Conservative and Nonconservative Forces

A force is conservative if:

the work done by the force on an object
moving from one point to another depends
only on the initial and final positions of the
object, and is independent of the particular
path taken.
Example: gravity.

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Conservative and Nonconservative Forces

Another definition of a conservative force:

a force is conservative if the net work done by the force
on an object moving around any closed path is zero.

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Conservative and Nonconservative Forces

If friction is present, the work done depends not

only on the starting and ending points, but also
on the path taken. Friction is called a
nonconservative force.

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Conservative and Nonconservative Forces

Potential energy can

only be defined for
conservative forces.

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

 8-2 Potential Energy

An object can have potential energy by virtue of

its surroundings.
Familiar examples of potential energy:
• A wound-up spring
• A stretched elastic band
• An object at some height above the ground

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

 8-2 Potential Energy
In raising a mass m to a height
h, the work done by the
external force is

.
We therefore define the
gravitational potential
energy at a height y above
some reference point:
.

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

 8-2 Potential Energy

This potential energy can become kinetic energy

if the object is dropped.
Potential energy is a property of a system as a
whole, not just of the object (because it depends
on external forces).
If Ugrav = mgy, where do we measure y from?
It turns out not to matter, as long as we are
consistent about where we choose y = 0. Only
changes in potential energy can be measured.

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

 8-2 Potential Energy
Example 8-1: Potential energy changes for a roller
coaster.
A 1000-kg roller-coaster car moves from point 1 to
point 2 and then to point 3. (a) What is the
gravitational potential energy at points 2 and 3
relative to point 1? That is, take y = 0 at point 1. (b)
What is the change in potential energy when the car
goes from point 2 to point 3? (c) Repeat parts (a) and
(b), but take the reference point (y = 0) to be at point 3.

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

 8-2 Potential Energy

General definition of gravitational

potential energy:

For any conservative force:

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

 8-2 Potential Energy
A spring has potential
energy, called elastic
potential energy, when it
is compressed. The force
required to compress or
stretch a spring is:

where k is called the

spring constant and needs
to be measured for each
spring.

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

 8-2 Potential Energy

Then the potential energy is:

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

 8-2 Potential Energy
In one dimension,

We can invert this equation to find U(x)

if we know F(x):

In three dimensions:

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

 8-3 Mechanical Energy and Its
Conservation
If there are no nonconservative forces, the sum
of the changes in the kinetic energy and in the
potential energy is zero—the kinetic and
potential energy changes are equal but opposite
in sign.
This allows us to define the total mechanical
energy:

And its conservation:

.
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
 8-3 Mechanical Energy and Its
Conservation

The principle of conservation of mechanical

energy:

If only conservative forces are doing work,

the total mechanical energy of a system
neither increases nor decreases in any
process. It stays constant—it is conserved.

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

 8-4 Problem Solving Using Conservation of
Mechanical Energy

In the image on the left,

the total mechanical
energy at any point is:

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

 8-4 Problem Solving Using Conservation of
Mechanical Energy
Example 8-3: Falling rock.

If the original height of the

rock is y1 = h = 3.0 m,
calculate the rock’s speed
when it has fallen to 1.0 m
above the ground.

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

 8-4 Problem Solving Using Conservation of
Mechanical Energy
Example 8-4: Roller-coaster car speed using
energy conservation.
Assuming the height of the hill is 40 m, and
the roller-coaster car starts from rest at the
top, calculate (a) the speed of the roller-
coaster car at the bottom of the hill, and (b)
at what height it will have half this speed.
Take y = 0 at the bottom of the hill.

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

 8-4 Problem Solving Using Conservation of
Mechanical Energy

Which to use for solving problems?

Newton’s laws: best when forces are
constant
Work and energy: good when forces are
constant; also may succeed when forces
are not constant

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

 8-4 Problem Solving Using Conservation of
Mechanical Energy
Example 8-6: Pole vault.
Estimate the kinetic
energy and the speed
required for a 70-kg
pole vaulter to just pass
over a bar 5.0 m high.
Assume the vaulter’s
center of mass is
initially 0.90 m off the
ground and reaches its
maximum height at the
level of the bar itself.
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
 8-4 Problem Solving Using Conservation of
Mechanical Energy
For an elastic force, conservation of energy tells
us:

Example 8-7: Toy dart gun.

A dart of mass 0.100 kg is
pressed against the spring of a
toy dart gun. The spring (with
spring stiffness constant k = 250
N/m and ignorable mass) is
compressed 6.0 cm and released.
If the dart detaches from the
spring when the spring reaches
its natural length (x = 0), what
speed does the dart acquire?

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

 8-4 Problem Solving Using Conservation of
Mechanical Energy
Example 8-8: Two kinds of potential energy.
A ball of mass m = 2.60 kg,
starting from rest, falls a
vertical distance h = 55.0 cm
before striking a vertical coiled
spring, which it compresses an
amount Y = 15.0 cm. Determine
the spring stiffness constant of
the spring. Assume the spring
has negligible mass, and
ignore air resistance. Measure
all distances from the point
where the ball first touches the
uncompressed spring (y = 0 at
this point).
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
 8-4 Problem Solving Using Conservation of
Mechanical Energy
Example 8-9: A swinging pendulum.
This simple pendulum consists of a small bob of
mass m suspended by a massless cord of length l.
The bob is released (without a push) at t = 0, where
the cord makes an angle θ = θ0 to the vertical.
(a) Describe the motion of the
bob in terms of kinetic energy
and potential energy. Then
determine the speed of the bob
(b) as a function of position θ as
it swings back and forth, and (c)
at the lowest point of the swing.
(d)
 Find the tension in the cord,
FT. Ignore friction and air
resistance.
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
 8-5 The Law of Conservation of Energy

Nonconservative, or dissipative, forces:

Friction
Heat
Electrical energy
Chemical energy
and more
do not conserve mechanical energy. However,
when these forces are taken into account, the
total energy is still conserved:

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

 8-5 The Law of Conservation of Energy

The law of conservation of energy is one of

the most important principles in physics.

The total energy is neither increased nor

decreased in any process. Energy can be
transformed from one form to another, and
transferred from one object to another, but
the total amount remains constant.

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

 8-6 Energy Conservation with Dissipative
Forces: Solving Problems
Problem Solving:
1. Draw a picture.
2. Determine the system for which energy will
be conserved.
3. Figure out what you are looking for and
decide on the initial and final positions.
4. Choose a logical reference frame.
5. Apply conservation of energy.
6. Solve.
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
 8-6 Energy Conservation with Dissipative
Forces: Solving Problems
Example 8-10: Friction on the roller-coaster car.
The roller-coaster car shown reaches a vertical
height of only 25 m on the second hill before
coming to a momentary stop. It traveled a total
distance of 400 m.
Determine the thermal
energy produced and
estimate the average
friction force (assume it is
roughly constant) on the
car, whose mass is 1000 kg.
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
 8-6 Energy Conservation with Dissipative
Forces: Solving Problems
Example 8-11: Friction with a spring.
A block of mass m sliding
along a rough horizontal
surface is traveling at a
speed v0 when it strikes a
massless spring head-on
and compresses the spring a
maximum distance X. If the
spring has stiffness constant
k, determine the coefficient
of kinetic friction between
block and surface.

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

 8-7 Gravitational Potential Energy and
Escape Velocity
Far from the surface of the Earth, the force
of gravity is not constant:

The work done on an object

moving in the Earth’s
gravitational field is given by:

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

 8-7 Gravitational Potential Energy and
Escape Velocity
Solving the integral gives:

Because the value of the integral depends

only on the end points, the gravitational
force is conservative and we can define
gravitational potential energy:

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

 8-7 Gravitational Potential Energy and
Escape Velocity
Example 8-12: Package dropped from high-
speed rocket.
A box of empty film canisters is allowed to
fall from a rocket traveling outward from
Earth at a speed of 1800 m/s when 1600 km
above the Earth’s surface. The package
eventually falls to the Earth. Estimate its
speed just before impact. Ignore air
resistance.

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

 8-7 Gravitational Potential Energy and
Escape Velocity

If an object’s initial kinetic energy is equal to

the potential energy at the Earth’s surface, its
total energy will be zero. The velocity at which
this is true is called the escape velocity; for
Earth:

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

 8-7 Gravitational Potential Energy and
Escape Velocity
Example 8-13: Escaping the Earth or
the Moon.
(a) Compare the escape velocities of a
rocket from the Earth and from the
Moon.
(b) Compare the energies required to
launch the rockets. For the Moon,
MM = 7.35 x 1022 kg and rM = 1.74 x
106 m, and for Earth, ME = 5.98 x 1024
kg and rE = 6.38 x 106 m.
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
 8-8 Power
Power is the rate at which work is done.
Average power:

Instantaneous power:

In the SI system, the units of power are

watts:

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

 8-8 Power

Power can also be described as the rate at

which energy is transformed:

In the British system, the basic unit for

power is the foot-pound per second, but
more often horsepower is used:
1 hp = 550 ft·lb/s = 746 W.

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

 8-8 Power

Example 8-14: Stair-climbing power.

A 60-kg jogger runs up a

long flight of stairs in 4.0 s.
The vertical height of the
stairs is 4.5 m. (a) Estimate
the jogger’s power output
in watts and horsepower.
(b) How much energy did
this require?

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

 8-8 Power

Power is also needed for acceleration

and for moving against the force of
friction.
The power can be written in terms of
the net force and the velocity:

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

 8-8 Power
Example 8-15: Power needs of a car.
Calculate the power required of a 1400-kg car
under the following circumstances: (a) the car
climbs a 10° hill (a fairly steep hill) at a steady 80
km/h; and (b) the car accelerates along a level
road from 90 to 110 km/h in 6.0 s to pass another
car. Assume that the average retarding force on
the car is FR = 700 N throughout.

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

 8-9 Potential Energy Diagrams; Stable and
Unstable Equilibrium

This is a potential energy

diagram for a particle
moving under the influence
of a conservative force. Its
behavior will be determined
by its total energy.

With energy E1, the object oscillates between

x3 and x2, called turning points. An object with
energy E2 has four turning points; an object
with energy E0 is in stable equilibrium. An
object at x4 is in unstable equilibrium.
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Summary of Chapter 8
• Conservative force: work depends only on
end points
• Gravitational potential energy: Ugrav = mgy.
• Elastic potential energy: Uel = ½ kx2.
• For any conservative force:

• Inverting,

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Summary of Chapter 8
• Total mechanical energy is the sum of
kinetic and potential energies.
• Additional types of energy are involved
when nonconservative forces act.
• Total energy (including all forms) is
conserved.
• Gravitational potential energy:

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Summary of Chapter 8
• Power: rate at which work is done, or
energy is transformed:

or

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.