Chapter 1

Introduction

Computer
Networking: A Top
Down Approach
7th edition
Jim Kurose, Keith Ross
Pearson/Addison Wesley
April 2016
Introduction 1-1
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
▪ end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
▪ packet switching, circuit switching, network
structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models

Introduction 1-2
What’s the Internet: “nuts and
bolts” view
PC
▪ billions of connected mobile network
serve
r
computing devices:
wireles • hosts = end global
s ISP
laptop
smartphone
systems
• running network home
apps
▪ communication network
regional ISP
wireles
links
s
links
• fiber, copper,
wired
links radio, satellite
• transmission
rate: bandwidth
▪ packet switches:
route
r
forward packets institutional
(chunks of data) network
• routers and
switches Introduction 1-3
What’s the Internet: “nuts and
bolts” view
mobile network
▪ Internet: “network of
networks”
global
• Interconnected ISPs
ISP
▪ protocols control sending,
receiving of messages home
• e.g., TCP, IP, HTTP, Skype, network
regional ISP
802.11
▪ Internet standards
• RFC: Request for comments
• IETF: Internet Engineering
Task Force

institutional
network

Introductio 1-4
n
What’s the Internet: a service view
mobile network
▪ infrastructure that
provides services to global
ISP
applications:
• Web, VoIP, email, home
games, e-commerce, network
regional ISP
social nets, …
▪ provides
programming
interface to apps
• hooks that allow
sending and receiving
app programs to institutional
network
“connect” to Internet
• provides service Introductio 1-5
n
What’s a protocol?
human protocols: network protocols:
▪ “what’s the time?” ▪ machines rather
▪ “I have a question” than humans
▪ introductions ▪ all communication
activity in Internet
… specific messages governed by
sent protocols
… specific actions
taken when protocols define (i)
messages received, format,
or other events
(ii) order of messages
sent and received
among network entities,
and (iii) actions taken
Introduction 1-6
What’s a protocol?
a human protocol and a computer network
protocol:

Hi TCP connection
request
Hi TCP connection
response
Got
the Get http://www.awl.com/kurose-ross
time?
2:00
<file>
time

Introduction 1-7
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
▪ end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
▪ packet switching, circuit switching, network
structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 networks under attack: security
1.7 history

Introduction 1-8
A closer look at network
structure:
▪ network edge: mobile network

• hosts: clients and

servers global
ISP
• servers often in data
centers home
▪ access networks, network
regional ISP
physical media:
wired, wireless
communication
links
▪ network core:
• interconnected
routers institutional
• network of network

networks
Introduction 1-9
Access networks and physical
media
Q: How to connect
end systems to
edge router?
▪ residential access nets
▪ institutional access
networks (school,
company)
▪ mobile access
networks
keep in mind:
▪ bandwidth (bits per
second) of access
network?
▪ shared or dedicated?
Introduction 1-10
Access network: digital subscriber
line (DSL)
central office telephone
network

DSL splitte
mode r DSLAM
m

ISP
voice, data transmitted
at different frequencies over DSL access
dedicated line to central office multiplexer

▪ use existing telephone line to central office DSLAM

• data over DSL phone line goes to Internet
• voice over DSL phone line goes to telephone net
▪ < 2.5 Mbps upstream transmission rate (typically <
1 Mbps)
▪ < 24 Mbps downstream transmission rate (typically
Introduction 1-11
< 10 Mbps)
Access network: cable
network
cable headend

cable splitte
mode r
m

C
O
V V V V V V N
I I I I I I D D T
D D D D D D A A R
E E E E E E T T O
O O O O O O A A L

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Channel
s
frequency division multiplexing: different
channels transmitted
in different frequency bands
Introduction 1-12
Access network: cable
network
cable headend

cable splitte cable modem

mode r CMTS termination system
m
data, TV transmitted at different
frequencies over shared cable ISP
distribution network

▪ HFC: hybrid fiber coax

• asymmetric: up to 30Mbps downstream
transmission rate, 2 Mbps upstream
transmission rate
▪ network of cable, fiber attaches homes to ISP
router
• homes share access network to cable headend
Introduction 1-13
 Access network: home
network
wireles
s
devices

to/from headend or
central office
often combined
in single box

cable or DSL modem

wireless access router, firewall, NAT

point (54 Mbps)
wired Ethernet (1 Gbps)

Introduction 1-14
Enterprise access networks
(Ethernet)

institutional link to
ISP (Internet)
institutional
router
Ethernet institutional mail,
switch web servers

▪ typically used in companies, universities, etc.

▪ 10 Mbps, 100Mbps, 1Gbps, 10Gbps transmission
rates
▪ today, end systems typically connect into
Ethernet switch
Introduction 1-15
Wireless access networks
▪ shared wireless access network connects end
system to router
• via base station aka “access point”
wireless LANs: wide-area wireless access
▪ within building (100 ft.) ▪ provided by telco (cellular)
▪ 802.11b/g/n (WiFi): 11, operator, 10’s km
54, 450 Mbps ▪ between 1 and 10 Mbps
transmission rate ▪ 3G, 4G: LTE

to Internet

to Internet

Introduction 1-16
Host: sends packets of data
host sending function:
▪takes application
message two packets,
▪breaks into smaller L bits each
chunks, known as
packets, of length L
bits 2 1
▪transmits packet into R: link transmission rate
access network at host
transmission rate R
• link transmission
rate, aka link
capacity, aka link
bandwidth packet time needed to L (bits)
transmission = transmit L-bit =
R (bits/sec)
delay packet into link
Introduction 1-17
Physical media
▪ bit: propagates between
transmitter/receiver
pairs twisted pair (TP)
▪ physical link: what lies ▪ two insulated copper
between transmitter & wires
receiver • Category 5: 100 Mbps,
▪ guided media: 1 Gbps Ethernet
• Category 6: 10Gbps
• signals propagate in
solid media: copper,
fiber, coax
▪ unguided media:
• signals propagate
freely, e.g., radio

Introduction 1-18
Physical media: coax, fiber
coaxial cable: fiber optic cable:
▪ two concentric copper ▪ glass fiber carrying light
conductors pulses, each pulse a bit
▪ bidirectional ▪ high-speed operation:
▪ broadband: • high-speed point-to-point
• multiple channels on transmission (e.g., 10’s-
cable 100’s Gbps transmission
rate)
• HFC
▪ low error rate:
• repeaters spaced far
apart
• immune to
electromagnetic noise

Introduction 1-19
Physical media: radio
▪ signal carried in radio link types:
electromagnetic ▪ terrestrial microwave
spectrum • e.g. up to 45 Mbps
▪ no physical “wire” channels
▪ bidirectional ▪ LAN (e.g., WiFi)
▪ propagation • 54 Mbps
environment effects: ▪ wide-area (e.g., cellular)
• reflection • 4G cellular: ~ 10 Mbps
• obstruction by ▪ satellite
• Kbps to 45Mbps channel (or
objects multiple smaller channels)
• interference • 270 msec end-end delay
• geosynchronous versus low
altitude

Introduction 1-20
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
▪ end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
▪ packet switching, circuit switching, network
structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models

Introduction 1-21
The network core
▪ mesh of
interconnected
routers
▪ packet-switching:
hosts break
application-layer
messages into
packets
• forward packets from
one router to the
next, across links on
path from source to
destination
• each packet
transmitted at full Introduction 1-22
Packet-switching: store-and-
forward
L bits
per packet
3 2 1
sour destinati
ce R R
on
bps bps
▪ takes L/R seconds to one-hop numerical
transmit (push out) L- example:
bit packet into link at R
bps ▪ L = 7.5 Mbits
▪ store and forward: ▪ R = 1.5 Mbps
entire packet must ▪ one-hop
arrive at router before transmission delay
▪ it
end-end
can be delay = 2L/R
transmitted = 5 sec
(assuming
on next linkzero more on delay
propagation delay) shortly … Introduction 1-23
Packet Switching: queueing delay,
loss
R = 100 Mb/s C
A
D
R = 1.5 Mb/s
B
queue of packets E
waiting for output link

queuing and loss:

▪ if arrival rate (in bits) to link exceeds
transmission rate of link for a period of time:
• packets will queue, wait to be transmitted on
link
• packets can be dropped (lost) if memory
(buffer) fills up
Introduction 1-24
Two key network-core
functions
routing: determines
source-destination route forwarding: move
taken by packets packets from router’s
▪ routing algorithms input to appropriate
router output
routing algorithm

local forwarding
table output link
010 3 1
0 2
010 2 3 2
1 1
0111 11
header 01
100
value 1

destination address in arriving

packet’s header
Introduction 1-25
Alternative core: circuit
switching
end-end resources
allocated to, reserved
for “call” between
source & dest:
▪ in diagram, each link has
four circuits.
• call gets 2nd circuit in
top link and 1st circuit
in right link.
▪ dedicated resources: no
sharing
• circuit-like
(guaranteed)
performance
▪ circuit segment idle if not
used by call (no sharing) Introduction 1-26
Circuit switching: FDM versus
TDM
Example:
FDM
4 users

frequency

time
TDM

frequency

time
Introduction 1-27
Packet switching versus circuit
switching
packet switching allows more users to use
network!
example:
▪ 1 Mb/s link
▪ each user: N

…..
• 100 kb/s when “active” use
rs
• active 10% of time 1 Mbps
link
▪ circuit-switching:
• 10 users
▪ packet switching:
• Allow more users to use
network

Introduction 1-28
Packet switching versus circuit
switching
is packet switching a “slam dunk
▪winner?”
great for bursty data
• resource sharing
• simpler, no call setup
▪ excessive congestion possible: packet delay and
loss
• protocols needed for reliable data transfer,
congestion control
▪ Q: How to provide circuit-like behavior?
• bandwidth guarantees needed for audio/video
apps
• still an unsolved problem (chapter 7)
Q: human analogies of reserved resources (circuit
switching) versus on-demand allocation (packet-
switching)? Introduction 1-29
Internet structure: network of
networks
▪ End systems connect to Internet via access ISPs
(Internet Service Providers)
• residential, company and university ISPs
▪ Access ISPs in turn must be interconnected.
• so that any two hosts can send packets to each
other
▪ Resulting network of networks is very complex
• evolution was driven by economics and
national policies
▪ Let’s take a stepwise approach to describe
current Internet structure

Introduction 1-30
Internet structure: network of
networks
Question: given millions of access ISPs, how to
connect them together?

… access
net
access
net
…
access
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net
…

…
access access
net net

access
net
access
net
access
net
access
… … net
access access
net access net
net

Introduction 1-31
Internet structure: network of
networks
Option: connect each access ISP to every other
access ISP?

… access
net
access
net
…
access
net
access
access
net … … net

access
access net
net

connecting each access ISP

…

…
to each other directly doesn’t

…
access access
…

net
scale: O(N2) connections. net

access
net
access
net
access
net
access
…

… … net
access access
net access net
net

Introduction 1-32
Internet structure: network of
networks
Option: connect each access ISP to one global
transit ISP?
Customer and provider ISPs have economic
agreement. … access
net
access
net
…
access
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net
…

…
global
access
net
ISP access
net

access
net
access
net
access
net
access
… … net
access access
net access net
net

Introduction 1-33
Internet structure: network of
networks
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be
competitors ….

… access
net
access
net
…
access
net
access
access net
net
access
access
net ISP A net
…

…
access
net
ISP B access
net

access ISP
net
C access
net
access
net
access
… … net
access access
net access net
net

Introduction 1-34
Internet structure: network of
networks
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be
competitors …. which must be interconnected
Internet exchange point
access
…
access
net net
…
access
net
access
access net
net
IXP access
access
net ISP A net
…

…
access
net
IXP ISP B access
net

access ISP
net
C access
net
access peering link
net
access
… … net
access access
net access net
net

Introduction 1-35
Internet structure: network of
networks
… and regional networks may arise to connect
access nets to ISPs

… access
net
access
net
…
access
net
access
access net
net
IXP access
access
net ISP A net
…

…
access
net
IXP ISP B access
net

access ISP
net
C access
net
access
net regional net
access
… … net
access access
net access net
net

Introduction 1-36
Internet structure: network of
networks
… and content provider networks (e.g., Google,
Microsoft, Akamai) may run their own network, to
bring services, content close to end users
… access
net
access
net
…
access
net
access
access net
net
IXP access
access
net ISP A net
…

…
Content provider network
access
net
IXP ISP B access
net

access ISP
net
C access
net
access
net regional net
access
… … net
access access
net access net
net

Introduction 1-37
Internet structure: network of
networks
Tier 1 Tier 1
Google
ISP ISP

IX IX IX
P P P
Regional Regional
ISP ISP

acc acc acc acc acc acc acc acc

ess ess ess ess ess ess ess ess
ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP

▪ at center: small # of well-connected large networks

• “tier-1” commercial ISPs (e.g., Level 3, Sprint, AT&T, NTT),
national & international coverage
• content provider network (e.g., Google): private network
that connects it data centers to Internet, often bypassing
Introduction 1-38
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
▪ end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
▪ packet switching, circuit switching, network
structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models

Introduction 1-39
How do loss and delay
occur?
packets queue in router buffers
▪ packet arrival rate to link (temporarily) exceeds
output link capacity
▪ packets queue, wait for turn
packet being transmitted (delay)

B
packets queueing (delay)
free (available) buffers: arriving packets
dropped (loss) if no free buffers

Introduction 1-40
Four sources of packet
delay
transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtrans +

dprop
dproc: nodal dqueue: queueing
processing delay
▪ check bit errors ▪ time waiting at
▪ determine output output link for
link transmission
▪ typically < msec ▪ depends on Introduction 1-41
Four sources of packet
delay
transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtrans +

dprop
dtrans: transmission dprop: propagation delay:
delay: ▪ d: length of physical link
▪ L: packet length (bits) ▪ s: propagation speed
dtrans and
▪ R: link bandwidth dprop
(bps) (~2x108 m/sec)
▪ dtrans = L/R very different ▪ dprop = d/s

Introduction 1-42
Caravan analogy
100 km 100 km
ten-car toll toll
carava boot boot
n h h
▪ cars “propagate” at ▪ time to “push”
100 km/hr entire caravan
▪ toll booth takes 12 sec through toll booth
to service car (bit onto highway =
transmission time) 12*10 = 120 sec
▪ car ~ bit; caravan ~ ▪ time for last car to
packet propagate from 1st
▪ Q: How long until to 2nd toll both:
caravan is lined up 100km/(100km/hr)
before 2nd toll booth? = 1 hr
▪ A: 62 minutes
Introduction 1-43
Caravan analogy (more)
100 km 100 km
ten-car toll toll
carava boot boot
n h h
▪ suppose cars now “propagate” at 1000 km/hr
▪ and suppose toll booth now takes one min to
service a car
▪ Q: Will cars arrive to 2nd booth before all cars
serviced at first booth?
• A: Yes! after 7 min, first car arrives at second
booth; three cars still at first booth

Introduction 1-44
Queueing delay (revisited)

average queueing
▪ R: link bandwidth

delay
(bps)
▪ L: packet length (bits)
▪ a: average packet
arrival rate
traffic intensity
= La/R
La/R ~ 0

La/R -> 1
* Check online interactive animation on queuing and loss
Introduction 1-45
 Packet loss
▪ queue (aka (Authentication and Key
Agreement)) buffer preceding link in buffer
has finite capacity
▪ packet arriving to full queue dropped (aka
lost)
▪ lost packet may be retransmitted by
previous node, by source end system, or
not at all buffer
(waiting area) packet being transmitted
A

B
packet arriving to
full buffer is lost
* Check out the Java applet for an interactive animation on queuing and loss Introduction 1-46
Throughput
▪ throughput: rate (bits/time unit) at
which bits transferred between
sender/receiver
• instantaneous: rate at given point in time
• average: rate over longer period of time

server,
server withbits
sends linkthat can carry
pipe link
pipe that can carry
file of into
(fluid) F bits
pipe capacity
fluid at rate capacity
fluid at rate
to send to RRs bits/sec) RRc bits/sec)
client s c
bits/sec bits/sec
Introduction 1-47
Throughput (more)
▪ Rs < Rc What is average end-end
throughput?

Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec

▪ Rs > Rc What is average end-end

throughput?
Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec

bottleneck
link onlink
end-end path that constrains end-end
throughput
Introduction 1-48
Throughput: Internet
scenario
▪ per-connection
end-end Rs
throughput: Rs Rs
min(Rc,Rs,R/10)
▪ in practice: Rc or R
Rs is often
bottleneck Rc Rc

Rc

10 connections (fairly) share

backbone bottleneck link R bits/sec
Introduction 1-49
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
▪ end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
▪ packet switching, circuit switching, network
structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models

Introduction 1-50
Protocol “layers”
Networks are
complex,
with many
“pieces”: Question:
▪ hosts is there any hope of
▪ routers organizing
▪ links of structure of
network?
various media
▪ applications
▪ protocols …. or at least our
discussion of
▪ hardware, networks?
software
Introduction 1-51
Organization of air travel
ticket (purchase) ticket
(complain)
baggage
(check) baggage (claim)

gates (load) gates (unload)

runway takeoff runway landing

airplane routing airplane routing

airplane
routing

▪ a series of steps

Introduction 1-52
Layering of airline
functionality
ticket (purchase) ticket (complain) ticket

baggage (check) baggage (claim baggag

e
gates (load) gates (unload) gat
e
runway (takeoff) runway (land) takeoff/
landing
airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing airplane
routing
departur intermediate air- arrival
e traffic airpor
airport control centers t

layers: each layer implements a service

▪ via its own internal-layer actions
▪ relying on services provided by layer
below
Introduction 1-53
Why layering?
dealing with complex systems:
▪ explicit structure allows identification,
relationship of complex system’s pieces
• layered reference model for discussion
▪ modularization eases maintenance,
updating of system
• change of implementation of layer’s service
transparent to rest of system
• e.g., change in gate procedure doesn’t affect
rest of system
▪ layering considered harmful?

Introduction 1-54
Internet protocol stack
▪ application: supporting
network applications
• FTP, SMTP, HTTP application
▪ transport: process-process
data transfer transport
• TCP, UDP
▪ network: routing of network
datagrams from source to
destination link
• IP, routing protocols
▪ link: data transfer between physical
neighboring network
elements
• Ethernet, 802.111 (WiFi), PPP
▪ physical: bits “on the wire” Introduction 1-55
ISO/OSI reference
model
▪ presentation: allow
applications to interpret application
meaning of data, e.g.,
encryption, compression, presentation
machine-specific session
conventions transport
▪ session: synchronization,
checkpointing, recovery network
of data exchange link
▪ Internet stack “missing” physical
these layers!
• these services, if needed,
must be implemented in
application Introduction 1-56
 source Encapsulatio
message
segment
H
M
M
application
transport
n
H H
t
datagram M network
H H
n H
t
frame M link
l n t
physical
link
physical

switch

H H
destinatio M network
H H
n H
t H H
M napplication M link M
H l n t n t
M transport physical
H H
t

H H H
M network
n t
M link router
l n t
physical

Introduction 1-57