DC MACHINES

Contents:

Principle & Construction, Types, EMF

equation of generator and torque
equation of motor, applications of DC
motors
 CONSTRUCTI
ON
• DC Generator: Electrical machine which converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy.
• DC Motor: Electrical machine which converts electrical energy into mechanical
energy.

Note: A DC generator can be used as a DC motor without any constructional changes

and vice versa is also possible. Thus, a DC generator or a DC motor can be broadly
termed as a DC machine. These basic constructional details are also valid for the
construction of a DC motor. Hence, let's call this point as construction of a DC
machine instead of just 'construction of a dc generator'
A DC machine consists of two basic parts; stator and rotor. Basic constructional
parts of a DC machine are described below. Stator is the stationary part of the
machine and rotor is the rotator part of the machine
1.Yoke or Magnetic frame: The outer frame of a dc machine is called as yoke. It
is made up of cast iron or steel. Yoke serve two purposes, firstly it provides
mechanical protection to the outer parts of the machine secondly it provides
low reluctance path for the magnetic flux.

2. Poles and pole shoes: The pole and pole shoe are fixed on the yoke by bolts..
They carry field winding and pole shoes are fastened to them. Pole shoes serve
two purposes; (i) they support field coils and (ii) spread out the flux in air gap
uniformly.

3. Field winding: They are usually made of copper. Field coils are former wound
and placed on each pole and are connected in series. They are wound in such a
way that, when energized, they form alternate North and South poles
4. Armature core: Armature core is the rotor of a dc machine. It is cylindrical in shape
with slots to carry armature winding. The armature is built up of thin laminated circular
steel disks for reducing eddy current losses. It may be provided with air ducts for the axial
air flow for cooling purposes. Armature is keyed to the shaft.
5. Armature winding: It is usually a former wound copper coil which rests in armature
slots. The armature conductors are insulated from each other and also from the armature
core. Armature winding can be wound by one of the two methods; lap winding or wave
winding. Double layer lap or wave windings are generally used.
6. Commutator : Physical connection to the armature winding is made through a
commutator brush arrangement. The function of a commutator, in a dc machine
1. It provides link between rotating armature conductor and stationary electrical circuit
by brushes.
2. It converts alternating current produced in armature conductors to a unidirectional
current in the external load circuit. A commutator consists of a set of copper segments
which are insulated from each other. The number of segments is equal to the number
of armature coils. Each segment is connected to an armature coil and the commutator
is keyed to the shaft
7.Brushes: Brushes are usually made from carbon or graphite. They rest on
commutator segments and slide on the segments when the commutator rotates
keeping the physical contact to collect or supply the current.
 DC GENERATOR
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF DC GENERATOR
1. According to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction, whenever a conductor is
placed in a varying magnetic field (OR a conductor is moved in a magnetic field), an emf
(electromotive force) gets induced in the conductor.
2. The magnitude of induced emf can be calculated from the emf equation of dc generator.
If the conductor is provided with a closed path, the induced current will circulate within
the path.
3. In a DC generator, field coils produce an electromagnetic field and the armature
conductors are rotated into the field. Thus, an electromagnetically induced emf is
generated in the armature conductors.
4. The direction of induced current is given by Fleming’s right hand rule.
5. According to Fleming’s right hand rule, the direction of induced current changes whenever
the direction of motion of the conductor changes.
6. Let’s consider an armature rotating clockwise and a conductor at the left is moving upward.
When the armature completes a half rotation, the direction of motion of that particular
conductor will be reversed to downward.
7. Hence, the direction of current in every armature conductor will be alternating.
8. If you look at the above figure, you will know how the direction of the induced current is
alternating in an armature conductor. But with a split ring commutator, connections of the
armature conductors also gets reversed when the current reversal occurs. And therefore, we get
unidirectional (DC) current at the terminals
EMF EQUATION OF A DC
GENERATOR
Representation of armature of DC
generator

E= generated emf
Ra = armature winding resistance
Ia = armature current
V= terminal voltage.
Vb = apposing emf
 CLASSIFICATION OF DC GENERATOR
DC generators are classified based on their method of excitation. So on this
basis there are two types of DC generators
1. Separately excited DC generator
2. Self-excited DC generator
Self-excited DC generator can again be classified as
3. DC Series generator
4. DC Shunt generator
5. DC Compound generator.
 1. Separately excited DC generator
DC generator has a field magnet winding which is excited using a separate voltage source
(like battery). You can see the representation in the below image. The output voltage
depends on the speed of rotation of armature and field current. The higher the speed of
rotation and current the higher the output e.m.f.
V = Eg-IaRa volts
V = Eg-ILRa volts as Ia = IL
Electrical power output Pout = VIL watts
 2. Self Excited DC Generator
These are generators in which the field winding is excited by the output of the
generator itself. As described before there are three types of self-excited dc
generators
they are
1) Series
2) Shunt
3) Compound.
1. DC series Generator:
A series DC generator is shown below in fig . in which the armature winding is
connected in series with the field winding so that the field current flows through the
load as well as the field winding. The field winding is a low resistance, thick wire of
few turns. Series generators are also rarely used
 Series field

Here Ia = Ise = IL
The output voltage is given by:
V= Eg –Ia.Ra - Ia.Rse
V = Eg – Ia.(Ra +Rse)
Electrical power output Pout = VIa watts
Ra = Armature winding resistance
Rse = series field winding resistance
2. DC shunt Generator
A shunt DC generator is shown in figure (b), in which the field winding is connected in
parallel to armature winding so that the voltage across both are same. The field winding
has high resistance and more number of turns so that only a part of armature current
passes through field winding and the rest passes through load. It is also called as constant
flux machine.

Shunt field

Here Ia = Ish+ IL ( Ish = Vsh/Rsh)

The output voltage is given by: V= Eg –Ia.Ra or V=Ish.Rsh
Electrical power output Pout = VIL watts
 3. DC Compound Generator
A DC compound generator is shown in figure below. It has two field findings namely series field
winding and shunt field winding. They have resistances as shunt winding (Rsh) and series winding
(Rse). Compound generator is of two types
1) Short shunt Compound DC Generator
2) Long shunt Compound DC Generator
1) Short shunt Compound DC Generator :
In this generator the shunt field winding is in parallel with armature winding and series field winding is
in series with load
Here Ia = Ish+ IL [ Ish = (Eg –Ia.Ra) /Rsh]
The output voltage is given by: V= (Eg –Ia.Ra - ILRse )
Electrical power output Pout = VIL watts
2.Long shunt Compound DC Generator
Here the shunt field winding is parallel to both armature and series field
winding (Rse is wired in series to the armature). It is shown in figure (b)
Here Ia = Ish+ IL [ Ish = (Eg –Ia.Ra-IaRse) /Rsh]
The output voltage is given by: V= (Eg –Ia.Ra - IaRse )
Electrical power output Pout = VIL watts
Application
Shunt Generators:
in electro plating ,for battery recharging , as exciters for AC generators.
Series Generators :
As boosters , As lighting arc lamps
 DC MOTORS
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF DC MOTOR
The DC motor is the device which converts the direct current into the mechanical work. It works on the
principle of Lorentz Law, which states that “the current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic and
electric field experience a force”. And that force is called the Lorentz force. The Fleming left-hand rule
gives the direction of the force.

Fleming Left Hand Rule: If the thumb, middle finger and the index finger of the left hand are
displaced from each other by an angle of 90°, the middle finger represents the direction of the magnetic field.
The index finger represents the direction of the current, and the thumb shows the direction of forces acting on
the conductor

Force (F)= BIL newtons

Where,
B = magnetic flux density,
I = current and
L = length of the conductor within the magnetic field.
 BACK EMF IN DC MOTOR
When the current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field, the torque produces on the
conductor. The torque rotates the conductor which cuts the flux of the magnetic field. According to
the Electromagnetic Induction Phenomenon “when the conductor cuts the magnetic field, EMF
induces in the conductor”. The Fleming right-hand rule determines the direction of the induced
EMF.
The magnitude of the back emf is given by the same expression shown below .

Where Eb = induced emf of the motor known as Back EMF,

A = Number of parallel paths through the armature between the brushes
of opposite polarity.
P= Number of poles,
N = speed in rpm
Z = Total number of conductors in the armature
ϕ = useful flux per pole.
The direction of this induced emf is such that it opposes the armature
current (Ia). The circuit diagram below illustrates the direction of the back
emf and armature current. Magnitude of the Back emf can be given by
emf equation of a DC generator
A simple conventional circuit diagram of the machine
working as a motor is shown in the diagram below
• In this case, the magnitude of the back emf is always less than the applied voltage. The
difference between the two is nearly equal when the motor runs under normal conditions. The
current induces on the motor because of the main supply. The relation between the main supply,
back emf and armature current is given as
Eb = V – IaRa
Advantages / Significance of Back Emf in DC Motor
1. Significance of back emf: Magnitude of back emf is directly proportional to speed
of the motor. Consider the load on a dc motor is suddenly reduced. In this case,
required torque will be small as compared to the current torque. Speed of the
motor will start increasing due to the excess torque. Hence, being proportional to
the speed, magnitude of the back emf will also increase. With increasing back emf
armature current will start decreasing. Torque being proportional to the armature
current, it will also decrease until it becomes sufficient for the load. Thus, speed
of the motor will regulate. As
2.On the other hand, if a dc motor is suddenly loaded, the load will cause
decrease in the speed. Due to decrease in speed, back emf will also decrease
allowing more armature current. Increased armature current will increase the
torque to satisfy the load requirement. Hence, presence of the back emf
makes a dc motor ‘self-regulating
3. If Eb is not present then the armature winding is burn out and machine get
damaged. That’s why Back EMF is very important in dc machine.
 TORQUE EQUATION OF A DC MOTOR

1. When a DC machine is loaded either as a motor or as a generator, the rotor

conductors carry current. These conductors lie in the magnetic field of the air
gap. Thus, each conductor experiences a force. The conductors lie near the
surface of the rotor at a common radius from its center.
2. Hence, a torque is produced around the circumference of the rotor, and the
rotor starts rotating. When the machine operates as a generator at a
constant speed, this torque is equal and opposite to that provided by the
prime mover.
3. When the machine is operating as a motor, the torque is transferred to the
shaft of the rotor and drives the mechanical load. The expression is same for
the generator and motor
 TORQUE EQUATION OF A DC MOTOR
When armature conductors of a DC motor carry current in the presence of stator field flux,
a mechanical torque is developed between the armature and the stator. Torque is given by
the product of the force and the radius at which this force acts.

Torque T = F × r (N-m) where, F = force

r = radius of the armature
Work done by this force in once revolution = Force × distance = F × 2πr
where, 2πr = circumference of the armature)

Net power developed in the armature = word done / time

=
= (Joules per second)
But, F×r=T
2πN/60 = angular velocity ω in radians per second.
Using above two relations we get

Net power developed in the armature = P = T × ω (Joules per second)

Now Armature torque (Ta)

The power developed in the armature can be given as, Pa = Ta × ω = Ta × 2πN/60

The mechanical power developed in the armature is converted from the electrical power,

Therefore, mechanical power = electrical power

That means, Ta × 2πN/60 = Eb.Ia

We know, Eb = PΦNZ / 60A

Therefore, Ta × 2πN/60 = (PΦNZ / 60A) × Ia

Rearranging the above equation,
 Ta = × Φ.Ia (N-m)

The term (PZ / 2πA) is practically constant for a DC machine.

Thus, armature torque is directly proportional to the product of the flux and the armature
current i.e.
Ta ∝ Φ.Ia

Shaft Torque (Tsh)

Due to iron and friction losses in a dc machine, the total developed armature torque is not
available at the shaft of the machine. Some torque is lost, and therefore, shaft torque is
always less than the armature torque.

Shaft torque of a DC motor is given as,

Tsh = output in watts / (2πN/60) (where, N is speed in RPM)

CLASSIFICATION OF DC MOTOR
DC MOTORS are also classified based on their method of excitation. So on
this basis there are two types of DC motors
1. Separately excited DC motor
2. Self-excited DC motor
Self-excited DC motor can again be classified as
3. DC Series motor
4. DC Shunt motor
5. DC Compound generator.
Separately excited DC motor

V = Eb+IaRa volts
V = Eb+ILRa volts as Ia = IL
Electrical power input Pin= VIL watts
• Types of DC Motor
• In DC motor electrical energy get converted in to
mechanical energy.
• All these type of dc motor is same as that like dc
generator, only connection is revers.
 2. DC SERIES MOTOR
• In the D.C. series motor, the armature and field windings are connected in series
with each other as shown in fig.
• The resistance of the series field winding (Rs) is much smaller as compared to
that of the armature resistance (Ra).
• Current flowing though armature winding and field winding is same name as
I=Ia=Ise.

Here Ia = Ise = IL
The input voltage is given by:
V= Eb + Ia.Ra + Ia.Rse
V = Eb + Ia.(Ra +Rse)
Electrical power input Pin = VIa watts
Ra = Armature winding resistance
Rse = series field winding resistance
Q. Series DC motor should never be started at no-load.
Justify.
• At no load the field current (which is also the armature
current) is very small and hence the useful air-gap field flux
also very small.
• Therefore the speed rises to excessively high values and it is
mechanically very harmful for machine.
• At high speeds due to centrifugal forces on the rotating parts
they may get damaged. And also it may cause accident at
work place.
• Hence DC series motor should never be started on no-load.
3.DC Shunt Motor
In the shunt dc motor type motor, the armature and field winding are connected in parallel
as shown in fig.
The parallel combination of the two windings is connected across a common dc power
supply.
• Resistance of the shunt field winding (Rsh)
is always much higher than that of the
armature winding (Ra).
• Current flow through the shunt field
winding name indicated as Ish and current
through armature winding name as Ia.
Here I = Ish+ Ia ( Ish = Vsh/Rsh)
The input voltage is given by: V= Eb + Ia.Ra
or V=Ish.Rsh
Electrical power input Pin = VI watts
 DC COMPOUND MOTORS
• The DC compound motors are classified into two types:
1.Long shunt compound motor.
2.Short shunt compound motor.
1. Long Shunt Compound Motor
• he connection of long shunt compound dc motor is shown in
fig.
• Note that the shunt field winding is connected across the
series combination of the armature and series field winding.
Here I = Ish+ Ia [ Ish = (V/Rsh]
The input voltage is given by: V= (Eb + Ia.Ra + ILRse )
Electrical power input Pin = VI watts
 2. SHORT SHUNT COMPOUND MOTOR
Interconnections between various windings of a DC short shunt compound motor are shown in fig.

The armature and shunt field windings are connected in

parallel with each other and this parallel connection
combination is then connected in series with the series field
winding.
Here I = Ish+ Ia [ Ish = V/Rsh]
The input voltage is given by: V= (Eb + Ia.Ra + IaRse )
Electrical power input Pin = VI watts
 CUMULATIVE AND DIFFERENTIAL TYPE
COMPOUND MOTOR
A compound wound DC motor is said to be cumulatively compounded when the shunt field flux
produced by the shunt winding assists or enhances the effect of main field flux, produced by the
series winding.

Similarly a compound wound DC motor is said to be deferentially

compounded when the flux due to the shunt field winding diminishes the
effect of the main series winding

Note: Both long shunt and short shunt compound motor can be differential
or cumulative type.
APPLICATIONS OF DC MOTORS
Que. State at least four applications of Different
types of dc motor.
Shunt Motor Applications:
• Lathe Machine
• Drilling Machine
• Milling Machine
• Printing Machine
• Pumps
• Blowers
• Fans
Series Motor Applications:
• Series motors are very widely used for the following
applications:
• Electric trains,
• Diesel-electric locomotives,
• Cranes,
• Trolley cars and trolley buses,
• Conveyers etc.
Cumulative Compound Motor Applications:
• Cumulative compound motors are used for the following
applications:
• Elevators
• Rolling mills