Sensor Technology:

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Open Elective
3EL83
 Unit-1
Introduction to Electronics Measurement and Instrumentation:

• Transducers and sensors-

• Accuracy and precisions, types of errors, statistical analysis
• probability of errors
• limiting errors
• sensitivity
• linearity
• hysteresis
• resolution
• reproducibility and
• transfer function.
 Linearity:
• Linearity is-
an indicator of the consistency of measurements over the
entire range of measurements.

• In general, it is a good indicator of performance quality of a

sensor, but on its own, it can be a misleading indicator.

• Linearity looks at the accuracy of the measurements over the full

range of the device.
 Hysteresis:
 Hysteresis effects Fig. illustrates the output
characteristic of an instrument that exhibits
hysteresis. If the input measured quantity to
the instrument is steadily increased from a
negative value, the output reading varies in
the manner shown in curve (a).
 If the input variable is then steadily
decreased, the output varies in the manner
shown in curve (b).
 These are normally expressed as a
percentage of the full-scale input or output
reading respectively
 Resolution & Reproducibility:
 When an instrument is showing a particular output reading, there is a
lower limit on the magnitude of the change in the input measured
quantity that produces an observable change in the instrument output.
 Like threshold, resolution is sometimes specified as an absolute value
and sometimes as a percentage of f. s. deflection. One of the major
factors influencing the resolution of an instrument is how finely its
output scale is divided into subdivisions.
 Using a car speedometer as an example again, this has subdivisions of
typically 20 km/h. This means that when the needle is between the scale
markings, we cannot estimate speed more accurately than to the
nearest 5 km/h.
 This figure of 5 km/h thus represents the resolution of the instrument
 Transfer Function
 A sensor measures a variable by converting information about that
variable into a dependent signal of either electrical or pneumatic
nature.
 To develop such transducers, we take advantage of fortuitous
circumstances in nature where a dynamic variable influences some
characteristic of a material.
 We often describe the effect of the signal conditioning by the term
transfer function.
 By this term we mean the effect of the signal conditioning on the
input signal.
 Unit-2:
Analog Signal Conditioning:

• Signal conditioning, Loading effects,

• Bridges for measurement techniques,
• Attenuators and Amplifiers, Passive filters,
• Op-amp based signal conditioning circuits, Inverting and
Non-Inverting Amplifiers
• Linearization, Differential amplifiers and Instrumentation
amplifiers.
 A Wheatstone Bridge:
• A bridge circuit in its simplest form consists of a network
of four resistance arms forming a closed circuit, with a dc
source of current applied to two opposite junctions and a
current detector connected to the other two junctions, as
shown in Fig. Bridge circuits are extensively used for
measuring component values such as R, L and C.
• Since the bridge circuit an accurately known component,
its measurement accuracy can be very high.
• This is because the readout of this comparison is based on
the null indication at bridge balance, and is essentially
independent of the characteristics of the null detector.
• The measurement accuracy is therefore directly related to
the accuracy of the bridge component and not to that of
the null indicator used. The basic dc bridge is used for
accurate measurement of resistance and is called
Wheatstone’s bridge.
 WHEATSTONE’S BRIDGE
(Measurement of Resistance)
• Wheatstone’s bridge is the most accurate method available
for measuring resistances and is popular for laboratory use.
• The circuit diagram of a typical Wheatstone bridge is given in
Fig. The source of emf and switch is connected to points A
and B, while a sensitive current indicating meter, the
galvanometer, is connected to points C and D.
• The galvanometer is a sensitive microammeter, with a zero
center scale. When there is no current through the meter,
the galvanometer pointer rests at 0, i.e. mid scale. Current in
one direction causes the pointer to deflect on one side and
current in the opposite direction to the other side
Application of Wheatstone’s
Bridge
• A Wheatstone bridge may be used to measure the dc resistance of
various types of wire, either for the purpose of quality control of the
wire itself, or of some assembly in which it is used.
• For example, the resistance of motor windings, transformers,
solenoids, and relay coils can be measured.
• Wheatstone’s bridge is also used extensively by telephone companies
and others to locate cable faults. The fault may be two lines shorted
together, or a single line shorted to ground
Limitations of Wheatstone’s Bridge:
• For low resistance measurement, the resistance of the leads and
contacts becomes significant and introduces an error. This can be
eliminated by Kelvin’s Double bridge.
• For high resistance measurements, the resistance presented by the
bridge becomes so large that the galvanometer is insensitive to
imbalance. Therefore, a power supply has to replace the battery and a dc
VTVM replaces the galvanometer.
• In the case of high resistance measurements in mega ohms, the
Wheatstone bridge cannot be used. Another difficulty in Wheatstone’s
bridge is the change in resistance of the bridge arms due to the heating
effect of current through the resistance.
• The rise in temperature causes a change in the value of the resistance,
and excessive current may cause a permanent change in value.
 Signal Conditioning:
Introduction
• Signal conditioning refers to operations performed on signals to
convert them to a form suitable for interfacing with other elements in
the process-control loop.
Signal Conditioning:
 Introduction:
 The signal conditioning equipment may be required to
perform linear processes such as amplification, attenuation,
integration, differentiation, addition or subtraction.
 They are also required to do non-linear processes such as
modulation, demodulation, sampling, filtering, clipping and
clamping, squaring and linearizing or multiplication by
another function.
 These functions require proper selection of components and
faithful reproduction of the fi nal output for the presentation
stage
Loading Effect
Attenuators and Amplifier:
Passive Filter:
 Signal Linearization:

• Mapping Voltage of the Input Signal--

• Linearization is a form of signal interpretation that is used
when sensor equipment produces signals that do not exhibit
a linear relationship to the actual measurement.
• It is used to map the voltage of the input signal from the
sensor against the corresponding value of the physical
measurement.
• This is a common signal conditioning process for industrial
temperature measurements.
Operational Amplifier:
Op-Amp
Op-Amp: Applications
Op-Amp: Applications
Op-Amp: Applications
Op-Amp: Applications
Instrumentation Amplifier:
Continue…
Load Cell:
 Piezo electric Transducer:

• A symmetrical crystalline materials such as Quartz, Rochelle salt and

Barium titanate produce an emf when they are placed under stress.

• This property is used in piezo electric transducers, where a crystal is

placed between a solid base and the force-summing member, as
shown in Figure.
Transducer and its equivalent
circuit:
Continue…
• An externally applied force, entering the transducer through
its pressure port, applies pressure to the top of a crystal.
• This produces an emf across the crystal proportional to the
magnitude of applied pressure. Since the transducer has a
very good HF response, its principal use is in HF
accelerometers.
• In this application, its output voltage is typically of the order
of 1 – 30 mV per gm of acceleration. The device needs no
external power source and is therefore self generating.
• The disadvantage is that it cannot measure static conditions.
The output voltage is also affected by temperature variation
of the crystal.
The basic expression for the output
voltage E:
E = Q / Cp
• Where Q = Generated Charge
Cp = Shunt Capacitance
 For a piezo electric element under pressure, part of the energy is
converted to an electric potential that appears on opposite faces of
the element, analogous to a charge on the plates of a capacitor.
 The rest of the applied energy is converted to mechanical energy,
analogous to a compressed spring. When the pressure is removed, it
returns to its original shape and loses its electric charge.
Coupling Coefficient ‘ K ‘
Piezo electric Transducer:
Motion Sensor: