NUMBER THEORY

PRESENTED BY
JAI KUMAR & MUHAMMAD SADIQ
NUMBER THEORY

 Euler’s Theorem &

CONTENTS Totient Function
 Introduction to Number Theory  Chinese Remainder
 Great Mathematicians Theorem (CRT)
 Divisibility & Factors  Perfect & Deficient
 Prime and Composite Numbers Numbers
 Euclid’s Proof – Infinite Primes  Applications of
 GCD and LCM Number Theory
 Euclidean Algorithm  Real-World Example
 Diophantine Equations – RSA Encryption
 Modular Arithmetic
 Famous Problems
 Modular Inverses & Applications
 Recap & Summary
 01
INTRODUCTION TO
NUMBER THEORY
What is number theory?

What is Number Theory?

 A branch of pure mathematics devoted primarily to the study
of integers. Often called "The Queen of Mathematics" (Gauss).

 Key Areas of Study: Properties of integers (primes, divisibility,

etc.) ○ Equations involving integers. Number theoretic
functions.

 Why Study Number Theory? Fundamental to modern

cryptography (e.g., RSA). Applications in computer science,
coding theory, and more. Intrinsically beautiful and
intellectually stimulating.
 Great Mathematicians
Known for:
Euclidean geometry
Euclid's elements
Euclidean algorithm
List of topics named after Euclid
Primes
Fundamental theorem of arithmetic
Euclidean algorithm
2 (primes)
Odd numbers
4k+1 & 4k+3

 EUCLID
 BORN: mid 4th century bc
 Died: mid 3rd centry bc
Great Mathematicians

Mathematics is the queen of the

science and number theory is the
queen of math.
 Congruence
 Modular arithmetic
 Linear congruence
 Polynomial congruence

CARL FRIEDRICH
GAUSS
Great Mathematicians

Pierre de
Fermat
Great Mathematicians

 Euler's Theorem Quadratic

 Residues/ Euler's Criterion to Check
Quadratic Residue
 Primitive Roots
 Applications: Cryptography Encryption
Security

leonhard euler
TYPES OF NUMBERS

Natural Numbers
1,2,3,…….
Whole Numbers
0,1,2,3,……..
Integers Number
….,-2,-1,0,1,2,…
Rational Numbers
Numbers expressed as p/q
Where p & q belong to Z and q does not equal to zero
Irrational & Real Numbers
Not primary focus in number theory
Focus
Mostly on integers and their properties
 02
DIVISIBILITY & FACTORS
DIVISIBILITY
 Divisibility: ○ An integer 'a' divides an integer 'b' (denoted a|b)
if there exists an integer 'k' such that b = ak.
 Examples: 3|12 because 12 = 3 \times 4.

 ● Factors (or Divisors): ○ If a|b, then 'a' is a factor (or divisor)

of 'b’.
 The factors of 12 are \pm1, \pm2, \pm3, \pm4, \pm6, \pm12.

 ● Properties of Divisibility:
 Reflexive: a|a
 Transitive: If a|b and b|c, then a|c
 Linear Combination: If a|b and a|c, then a|(bx + cy) for any
integers x, y
 03
PRIME AND COMPOSITE
NUMBERS
Prime and Composite Number

 Prime Numbers: ○ A natural number greater than 1 that has no positive

divisors other than 1 and itself.
 ○ Examples: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13...
 ○ The building blocks of integers (Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic).

 ● Composite Numbers:
 ○ A natural number greater than 1 that is not prime (i.e., has more than
two positive divisors).
 ○ Examples: 4 (divisors: 1, 2, 4), 6 (divisors: 1, 2, 3, 6), 9, 10...

 ● Note: 1 is neither prime nor composite.

 04
. Euclid's Proof – Infinite Primes
. Euclid's Proof – Infinite Primes
The Question: Are there infinitely many prime numbers?
 ● Euclid's Proof by Contradiction (circa 300 BC):
 1. Assume there is a finite number of primes, let's list them: p_1,
p_2, ..., p_n.
 2. Consider the number P = (p_1 \times p_2 \times ... \times p_n) +
1.
 3. P is either prime or composite
 . ■ If P is prime, it's a new prime not on our list, contradicting our
assumption.
 ■ If P is composite, it must have a prime divisor 'q’.
 ■ This prime divisor 'q' cannot be any of p_1, ..., p_n (because
dividing P by any of them leaves a remainder of 1).
 ■ Therefore, 'q' must be a new prime not on our list, again
contradicting our assumption.
 4. Conclusion: Our initial assumption was false, so there must be
infinitely many prime numbers.
 05
GCD and LCM
GCD and LCM
 Greatest Common Divisor (GCD) / Highest Common Factor
(HCF):
 ○ The largest positive integer that divides two or more
integers without leaving a remainder.
 ○ Notation: \text{gcd}(a, b) or \text{hcf}(a, b).
 ○ Example: \text{gcd}(12, 18) = 6.
 ● Least Common Multiple (LCM):
 ○ The smallest positive integer that is a multiple of two or
more integers.
 ○ Notation: \text{lcm}(a, b).
 ○ Example: \text{lcm}(12, 18) = 36.
 ● Relationship: For any positive integers 'a' and 'b':
 06
. Euclidean Algorithm
Euclidean Algorithm
 Purpose: An efficient method for computing the Greatest Common Divisor
(GCD) of two integers.
 ● Principle: Based on the principle that \text{gcd}(a, b) = \text{gcd}(b, a
\pmod b), where a \pmod b is the remainder when a is divided by b.
 ● Steps:
 1. Divide the larger number by the smaller number and get the
remainder.
 2. Replace the larger number with the smaller number, and the smaller
number with the remainder.
 3. Repeat until the remainder is 0. The last non-zero remainder is the GCD.
 ● Example: \text{gcd}(48, 18)
 ○ 48 = 2 \times 18 + 12
 ○ 18 = 1 \times 12 + 6
 ○ 12 = 2 \times 6 + 0
 ○ Therefore, \text{gcd}(48, 18) = 6
 07
Diophantine Equations
Diophantine Equations
 Definition: Polynomial equations where only integer solutions
are sought.
 ● Linear Diophantine Equation (LDE):
 ○ Form: ax + by = c, where a, b, c are integers, and x, y are
integer variables.
 ○ Solvability Condition: An LDE ax + by = c has integer
solutions if and only if \text{gcd}(a, b) divides c.
 ● Finding Solutions:
 ○ Use the Extended Euclidean Algorithm to find a particular
solution (x_0, y_0).
 ○ General solutions: x = x_0 + (b/\text{gcd}(a,b))k and y =
y_0 - (a/\text{gcd}(a,b))k for any integer k.
 ● Historical Context: Named after the ancient Greek
mathematician Diophantus of Alexandria.
 08
Modular Arithmetic
 Modular Arithmetic
Concept: A system of arithmetic for integers, where numbers "wrap
around" after reaching a certain value (the modulus).
● Congruence Relation:
○ a \equiv b \pmod m (read as "a is congruent to b modulo m") means
that a and b have the same remainder when divided by m.
○ Equivalently, m divides (a-b).
● Applications:
○ Time (e.g., clocks operate modulo 12 or 24).
○ Days of the week (modulo 7).
○ Cryptography (e.g., RSA).
○ Checksums and error detection.
Properties:
○ Addition: If a \equiv b \pmod m and c \equiv d \pmod m, then a+c \
equiv b+d \pmod m.
○ Multiplication: If a \equiv b \pmod m and c \equiv d \pmod m, then
ac \equiv bd \pmod m.
 09
Modular Inverses & Applications
 Modular Inverses & Applications
Modular Inverse:
○ For an integer 'a' and modulus 'm', the modular inverse of 'a'
modulo 'm' is an integer a^{-1} such that a \cdot a^{-1} \equiv 1 \
pmod m.
○ A modular inverse exists if and only if \text{gcd}(a, m) = 1 (i.e., 'a'
and 'm' are coprime).
● Finding Modular Inverses: ○ Using the Extended Euclidean
Algorithm.
○ Using Euler's Totient Theorem (for specific cases).
● Applications: ○ Solving linear congruences: ax \equiv b \pmod m. If
a^{-1} exists, x \equiv a^{-1}b \pmod m.
○ Cryptography (e.g., in key exchange algorithms).
○ Public-key cryptography (e.g., RSA relies heavily on modular
arithmetic and inverses).
 10
Euler's Theorem & Totient Function
 Euler's Theorem & Totient Function
 Euler's Totient Function (\phi(n)):
 ○ Counts the number of positive integers less than or equal to
'n' that are relatively prime to 'n' (i.e., \text{gcd}(k, n) = 1).
 ○ Examples: \phi(1) = 1, \phi(p) = p-1 (for prime p), \phi(10) =
4 (1, 3, 7, 9).
 ● Euler's Theorem:
 ○ If 'a' and 'n' are coprime positive integers, then a^{\
phi(n)} \equiv 1 \pmod n. ○ A generalization of Fermat's Little
Theorem (which applies when 'n' is prime).
 ● Significance: Crucial for understanding and implementing
the RSA public-key cryptosystem.
 11
Chinese Remainder Theorem (CRT)
 Chinese Remainder Theorem (CRT)
Problem: Given a system of simultaneous congruences:
○ x \equiv a_1 \pmod{m_1}
○ x \equiv a_2 \pmod{m_2
○ x \equiv a_k \pmod{m_k}
● Theorem: If the moduli m_1, m_2, ..., m_k are pairwise coprime
(i.e., \text{gcd}(m_i, m_j) = 1 for i \neq j), then there exists a
unique solution for 'x' modulo M = m_1 \times m_2 \times ... \
times m_k.
● Applications:
○ Computer science (e.g., large integer arithmetic).
○ Cryptography.
○ Error-correcting codes.
○ Solving certain puzzles..
 12
Perfect & Deficient Numbers
Perfect & Deficient Numbers
 Perfect Numbers:
 ○ A positive integer that is equal to the sum of its proper positive
divisors (divisors excluding the number itself).
 ○ Example: 6 (proper divisors: 1, 2, 3; 1+2+3 = 6).
 ○ Example: 28 (proper divisors: 1, 2, 4, 7, 14; 1+2+4+7+14 = 28).
 ○ Euclid-Euler Theorem: An even number is perfect if and only if it
is of the form 2^{p-1}(2^p-1), where 2^p-1 is a Mersenne prime.
 ● Deficient Numbers:
 ○ A positive integer for which the sum of its proper positive divisors
is less than the number itself.
 ○ Examples: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10... (most numbers are deficient).
 ○ All prime numbers are deficient.
 13
. Applications of Number Theory
. Applications of Number Theory
 Cryptography:
 ○ RSA Encryption: (will cover in detail next) Secure communication
over insecure channels.
 ○ Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC): Used widely in modern secure
systems, often more efficient for smaller key sizes.
 ○ Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange: Securely establishing shared secrets.
 ● Computer Science:
 ○ Hashing algorithms: Efficient data storage and retrieval.
 ○ Error-correcting codes: Ensuring data integrity in transmission and
storage (e.g., CDs, DVDs, internet).
 ○ Pseudorandom number generation.
 ● Coding Theory:
 ○ Designing codes for efficient and reliable data transmission.
 ● Pure Mathematics:
 ○ Continues to be an active area of research, driving new
mathematical discoveries
 14
. Real-World Example – RSA
Encryption
Real-World Example – RSA
Encryption



What is RSA?
○ One of the first public-key cryptosystems and is widely used for
secure data transmission.
 ○ Developed by Rivest, Shamir, and Adleman in 1977.
 ● How it Works (Simplified): 1. Key Generation:
 ■ Choose two large random prime numbers (p and q).
 ■ Calculate n = p \times q.
 ■ Calculate \phi(n) = (p-1)(q-1) (Euler's Totient Function).
 ■ Choose public exponent e such that \text{gcd}(e, \phi(n)) = 1.
 ■ Calculate private exponent d such that ed \equiv 1 \pmod{\phi(n)}
(Modular Inverse).
 ■ Public Key: (n, e) (shared with anyone).
 ■ Private Key: (n, d) (kept secret). 2. Encryption: To encrypt a
message M: C = M^e \pmod n.
 3. Decryption: To decrypt ciphertext C: M = C^d \pmod n.
 ● Security: Relies on the computational difficulty of factoring large
numbers (n) back into its prime factors (p and q).
 15
Famous problem
Famous problem
 Unsolved Mysteries in Number Theory:
 ○ Goldbach Conjecture: Every even integer greater than 2 is the
sum of two prime numbers (e.g., 4=2+2, 6=3+3, 8=3+5). (Still
unproven, but extensively tested).
 ○ Twin Prime Conjecture: There are infinitely many pairs of prime
numbers that differ by 2 (e.g., (3,5), (5,7), (11,13)). (Unproven).
 ○ Riemann Hypothesis: (A very complex problem related to the
distribution of prime numbers, a Millennium Prize Problem).
 ● Why are they important?
 ○ These problems drive mathematical research, leading to new
techniques and discoveries even if the problems themselves
remain unsolved.
 ○ They highlight the depth and complexity still present in
seemingly simple integer properties.
 15
Conclusion
 Conclusion
 Key Concepts Covered:
 ○ The fundamental properties of integers (divisibility, primes).
 ○ Core algorithms (Euclidean Algorithm).
 ○ The power of modular arithmetic for modern applications.
 ○ Important theorems (Euler's, CRT).
 ○ Real-world impact through cryptography (RSA).
 ○ Ongoing challenges and the legacy of great minds.
 ● Number Theory: A foundational and evolving field:
 ○ It connects ancient mathematical curiosities to cutting-edge
technology.
 ○ It demonstrates the beauty and utility of abstract thought.
 ● Encouragement: ○ The world of numbers is vast and full of
wonders. We've only scratched the surface today!
 THANK YOU & Q & A

ANY QUESTION ?

“Pure mathematics is , in its way ,the poetry of logical ideas. "Albert

Einstein .