CSC 225 : Computer Architecture

and Organization
LECTURE TWO

TOPIC : LOGIC GATES

 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

• Boolean Algebra is used to analyze and

simplify the digital (logic) circuits.
• It uses only the binary numbers i.e. 0 and 1.
• It is also called as Binary Algebra or logical
Algebra.
• Boolean algebra was invented by George
Boole in 1854.
 Rules in Boolean Algebra

• Following are the important rules used in Boolean algebra.

• Variable used can have only two values. Binary 1 for HIGH and
Binary 0 for LOW.
• Complement of a variable is represented by an overbar (-). Thus,
complement of variable B is represented as .
• Thus if B ≠ 0 then = 1 and B = 1 then ≠ 0.
• ORing of the variables is represented by a plus (+) sign between
them.
• For example ORing of A, B, C is represented as A + B + C.
• Logical ANDing of the two or more variable is represented by
writing a dot between them such as A.B.C.
• Sometime the dot may be omitted like ABC.
 Boolean Laws

• Duality
• Note that every law has two expressions, (a) and (b) which are duals of
each other. Duality means
• Changing every OR (+) operation of the expression to an AND (.) and every
AND (.) to an OR (+).
• Changing all the 0 elements to 1's and vice-versa.

• There are six types of Boolean Laws.

• Commutative law
• Any binary operation which satisfies the following expression is referred
to as commutative operation.

• Commutative law states that changing the sequence of the variables does
• Associative law
• This law states that the order in which the logic
operations are performed is irrelevant as their
effect is the same.

• Distributive law
• Distributive law states the following condition.
• (a) A (B + C) = A B + A C
(b) A + (B C) = (A + B) (A + C)
• Identity Laws
• (a) A + A = A
(b) A A = A
•
•

• Redundancy Laws
• (a) A + A B = A
(b) A (A + B) = A
•
• (a) 0 + A = A
(b) 0 . A = 0
•
• (a) 1 + A = 1
(b) 1. A = A
•
• INVERSION law
• This law uses the NOT operation. The
inversion law states that double inversion of a
variable results in the original variable itself.
 LOGIC GATES

• A logic gate is a device that acts as a building block for digital circuits.
• They perform basic logical functions that are fundamental to digital
circuits.
• Most electronic devices we use today will have some form of logic gates in
them.
• For example, logic gates can be used in technologies such as smartphones,
tablets or within memory devices.
• In a circuit, logic gates will make decisions based on a combination of
digital signals coming from its inputs.
• Most logic gates have two inputs and one output. Logic gates are based
on Boolean algebra.
• At any given moment, every terminal is in one of the
two binary conditions, false or true. False represents 0, and true
represents 1
• Boolean functions may be practically implemented by using
electronic gates.
• The following points are important to understand.
• Electronic gates require a power supply.
• Gate INPUTS are driven by voltages having two nominal values,
e.g. 0V and 5V representing logic 0 and logic 1 respectively.
• The OUTPUT of a gate provides two nominal values of voltage
only, e.g. 0V and 5V representing logic 0 and logic 1 respectively.
• In general, there is only one output to a logic gate except in
some special cases.
• There is always a time delay between an input being applied
and the output responding.
• Truth Tables
• Truth tables are used to help show the function of a
logic gate.
• Types of Logic gates
• Digital systems are said to be constructed by using
logic gates.
• These gates are the AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EXOR
and EXNOR gates.
• The basic operations are described below with the aid
of truth tables.
Boolean Identities
• The NAND and NOR gates are called universal
functions since with either one, the AND and
OR functions and NOT can be generated.
• Note:
• A function in sum of products form can be
implemented using NAND gates by replacing
all AND and OR gates by NAND gates.
 Sum of product form (SOP)

•
• The term sum-of-products comes from the
expression's form: a sum (OR) of one or more
products (AND). As a digital circuit, an SOP
expression takes the output of one or more
AND gates and OR's them together to create
the final output.
• The inputs to the AND gates are either
inverted or non-inverted input signals.
• simplify this equation into fewer implicants.
 Product of sums (POS)
• A function in product of sums form can be implemented using
NOR gates by replacing all AND and OR gates by NOR gates.
• The Product-of-Sum (POS) expression is a standard boolean
expression that takes the “Product” of two or more “Sums”.
• For a digital logic circuit the POS expression takes the output
of two or more logic OR gates and AND's them together to
create the final OR-AND logic output.
•
• Product of sum (POS) and Sum of product(SoP) are canonical
from of Boolean function or equation.
• De morgan law can be used to convert POS to SOP vice versa.
 Examples
• Using Boolean identities, reduce the given Boolean expression:
• F(X, Y, Z) = X′Y + YZ′ + YZ + XY′Z′
• Solution:
• Given,F(X, Y, Z) = X′Y + YZ′ + YZ + XY′Z′
• Using the idempotent law, we can write YZ’ = YZ’ + YZ’
• ⇒ F(X, Y, Z) = X′Y+(YZ′+YZ′)+YZ + XY′Z′
• Now, interchange the second and third term, we get
• ⇒ F(X, Y, Z) = X′Y+(YZ′+YZ)+(YZ′+XY′Z′)
• By using distributive law,
• ⇒ F(X, Y, Z) = X′Y+Y(Z′+Z)+Z′(Y+XY′)
• Using Z’ + Z = 1 and absorption law (Y + XY’)= (Y + X),
• ⇒ F(X, Y, Z) = X′Y+Y.1+Z′(Y+X)
• ⇒ F(X, Y, Z) = X′Y+Y+Z′(Y+X) [Since Y.1 = Y ]
• ⇒ F(X, Y, Z) = Y(X′+1)+Z′(Y+X)
• ⇒ F(X, Y, Z) = Y.1+Z′(Y+X) [ As (X’ + 1) = 1 ]
• ⇒ F(X, Y, Z) = Y +Z′(Y+X) [ As, Y.1 = Y ]
• ⇒ F(X, Y, Z) = Y+YZ’+XZ’
• ⇒ F(X, Y, Z) = Y(1+Z′)+XZ′
• ⇒ F(X, Y, Z) = Y.1+XZ′ [Since (1 + Z’) = 1]
• ⇒ F(X, Y, Z) = Y+XZ′ [Since Y.1 = Y]
• Reduce the following Boolean expression: F(P ,Q, R)=(P+Q)(P+R)
• Solution:
• Given, F(P ,Q, R)=(P+Q)(P+R)
• Using distributive law,
• ⇒ F(P, Q, R) = P.P + P.R +Q.P + Q.R
• Using Idempotent law,
• ⇒ F(P, Q, R) = P + P.R +Q.P + Q.R
• Again using distributive law, we get
• ⇒ F(P, Q, R) = P(1+R) + Q.P + Q.R
• Using dominance law, we can write
• ⇒ F(P, Q, R) = P + Q.P + Q.R
• Again using distributive law, we get
• ⇒ F(P, Q, R) = (P+1).P+ Q.R
• Therefore, using dominance law, we can get the reduced form as follows:
• ⇒ F(P, Q, R) = 1.P+Q.R
• ⇒ F(P, Q, R) = P+Q.R
• Hence, the reduced form of F(P, Q, R) = (P+Q)(P+R) is F(P, Q, R) = P+Q.R.
• What is the equivalent expression for the Boolean expression x’y’z +yz+ xz?
• Solution:
• Answer: z
• Given Boolean expression: x’y’z +yz+ xz
• x’y’z +yz+ xz = z(x’y’+y+x)
• Now, apply distributive law for the first two terms inside the bracket.
• x’y’z +yz+ xz = z[(x’+y) (y+y’)+ x]
• x’y’z +yz+ xz = z [(x’ + y) . 1 + x] [Since A+A’ = 1]
• x’y’z +yz+ xz = z [x’ + y + x]
• Further x+x’ = 1
• So, x’y’z +yz+ xz = z(1+y)
• Now, using null law, 1+y = 1
• x’y’z +yz+ xz = z.1
• Now, using identity law, A.1 = A
• Therefore, x’y’z +yz+ xz = z.
• Hence, the Boolean expression equivalent to x’y’z +yz+ xz is z.
 Assignment
1. What is the simplified sum of product form
for the Boolean expression:
(A + B’ + C’)(A + B’ + C)(A + B + C’)
2. Write the reduced form for the Boolean
expression (AB’(C+BD) + A’B’)C.