a continuous output voltage.
Examples of analogue signals include temperature,
pressure, liquid levels and light intensity
 Digital Circuits
Digital Circuits - Digital circuits produce or respond too
two distinct voltage levels representing either a Logic
level "1" or a Logic level "0".

As the wheel rotates, the optoswitch will generate an output that

changes quickly beetween two discrete voltage levels. For
example, 5V volts to 0 volt but NOT 2.5V, 3.1V or 4.6V.
Then the major difference between an analogue
signal or quantity and a digital quantity is that an
"Analogue" quantity is continuously changing over
time while a "Digital" quantity has discrete (step by
step) values. LOW to HIGH or HIGH to LOW
 Voltage Levels
In all electronic circuits, only two logic levels are allowed and
these levels are referred to as "logic 1 or logic 0", "high
or low", "true or false".
Most logic systems use positive logic, in which a logic
"0" is represented by zero volts and a logic "1" is
represented by a higher voltage, such as +5 volts .

In standard TTL (transistor-transistor-logic) IC's there is a

defined range of input and output voltage limits for defining
what is a logic "1" value and what is a logic "0" value.
 Noise
Noise is the name given to a random and unwanted
voltage that is induced into electronic circuits by
external interference, such as from nearby switches,
power supply fluctuations or from wires and other
conductors that pick-up stray electromagnetic radiation.

However, between these defined HIGH and LOW values lies what is
generally called a "no-man's land" (the blue area's above) and if we
apply a signal voltage of a value within this no-man's land area we
do not know whether the logic gate will respond to it as a level "0"
or as a level "1", and the output will become unpredictable.
 Decimal to Binary Conversion
The Decimal or "denary" counting system uses
the Base of 10 numbering system where each digit
in a number takes on one of ten possible values
from 0 to 9, eg 213 (Two Hundred and Thirteen).
In a decimal system each digit has a value ten times
greater than its previous number and this decimal
numbering system.
In the decimal or denary system, the columns have
values of units, tens, hundreds etc as we move from
(6×10
right to left ) + (1×10
and
3
) + (6×101) + (3×10these
mathematically
2 0
) = 6163values are

written as 100, 101, 102, 103 etc

 Decimal to Binary Conversion
Unlike the decimal numbering system which uses the
base of 10, digital logic uses just two values or
states, a logic level "1" or a logic level "0", so each
"0" and "1" is considered to be a single digit in
a Base of 2 orBinary numbering system.
In the binary numbering system, each digit has a value
twice that of the previous
28 27 digit
26 but
25 2can
4
2only
3
22 have
21 a20
value of
Decimal either
Digit Value"1"256
or "0“
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Binary Digit Value 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1

Then, the binary array of digits 1011001012 is

equivalent to 35710 in decimal or denary.
 Decimal to Binary Conversion
Another method of converting Decimal to
Binary number equivalents is to write down the
decimal number and to continually divide by 2 (two)
to give a result and a remainder of either a "1" or a
"0" until the final result equals zero.
Convert 83 to binary
83:2=41 remainder 1 LSB
41:2=20 remainder 1
20:2=10 remainder 0
10:2=5 remainder 0
5:2=2 reaminder 1
2:2=1 remainder 0
1:2=0 remainder 1 MSB
8310=10100112
 Binary Numbers
Binary numbers can be added together and subtracted
just like decimal numbers with the result being
combined into one of several size ranges depending
upon the number of bits being used. The
classification of individual bits into larger groups are
generally referred to by the following more common
Number of
names
Binary Common Name
Digits (bits)
1 Bit
4 Nibble
8 Byte
16 Word
32 Double Word
64 Quad Word
 Binary Numbers
As micro-controller or microprocessor systems become
increasingly larger, the individual binary digits (bits)
are now grouped together into 8´s to form a
single BYTE with most computer hardware such as
hard drives and memory modules commonly indicate
their size in Megabytes or even Gigabytes.
Number of
Common Name
Bytes
1,024 (210) kilobyte (kb)
1,048,576 (220) Megabyte (Mb)
1,073,741,824 (
Gigabyte (Gb)
230)
a very long
Terabyte (Tb)
number! (240)
 Binary based other number systems
The one main disadvantage of Binary Numbers is that the binary
equivalent of a large decimal number can be quite long, which
makes it difficult to both read or write without producing errors
especially when working with 16 or 32-bit numbers. One
common way of overcoming this problem is to arrange the binary
numbers into groups
Base, b Byte (8-bits) Word (16-bits)

Decimal 0 to 25510 0 to 65,53510

0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000

Binary to to
1111 11112 1111 1111 1111 11112

Hexadecimal 00 to FF16 0000 to FFFF16

Octal 000 to 3778 000 000 to 177 7778

the memory of a computer would use hexadecimal numbers while

the keyboard uses decimal numbers
 Hexadecimal (16)
the Hexadecimal numbering system uses only four
digits to express a single 16-bit word length, and as
a result it is the most commonly used Binary
Numbering System for electronic and micro-
electronic
Decimal system
4-bit Binary Hexadecimal Decimal 4-bit Binary Hexadecimal
0 0000 0 9 1001 9
1 0001 1 10 1010 A
2 0010 2 11 1011 B
3 0011 3 12 1100 C
4 0100 4 13 1101 D
5 0101 5 14 1110 E
6 0110 6 15 1111 F
7 0111 7 16 0001 0000 10 (1+0)
8 1000 8 17 0001 0001 11 (1+1)
Continuing upwards in groups of four
 Using Hexadecimal Numbers
Counting:
0...to...9, A,B,C,D,E,F, 10...to...19, 1A, 1B, 1C, 1D, 1E,
1F, 20, 21

Writing in binary form:

20F16=(0010 0000 1111)2

Conversions
3A16 = (0011
1010)2=0*128+0*64+1*32+1*16+1*8+0*4+1*2+0*1
=58
3A16 =3*16+10*1=58
20F16=2*256+0*16+15=527
 Boolean (or Switching) Algebra
Besides basic arithemtical operations, the binary
numbers, which are inherently represents true or
false logic states, are also used in logical operations.
Boolean (or Switching) Algebra deals mainly with
the theory that both logic and set operations are
either "TRUE" or "FALSE" but not both at the same
time.
For example, A + A = A and not 2A as it would be in
normal algebra. Boolean algebra is a simple and
effective way of representing the switching action of
standard Logic Gates and the basic logic statements.
 The logic AND Function
The Logic AND Function function states that two or
more events must occur together and at the same
time for an output action to occur. But the order at
which they occur is unimportant as it does not affect
the final result
 The logic AND Function

Switc Switc Outpu

Description
hA hB t
A and B are both open, lamp
0 0 0
OFF
A is open and B is closed,
0 1 0
lamp OFF
A is closed and B is open,
1 0 0
lamp OFF
A is closed and B is closed,
1 1 1
lamp ON
 The logic AND Gate
TTL Logic Circuit TTL Logic Types
74LS08 Quad 2-input
74LS11 Triple 3-input
74LS21 Dual 4-input

CMOS Logic Types

CD4081 Quad 2-input
CD4073 Triple 3-input
CD4082 Dual 4-input
 The Logic OR Function
The Logic OR Function function states that an output
action will occur or become TRUE if either one "OR"
more events are TRUE, but the order at which they
occur is unimportant as it does not affect the final
result.
 The Logic OR Function

Switc Switc Outpu

Description
hA hB t
A is open and B is open,
0 0 0
lamp OFF
A is open and B is closed,
0 1 1
lamp ON
A is closed and B is open,
1 0 1
lamp ON
A is closed and B is closed,
1 1 1
lamp ON
 The logic OR Gate
TTL Logic Circuit TTL Logic Types
74LS32 Quad 2-input

CMOS Logic Types

CD4071 Quad 2-input
CD4075 Triple 3-input
CD4072 Dual 4-input
 The Logic XOR Function
The Logic XOR Function function states that an
output action will occur or become TRUE if and only
if one "OR" event is TRUE. It excludes the state in
which both “OR” events are true.
XOR means "one or the other but not both". It
represents the inequality function. The output is
HIGH (1) if the inputs are not alike otherwise the
Symbol
output is LOW (0). Truth Table
A B Q
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
Boolean Expression Q = A⊕B
 The Logic NOT Function
The Logic NOT Function is simply a single input inverter that
changes the input of a logic level "1" to an output of logic level
"0" and vice versa. They are more commonly known
as Inverters because they invert the signal
The logic NOT function is so called because its output
state is NOT the same as its input state.

It is generally denoted by a bar or overline ( ¯ ) over its

input symbol which denotes the inversion operation.
The Logic NOT Function

Switch Output
1 0
0 1
Boolean
A
Expression
 The NAND or Not AND function
The NAND or Not AND function is a combination of
the two separate logical functions, the AND function
and the NOT function connected together in series.
NAND

Switch Switch
Output Description
A B
0 0 1 A and B are both open, lamp ON
0 1 1 A is open and B is closed, lamp ON
1 0 1 A is closed and B is open, lamp ON
A is closed and B is closed, lamp
1 1 0
OFF
The NAND or Not AND Gate
TTL Logic Types
74LS00 Quad 2-input
74LS10 Triple 3-input
74LS20 Dual 4-input

CMOS Logic Types

CD4011 Quad 2-input
CD4023 Triple 3-input
CD4012 Dual 4-input
 The Logic NOR Function
the NOR or Not OR Gate is also a combination of two
separate functions, theOR function and
the NOT function connected together in series.

Switch Switch
Output Description
A B
0 0 1 Both A and B are open, lamp ON
A is open and B is closed, lamp
0 1 0
OFF
A is closed and B is open, lamp
1 0 0
OFF
A is closed and B is closed, lamp
The NOR or Not OR Gate
TTL Logic Types
74LS02 Quad 2-input
74LS27 Triple 3-input
74LS260 Dual 4-input

CMOS Logic Types

CD4001 Quad 2-input
CD4025 Triple 3-input
CD4002 Dual 4-input
 The Laws of Boolean
Boolean Algebra is the mathematics we use to
analyse digital gates and circuits. We can use these
"Laws of Boolean" to both reduce and simplify a
complex Boolean expression in an attempt to reduce
the number of logic gates required.
The basic Laws of Boolean Algebra that relate to
the Commutative Law allowing a change in
position for addition and multiplication,
the Associative Law allowing the removal of
brackets for addition and multiplication, as well as
the distributive Law allowing the factoring of an
expression, are the same as in ordinary algebra.
 The Laws of Boolean
Annulment Law - A term AND´ed with a "0" equals 0
or OR´ed with a "1" will equal 1.
– A . 0 = 0, A variable AND'ed with 0 is always equal to 0.
– A + 1 = 1, A variable OR'ed with 1 is always equal to 1 .

Identity Law - A term OR´ed with a "0" or AND´ed with a

"1" will always equal that term.
– A + 0 = A, A variable OR'ed with 0 is always equal to the
variable.
– A . 1 = A, A variable AND'ed with 1 is always equal to the
variable.

Idempotent Law - An input AND´ed with itself or OR´ed

with itself is equal to that input.
– A + A = A, A variable OR'ed with itself is always equal to the
variable.
– A . A = A, A variable AND'ed with itself is always equal to
the variable.
 The Laws of Boolean
Complement Law - A term AND´ed with its complement
equals "0" and a term OR´ed with its complement
equals "1".
A . A = 0, A variable AND'ed with its complement is always
equal to 0.
A + A = 1, A variable OR'ed with its complement is always
equal to 1.

Commutative Law - The order of application of two

separate terms is not important.
A . B = B . A, The order in which two variables are AND'ed
makes no difference.
A + B = B + A, The order in which two variables are OR'ed
makes no difference.

Double Negation Law - A term that is inverted twice is

equal to the original term.

A = A, A double complement of a variable is always equal to

the variable.
 The Laws of Boolean
de Morgan´s Theorem - There are two "de Morgan´s"
rules or theorems,

(1)Two separate terms NOR´ed together is the same

as the two terms inverted (Complement) andAND
´ed for example,

A+B = A. B

(2) Two separate terms NAND´ed together is the same

as the two terms inverted (Complement) and OR´ed
for example,

A.B = A +B.
The Laws of Boolean

A⊕B
 The Boolean Algebra
Example
Using the above laws, simplify the following
expression:
Q=(A + B)(A + C)
Q=(A + B)(A + C)
Q=AA + AC + AB + BC - Distributive law
Q=A + AC + AB + BC - Identity AND law (A.A = A)
Q=A(1 + C) + AB + BC - Distributive law
Q=A.1 + AB + BC - Identity OR law (1 + C = 1)
Q=A(1 + B) + BC - Distributive law
Q=A.1 + BC - Identity OR law (1 + B = 1)
Q=A + BC - Identity AND law (A.1 = A)

Then the expression: (A + B)(A + C) can be simplified to A + BC

 The Boolean Algebra
Find the Boolean algebra expression for the following
system. AND

OR

NOT
 The Boolean Algebra

Inputs Intermediates Output

A.
C B A A.B.C B C B+C Q
(B+C)
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 Pull up and Pull down resistors
any "unused" inputs to the gates must be connected
directly to either a logic level "1" or a logic level "0" by
means of a suitable "Pull-up" or "Pull-down" resistor
( for example 1kΩ resistor ) to produce a fixed logic
signal.

This will prevent the unused input to the gate from

"floating" about and producing false switching of the
gate and circuit.
 Combinational Logic Circuits
Combinational Logic Circuits consist of inputs, two or
more basic logic gates and outputs. The logic gates are
combined in such a way that the output state depends
entirely on the input states. Combinational logic circuits
have "no memory", "timing" or "feedback loops", there
operation is instantaneous.

A combinational logic circuit performs an operation assigned logically

by a Boolean expression or truth table.
Combinational Logic Circuits
 The Multiplexer
A data selector, more commonly called a Multiplexer,
shortened to "Mux" or "MPX", are combinational logic
switching devices that operate like a very fast acting
multiple position rotary switch
They connect or control, multiple input lines called
"channels" consisting of either 2, 4, 8 or 16 individual
inputs, one at a time to an output.

The job of a multiplexer is to allow multiple signals

to share a single common output.
 The 4x1 Multiplexer

Addressin
g Input
Select
b a ed

0 0 A
0 1 B
1 0 C
1 1 D
 The Demultiplexer
The data distributor, known more commonly as
a Demultiplexer or "Demux", takes one single input
data line and then switches it to any one of a number of
individual output lines one at a time.
The demultiplexer converts a serial data signal at the
input to a parallel data at its output lines as shown
below.

The function of the Demultiplexer is to switch one

common data input line to any one of the 4 output data
lines A to D in our example above
 The 1x4 Demultiplexer

Addressin
g Output
Select
b a ed

0 0 A
0 1 B
1 0 C
1 1 D
 Binary Encoder
Binary Encoder takes ALL its data inputs one at a time
and then converts them into a single encoded output.
So we can say that a binary encoder, is a multi-input
combinational logic circuit that converts the logic level
"1" data at its inputs into an equivalent binary code at its
output.

Generally, digital encoders produce outputs of 2-bit, 3-bit

or 4-bit codes depending upon the number of data input
lines. (e.g. Keyboard)
 The binary encoder

Binary Output
Compass
Direction Q0 Q1 Q2

North 0 0 0
North-East 0 0 1
East 0 1 0
South-East 0 1 1
South 1 0 0
South-West 1 0 1
West 1 1 0
North-West 1 1 1
 The Decoder
Encoder is basically, a combinational type logic circuit
that converts the binary code data at its input into
one of a number of different output lines, one at a
time producing an equivalent decimal code at its
output.
A decoders output code normally has more bits than
its input code and practical binary decoder circuits
include, 2-to-4, 3-to-8 and 4-to-16 line
configurations.
 BCD to 7-Segment Display Decoder
Decoder IC, is a device which converts one digital format
into another and the most commonly used device for
doing this is the Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) to 7-
Segment Display Decoder.

A standard 7-segment LED display generally has 8 input

connections, one for each LED segment and one that acts
as a common terminal or connection for all the internal
segments.
Some single displays have an additional input pin for the
decimal point in their lower right or left hand corner.
 BCD to 7-Segment Display Decoder

Individual Segments Individual Segments

Displa Displa
a b c d e f g y a b c d e f g y

× × × × × × 0 × × × × × × × 8
× × 1 × × × × × 9
× × × × × 2 × × × × × × A
× × × × × 3 × × × × × b
× × × × 4 × × × × C
× × × × × 5 × × × × × d
× × × × × × 6 × × × × × E
× × × 7 × × × × F
 BCD Numbers
Binary Coded
Decimal (BCD) numbers
are made up using just 4 Binary Pattern
data bits similar to the Decimal BCD
Hexadecimal numbers
but unlike hexadecimal 8 4 2 1
numbers that range in 0 0 0 0 0 0
full from 0 through to F, 1 0 0 0 1 1
BCD numbers only range
2 0 0 1 0 2
from 0 to 9, with the
binary number patterns 3 0 0 1 1 3
of 1010 through 4 0 1 0 0 4
to 1111 (A to F) being 5 0 1 0 1 5
invalid inputs for this
6 0 1 1 0 6
type of display and so are
not used 7 0 1 1 1 7
8 1 0 0 0 8
9 1 0 0 1 9
10 N.A.
BCD to 7-Segment Display Decoder
 Binary Adder
The Binary Adder is made up from
standard AND and Ex-OR gates and allow us to
"add" together single bit binary numbers, a and b to
produce two outputs, the SUM of the addition and
00 00 01 01
a CARRY called the Carry-out, ( Cout ) bit.
+ + + +
00 01 00 01

Symbol 00 01 01 Truth
10 Table

SU
A B CARRY
M
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
Boolean Expression: Sum = A ⊕ B Carry = A . B
 Binary Comparator
Digital or Binary Comparators are made up from
standard AND, NOR and NOT gates that compare
the digital signals present at their input terminals
and produce an output depending upon the
condition of those inputs.

Inputs Outputs
B A A>B A=B A<B
0 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 1
1 1 0 1 0
 Sequential Logic
Sequential Logic circuits have some form of inherent
"Memory" built in to them as they are able to take into
account their previous input state as well as those actually
present, a sort of "before" and "after" is involved with
sequential circuits.
The output state of a sequential logic circuit is a function of
the following three states, the "present input", the "past
input" and/or the "past output". Sequential Logic
circuits remember these conditions and stay fixed in their
current state until the next clock signal changes one of the
states, giving sequential logic circuits "Memory".
Sequential logic circuits are generally termed as two state or
Bistable devices which can have their output or outputs set
in one of two basic states, a logic level "1" or a logic level
"0" and will remain "latched" indefinitely in this current
state or condition until some other input trigger pulse or
signal is applied which will cause the bistable to change its
state once again.
 Sequential Logic Representation
The word "Sequential" means that things happen in a
"sequence", one after another and in Sequential Logic
circuits, the actual clock signal determines when things will
happen next.

1. Event Driven - asynchronous circuits that change state immediately when

enabled.
2. Clock Driven - synchronous circuits that are synchronised to a specific
clock signal.
3. Pulse Driven - which is a combination of the two that responds to triggering
pulses.
 RS Flip Flop
The SR flip-flop, also known as a SR Latch, can be
considered as one of the most basic sequential logic
circuit possible.
This simple flip-flop is basically a one-bit memory
bistable device that has two inputs, one which will
"SET" the device (meaning the output = "1"), and is
labelled S and another which will "RESET" the
device (meaning the output = "0"), labelled R.
Then the SR description stands for "Set-Reset".
The reset input resets the flip-flop back to its original
state with an output Q that will be either at a logic
level "1" or logic "0" depending upon this set/reset
condition
 RS Flip Flop
Active low RS Flip flop implementation with NAND
gates

State S R Q Q Description
1 0 1 0 Set Q » 1
Set
1 1 1 0 no change
0 1 0 1 Reset Q » 0
Reset
1 1 0 1 no change
0 0 0 1 memory with Q = 0
Invalid
0 0 1 0 memory with Q = 1
 SR Flip Flop
Nor gate RS Flip Flop
 JK Flip Flop
The JK flip-flop is basically a gated SR flip-flop with
the addition of a clock input circuitry that prevents
the illegal or invalid output condition that can occur
when both inputs S and R are equal to logic level
"1". Due to this additional clocked input, a JK flip-
flop has four possible input combinations, "logic 1",
"logic 0", "no change" and "toggle"
 JK Flip Flop Truth Table

Q(n+1
C J K Q(n)
)
Delete 1 0 1 0,1 0,0
Write 1 1 0 1,0 1,1
Save 1 0 0 0,1 0,1
Toggle 1 1 1 1,0 0,1
 D Flip Flop
The D flip-flop is by far the most important of the
clocked flip-flops as it ensures that ensures that
inputs S and R are never equal to one at the same
time.
D-type flip-flops are constructed from a gated SR flip-
flopwith an inverter added between the S and
the R inputs to allow for a single D (data) input.
This single data input D is used in place of the "set"
signal, and the inverter is used to generate the
complementary "reset" input thereby making a level-
sensitive D-type flip-flop from a level-sensitive RS-
latch as now S = D and R = not D
 D Flip Flop

Descriptio
Clk D Q Q
n
↓» Memory
X Q Q
0 no change
↑» Reset Q »
0 0 1
1 0
↑»
1 1 0 Set Q » 1
1
D Flip Flop / Data Latch
D Flip Flop- Frequency divider
 The Clock
As seen in previous applications, Sequential
Logic circuits to operate in a "sequential" way, they
require the addition of a clock pulse or timing signal
to cause them to change their state.
Clock pulses are generally continuous square or
rectangular shaped waveform that is produced by a
pulse generator.
This multivibrator circuit oscillates between a "HIGH"
state and a "LOW" state producing a continuous
output.
Sequential logic circuits that use the clock signal for
synchronization are dependant upon the frequency
and and clock pulse width to activate there
switching action.
 The Clock
Active HIGH - if the state changes occur at the clock's
rising edge or during the clock width.
Active LOW - if the state changes occur at the clock's
falling edge.
Duty Cycle - is the ratio of clock width and clock period.
Clock Width - this is the time during which the value of the
clock signal is equal to one.

Clock Period - this is the time between successive

transitions in the same direction, i.e., between two rising
or two falling edges.
Clock Frequency - the clock frequency is the reciprocal of
the clock period, frequency = 1/clock period
 The Clock
There are basically three types of clock pulse
generation circuits:

Astable - A free-running multivibrator that

has NO stable states but switches continuously
between two states this action produces a train of
square wave pulses at a fixed frequency.

Monostable - A one-shot multivibrator that has

only ONE stable state and is triggered externally with
it returning back to its first stable state.

Bistable - A flip-flop that has TWO stable states that

produces a single pulse either positive or negative in
value.
 NE555 Astable Multivibrator
Astable Multivibrators are a type of free running
oscillator that have no permanent "meta" or "steady"
state but are continually changing there output from
one state ("LOW") to the other state ("HIGH")
The continual switching action from "HIGH" to "LOW"
and "LOW" to "HIGH" produces a continuous and
stable square wave output that switches abruptly
between the two logic levels making it ideal for
timing and clock pulse applications.
t1 = 0.693 (R1 + R2) C1

t2 = 0.693 (R2) C1

T = t1 + t2
 NAND Gate Monostable Circuit
Monostable Multivibrators or "one-shot" pulse
generators are used to convert short sharp pulses
into wider ones for timing applications. Monostable
multivibrators generate a single output pulse, either
"high" or "low", when a suitable external trigger
signal or pulse T is applied.
 The bistable multivibrator
The bistable multivibrator can be switched over from
one stable state to the other by the application of an
external trigger pulse thus, it requires two external
trigger pulses before it returns back to its original
state
Find the Boolean algebra expression for
the given system.
Find the Boolean algebra expression for
the given system.
Draw the digital logic circutis for the given Boolean algebra expression and simplify
the expression if possible.
Draw the digital logic circutis for the given Boolean algebra expression and simplify
the expression if possible.
Thanks for your interest.