Slide 1.

ISD 358: COMPUTER

NETWORKING &
SECURITY
Lecturer: Kwame Owusu Kwateng (PhD)
Supply Chain and Information Systems
KNUST School of Business - Kumasi
© 2020
Slide 1.2

NETWORK MODELS AND

STANDARDS
Slide 1.3

Learning Objectives
3

After this section, students should be able

to;
 Understand the layered approach used in

network models.
 Identify and describe the two network models

used in networking.
 Describe the layers of the OSI and Internet

models.
 Identify protocols used at each level

 Appreciate the difference between the two

models.
Slide 1.4

Network Models
4

 All networks provide the same basic functions to

transfer a message from sender to receiver, but
each network can use different network hardware
and software to provide these functions.
 All of these hardware and software products have to
work together to successfully transfer a message.
 One way to accomplish this is to break the entire set
of communications functions into a series of layers,
each of which can be defined separately. In this way,
vendors can develop software and hardware to
provide the functions of each layer separately.
Slide 1.5

Network layers
5

 Networks can be described at several layers

of detail.
 By analogy, humans can be described
sociologically, psychologically, in terms of
musculature, and at the cell level.
 Each layer provides services to the layer
above it.
 The road provides service to the car tires.
 The car tires provide service to the car.
 The car provides service to the driver.
 A commercial driver provides service to the
goods being delivered.
Slide 1.6

Organization of air travel

1-6

ticket (purchase) ticket (complain)

baggage (check) baggage (claim)

gates (load) gates (unload)

runway takeoff runway landing

airplane routing airplane routing

airplane routing

 a series of steps
Introduction
 Layering of airline
Slide 1.7

functionality
1-7

ticket (purchase) ticket (complain) ticket

baggage (check) baggage (claim baggage

gates (load) gates (unload) gate

runway (takeoff) runway (land) takeoff/landing

airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing

departure intermediate air-traffic arrival

airport control centers airport

Layers: each layer implements a service

 via its own internal-layer actions
 relying on services provided by layer
below
Introduction
Slide 1.8

Why layering?
1-8

Dealing with complex systems:

 explicit structure allows identification,

relationship of complex system’s pieces

 eases maintenance, updating of system

 Eases change implementation to part of

the system without affecting the whole

system. e.g., change in gate procedure
doesn’t affect rest of system

Introduction
Slide 1.9

Network Models
9

 The two most important network models

are the Open Systems Interconnection
Reference (OSI) model and the Internet
model. The Internet model is the most
commonly used of the two; few people
use the OSI model.

 Using the layered approach each piece of

hardware and software can then work
together in the overall network.
Slide 1.11

OSI and Internet Models

11

 Most networks today use the Internet

model.
 There are however many similarities
between the OSI model and the Internet
model.
 One major difference is that the OSI has
7 layers whiles the Internet model has
five (combines the last three layers of
the OSI as one)
Slide 1.12

The OSI Model

12

The OSI model has seven layers,

namely;
1. Application Layer
2. Presentation Layer
3. Session Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Network Layer
6. Data Link Layer
7. Physical Layer
Physical DataLink Network Transport Session Presentation Application
Please Do Not Touch Steve’s Pet Alligator
 Slide 1.13

7-Layer Model of OSI

1 - 13

Application Layer:
 The application layer is the end user’s access to
the network.
 The primary purpose is to provide a set of
utilities for application programs.
 Each user program determines the set of
messages and any action it might take on
receipt of a message.
 Other network-specific applications at this layer
include network monitoring and network
management.
Slide 1.14

7-Layer Model of OSI…

14
cont’d
Presentation Layer:
 It provides data interfaces, data compression
and translation between different data formats.
Its job is to accommodate different interfaces
on different computers so the application
program need not worry about them.
 The presentation layer formats the data for
presentation to the user.
 It is concerned with displaying, formatting, and
editing user inputs and outputs.
Slide 1.15

7-Layer Model of OSI…

15
cont’d
Session Layer:
 This layer initiates, maintains and terminates each logical
session between sender and receiver
 The session layer is responsible for managing and
structuring all sessions. It is also responsible for
synchronization, checkpointing, recovery of data exchange
 Session initiation must arrange for all the desired and
required services between session participants, such as
logging onto circuit equipment, transferring files, and
performing security checks. Session termination provides an
orderly way to end the session, as well as a means to abort a
session prematurely.
Slide 1.16

7-Layer Model of OSI…

16
cont’d
Session Layer:
 It may have some redundancy built in to
recover from a broken transport (layer 4)
connection in case of failure.
 The session layer also handles session
accounting so the correct party receives
the bill.
 Slide 1.17

7-Layer Model of OSI…

1 - 17
cont’d
Transport Layer:
 The transport layer deals with end-to-
end issues, such as procedures for
entering and departing from the
network.
 It establishes, maintains, and terminates
logical connections for the transfer of
data between the original sender and
the final destination of the message.
 Slide 1.18

7-Layer Model of OSI…

1 - 18
cont’d
Transport Layer:
 It is also responsible for breaking a large data
transmission into smaller packets (if needed),
ensuring that all the packets have been
received, eliminating duplicate packets, and
performing flow control to ensure that no
computer is overwhelmed by the number of
messages it receives.
 Although error control is performed by the
data link layer, the transport layer can also
perform error checking.
 Slide 1.19

7-Layer Model of OSI…

1 - 19
cont’d
The network layer:
 The network layer performs routing.
 It determines the next computer the
message should be sent to so it can
follow the best route through the
network and finds the full address for
that computer if needed.
 Slide 1.20

7-Layer Model of OSI…

1 - 20
cont’d
 Data Link Layer:
 The data link layer is responsible for moving a
message from one computer to the next
computer in the network path from the sender to
the receiver.
 The data link layer manages the physical
transmission circuit in layer 1. First, it controls
the physical layer by deciding when to transmit
messages over the media. It decides when a
device can transmit so that two computers do
not try to transmit at the same time.
 Slide 1.21

7-Layer Model of OSI…

1 - 21
cont’d
 Data Link Layer:
 Second, it formats the messages by indicating
where they start and end. It creates and
recognize message boundaries; that is, it
must mark where a message starts and where
it ends.
 Thirdly, layer 2 performs error detection and
correction. It resolves the problems caused by
damaged, lost, or duplicate messages so the
succeeding layers are shielded from
transmission errors.
 Slide 1.22

7-Layer Model of OSI…

1 - 22
cont’d
 Physical Layer
 defines how individual bits are formatted
to be transmitted through the network
 The physical layer is concerned primarily

with transmitting data bits (zeros or ones)

over a communication circuit.
 This layer defines the rules by which ones

and zeros are transmitted, such as

voltages of electricity, number of bits sent
per second,
 Slide 1.23

7-Layer Model of OSI…

1 - 23
cont’d
 Physical Layer
 This layer defines the physical format of

the cables and connectors used.

 The physical layer specifies the type of
connection and the electrical signals, radio
waves, or light pulses that pass through it.
 The physical layer includes all the
hardware devices (e.g., computers,
modems, and switches) and physical
media (e.g., cables and satellites).
Slide 1.24

The Internet Model

24

 The network model that dominates current

hardware and software is a more simple five-
layer Internet model.
 Unlike the OSI model that was developed by
formal committees, the Internet model evolved
from the work of thousands of people who
developed pieces of the Internet.
 The OSI model is a formal standard that is
documented in one standard, but the Internet
model has never been formally defined; it has to
be interpreted from a number of standards.
Slide 1.25

Internet’s 5-Layer Model

25

The Internet model has five layers

(collapses the three top layers of the
OSI model as one).The five layers are;
1. Application Layer
2. Transport Layer

3. Network Layer

4. Data Link Layer

5. Physical Layer

Physical DataLink Network Transport Application

Please Do Not Touch Alligator
 Slide 1.26

Internet’s 5-Layer Model…

1 - 26
cont’d
 Application Layer
 used by application program
 Transport Layer
responsible for establishing end-to-end
connections, translates domain names
into numeric addresses and segments
messages
 Network Layer - same as in OSI model
 Data Link Layer - same as in OSI model
*
 Physical Layer - same as in OSI model
Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Inc
 Slide 1.27
Comparison of Network
Models
1 - 27

Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Inc

 Slide 1.28

Recap…Internet protocol
Introduction
stack
 application: supporting network
applications application
 FTP, SMTP, HTTP

 transport: process-process data transfer transport

 TCP, UDP
network
 network: routing of datagrams from
source to destination
 IP, routing protocols link
 link: data transfer between neighboring physical
network elements
 PPP, Ethernet

 physical: bits “on the wire”

1-28
 Slide 1.29

Recap…ISO/OSI reference
Introduction
model
 presentation: allow applications to
interpret meaning of data, e.g., application
encryption, compression, machine-
presentation
specific conventions
 session: synchronization, session
checkpointing, recovery of data transport
exchange
network
 Internet stack “missing” these
layers! link
 these services, if needed, must physical
be implemented in application
 needed?

1-29
 Slide 1.30

Message Transmission Using

Layers
1 - 30

sender receiver

Applications Applications

A receiving layer
wraps incoming
message with an
envelope A receiving layer
removes the
• Adds layer
layer related
related
envelope and
addressing
forwards the
information
message up

Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Inc

 Slide 1.31

What’s a protocol?
Introduction

A human protocol and a computer network protocol

(either system assumes a common protocols):

Hi
TCP connection
Hi request
TCP connection
Got the response
time? Get http://www.awl.com/kurose-ross
2:00
<file>
time

Q: How many human protocols exist? Other computer network protocol

(NIC-NIC; end-sys congestion control; path routing)?
1-31
 Slide 1.32

Protocols

1 - 32
A standard that allows entities (i.e. application
programs) from different systems to
communicate
 Used by Network model layers
 Sets of rules to define how to communicate at
each layer and how to interface with adjacent
Layer N+1
layers Layer N+1

Layer N Layer N

Layer N-1 Layer N-1

sender receiver
Slide 1.33

Protocols
33

 Protocols define format, order of

messages sent and received among
network entities, and actions taken on
message transmission and receipt.
Slide 1.34

Relationship of Services to
Protocols
 A layer provides a service to the one
above

[vertical]
 A layer talks to its peer using a protocol

[horizontal]

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011
Slide 1.35

Protocol Layers (1)

Protocol layering is the main structuring method
used to divide up network functionality.
• Each protocol instance
talks virtually to its peer
• Each layer
communicates only by
using the one below
• Lower layer services are
accessed by an interface
• At bottom, messages are
carried by the medium

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall,

2011
Slide 1.36

Protocol Layers (3)

 Each lower layer adds its own header (with
control inform-ation) to the message to
transmit and removes it on receive.
 Slide 1.37

Message Transmission
Example
1 - 37

Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Inc

 Slide 1.38

Important Points to Observe

1 - 38

 Layered approach enables;

 Easy to develop new software
 Simple to change the software at any level
 Easy to change hardware
 Matching layers communicate at different
computers
 Accomplished by standards
 e.g., Physical layer at the sending computer must be
the same in the receiving computer
 Somewhat inefficient
 Involves many software and packets
 Packet overhead (slower transmission, processing time)
Slide 1.39

Standards
39
 Importance
 Provide a “fixed” way for hardware and/or software
systems (different companies) to communicate
 Help promote competition and decrease the price
 Types of Standards
 Formal standards
 Developed by an industry or government
standards-making body
 De-facto standards
 Emerge in the marketplace and widely used
 Lack official backing by a standards-making body
Slide 1.40

Standardized Protocol
40
Architectures
 Vendors like standards because they
make their products more marketable
 Customers like standards because they
enable products from different vendors
to interoperate
 Two protocol standards are well-known:
 TCP/IP: widely implemented
 OSI: less used, still useful for
modeling/conceptualizing
 Slide 1.41

Standardization Processes
1 - 41

 Specification
 Developing the nomenclature and identifying
the problems to be addressed
 Identification of choices
 Identifying solutions to the problems and
choose the “optimum” solution
 Acceptance
 Defining the solution, getting it recognized
by industry so that a uniform solution is
accepted
 Slide 1.42

Major Standards Bodies

1 - 42

 ISO (International Organization for Standardization)

 Technical recommendations for data communication
interfaces
 Composed of each country’s national standards orgs.
 Based in Geneva, Switzerland (www.iso.ch)
 ITU-T (International Telecommunications Union –Telecom
Group)
 Technical recommendations about telephone, telegraph

and data communications interfaces

 Composed of representatives from each country in UN

 Based in Geneva, Switzerland (www.itu.int)

Slide 1.43

Major Standards Bodies

43
(Cont.)
 ANSI (American National Standards Institute)
 Coordinating organization for US (not a standards-
making body)
 www.ansi.org
 IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers)
 Professional society; also develops mostly LAN
standards
 standards.ieee.org
 IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force)
 Develops Internet standards
 No official membership (anyone welcomes)
 www.ietf.org