23EC304-ANALOG COMMUNICATION

By

Ms. S.S.Abinayaa
AP/ECE, SKCET
 COURSE OBJECTIVES

1. To introduce the fundamental concepts of analog

communication systems.
2. To get a deep knowledge about various techniques for
analog modulation and demodulation with its noise
performance.
3. To provide the knowledge of time and frequency
domain representation of angle modulation techniques
4. To familiarize with basic techniques for generating and
demodulating angle modulated signals.
5. To understand the properties of random process and
concept of sampling.
 AMPLITUDE MODULATION 20
Introduction: Communication, Elements of an electrical
communication system – concept of modulation and demodulation,
Modulation : Need for modulation , types-linear and non-linear,

Amplitude Modulation : DSBSC, DSBFC, SSB, VSB - Modulation index,

Time domain and frequency domain description, Power relations and
Bandwidth, single tone modulation, Generation of AM waves – Square
law and Switching modulator, Square law and Envelope Detection -

DSBSC Generation – Balanced and Ring Modulator, Coherent

Detection - SSB Generation – Filter and Phase Shift Method, Coherent
Detection - VSB Generation– Filter Method and demodulation,
Comparison of different AM techniques,

AM transmitter and receiver, Receiver Characteristics, Representation

of narrowband noise; receiver model, signal to noise ratio (SNR), noise
figure, noise temperature, noise in AM, DSB-SC, SSB-SC.
 ANGLE MODULATION 15
Angle Modulation: Introduction, types of angle modulation-
FM, PM, Mathematical and phasor representation of FM
and PM, Narrow Band and Wide band FM – Modulation
index, Spectra, Power relations and Transmission
Bandwidth, Relationship between PM and FM.

Generation and detection of FM: Direct and Indirect

methods, FM to AM conversion , FM Demodulation : Foster
Seeley Discriminator - PLL as FM Demodulator, Generation
and detection of PM, FM transmitters and receivers, pre-
emphasis and de-emphasis, Amplitude limiters, Noise
Triangle in Angle Modulation System, Noise in Angle
Modulation System, Noise in Pre-emphasis and de-
emphasis
 RANDOM PROCESS & SAMPLING 10
Random variables, Random Process, Stationary
Processes, Wide Sense Stationary Processes ,Mean,
Correlation & Covariance functions, Power Spectral
Density, Ergodic Processes, Gaussian Process,
Transmission of a Random Process Through a LTI filter,

The Quantization Random Process, pulse code

modulation(PCM)(Generation, Quantization
noise),Differential pulse code modulation Sampling
process, sampling theorem for band limited
signals. Applications of sampling – pulse amplitude
modulation (PAM), pulse width modulation
(PWM),pulse position modulation (PPM).
 COURSE OUTCOMES
CO1 Understand the principles of AM communication systems [U]
CO2 Analyze the different analog modulation and demodulation techniques
CO3 Analyze the performance of AM systems in the presence of noise. [AN]
CO4 Understand the various Angle modulation communication systems and
their spectral characteristics. [U]
CO5 Analyze the performance of different angle modulation and
demodulation techniques and noise performance of FM systems. [AN]
CO6 Apply the concepts of Random Process and sampling to the design of
Communication systems. [AP]
TEXTBOOKS
1. S. Haykin, Micheal Moher,”Communication Systems”,5th Ed., John Wiley & Sons,2021.
2. George Kennedy and Bernard Davis, “Electronic Communication systems”, 6th
Edition, TMH, 2018.
3. John G. Proakis and Masoud Salehi ,"Fundamentals of Communication Systems" 2 nd edition,
Pearson Education, 2014.

REFERENCE BOOKS
1. Daub.h and Schilling.D.L, “Principles of Communication Systems”,4th edition, Mc G
raw Hill,2017
2. Wayne Tomasi,“Advanced Electronic Communications Systems”,Pearson
Education,6th edition,2014
3. Rodger E. Ziemer and William H. Tranter “Principles of Communications:
Systems, Modulation, and Noise “ ,7th edition, Wiley, 2014.
 WEB RESOURCES
1. https://onlinecourses.nptel.ac.in/noc25_ee68
2. https://onlinecourses.nptel.ac.in/noc21_ee74
3. https://www.udemy.com/course/analog-communicatio

Gate Materials
https://classroom.google.com/c/NzQxMzA2NjY2OTU4/m/NzQxMzExMD
kzMzAy/details
https://classroom.google.com/c/NzQxMzA2NjY2OTU4/m/NzQxMzExMD
kzMzAy/details
n

Matlab
https://in.mathworks.com/products/matlab-online.html
https://octave-online.net/
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/compilers/online-matlab-compiler.htm
https://www.rollapp.com/app/scilab
 Introduction
Elements of Communication System:
Communication: It is the process of conveying or
transferring information from one point to
another.
(Or)
It is the process of establishing connection or link
between two points for information exchange.
 Elements of Communication System:
Information source:
The message or information to be communicated
originates in information source.
Message can be words, group of words, code, data,
symbols, signals etc.
Transmitter :
The objective of the transmitter block is to collect
the incoming message signal and modify it in a
suitable fashion (if needed), such that, it can be
transmitted via the chosen channel to the
receiving point.
 Elements of Communication System:
Channel :
Channel is the physical medium which connects the
transmitter with that of the receiver.
The physical medium includes copper wire, coaxial
cable, fibre optic cable, wave guide and free
space or atmosphere.
Receiver:
The receiver block receives the incoming modified
version of the message signal from the channel
and processes it to recreate the original (non-
electrical) form of the message signal.
 Signal, Message, Information
Signal:
It is a physical quantity which varies with respect to
time or space or independent or dependent
variable.
(Or)
It is electrical waveform which carries information.
Ex: m(t) = Acos(ωt+ϕ)
Where, A= Amplitude or peak amplitude(Volts)
w = Frequency ( rad/sec)
ϕ = Phase (rad)
 Types of Signals
• Analog or Continuous Signal
• Digital Signal
Analog or Continuous Signal: If the amplitude of
signal continuously varies with respect to time or
if the signal contains infinite number of
amplitudes, it is called Analog or continuous
signal.
 Types of Signals
Digital Signal: If the signal contains
only two discrete amplitudes, then it is called
• digital
With signal.
respect communication, signals are
to classified
into,
• Baseband signal
• Bandpass signal If the signal contains zero
Baseband
frequencysignal:
or near to zero frequency, it is called
baseband signal.
Ex: Voice, Audio, Video, Bio-medical signals etc.
 Types of Signals
Bandpass signal: If the signal contains band of
frequencies far away from base or zero, it is called
bandpass signal.
Ex: AM, FM signals.

Message: It is sequence of symbols.

Ex: Happy New Year 2020.
Information: The content in the message is called
information. It is inversely proportional to
probability of occurrence of the symbol.

• Information is measured in bits, decits, nats.

 Limitations of Communication System
• Technological Problems:
To implement communication systems, Tx, Rx, channel
are required which requires hardware.
Communication system is expensive and complex.
• Bandwidth & Noise:
The effect of noise can be reduced by providing
more bandwidth to stations but due to
this less number of stations can only be
accommodated.
• Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR):Noise should be low to
increase channel capacity but it is an unavoidable
aspect of communication system.
 Modulation
It is the process of varying the characteristics of
high frequency carrier in accordance with
instantaneous values of modulating or message
or baseband signal.
(Or)
It is a frequency translation technique which
converts baseband or low frequency signal to
bandpass or high frequency signal.

Modulation is used in the transmitter.

Types of Modulation
 Types of Modulation
• Amplitude Modulation: Amplitude of the carrier
is varied in accordance with the
instantaneous values of modulating signal.

• Frequency Modulation: Frequency of the carrier

is varied in accordance with the
instantaneous values of modulating signal.

• Phase Modulation: Phase of the carrier is varied

in accordance with the instantaneous values
of modulating signal.
 Benefits or Need of Modulation
• To reduce the length or height of antenna

• For multiplexing

• For narrow banding or to use antenna with single

or same length

• To reduce noise effect

• To avoid equipment limitation or to reduce the

size of the equipment.
 Amplitude Modulation
The amplitude of the carrier signal varies in
accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of
the modulating signal.
 Amplitude Modulation

The carrier signal is given by,

C(t) = Ac Coswct
Where, Ac= Maximum amplitude of the carrier
signal.
W= 2πfc= Frequency of the carrier signal.
Modulating or baseband signal is given by,
X(t) = Am Coswmt
Where, Am = Amplitude of the baseband
signal.
 Amplitude Modulation
The standard equation for amplitude
modulated signal is expressed as,
S(t)= Ac Cos2πfct[1+ma(Cos2πfmt)]
Where, ma = Am/Ac = Modulation Index
Time Domain representation of
AM:
S(t)=AcCos2πfct+μAc/
2Cos[2πfc+2πfm]t+μAc/2Cos[2πfc-2πfm]t
I term: Carrier signal with amplitude
Ac and frequency fc.
II.term: Amplitude= μAc/2, frequency= f +f , Upper sideband
 Amplitude Modulation
Frequency Domain representation of AM:
The time domain representation of AM
wave is given by,
S(t)= Ac Cos2πfct[1+ma(Cos2πfmt)]
Taking Fourier transform on both sides,
S(f) = Ac/2[δ(f-fc)+ δ(f+fc)] +
Acma/2[M(f-fc)+ M(f+fc)]
 Modulation Index
Modulation index or depth of modulation
is given by,
ma = [Amax-Amin/ Amax+Amin]= Am/Ac

Percentage of modulation index is,

%ma = [Amax-Amin/ Amax+Amin]X100= [Am/Ac ]X100
Types of AM with respect to modulation index:
• Under Modulation (ma <1)
• Critical Modulation (ma =1)
• Over Modulation (ma >1)
Types of AM
 Generation of AM Wave
Square Law modulator:
This circuit consists of,
• A non-linear device
• Band pass filter
• Carrier source and modulating signal
 Generation of AM Wave
The modulating signal and carrier are connected in
series with each other and their sum V1(t) is
applied at the input of non-linear device such as
diode or transistor.
V1(t) = x(t) + Ac cosWct --- (1)
The input-output relation of non-linear device is,
V2(t)= aV1(t) + b V12(t) --- (2)
Using (1) in (2),
V2(t) = a x(t) + a Ac Cos (2πfct)+bx2(t) + 2bx(t) Ac Cos (2πfct)+b
Ac2 Cos2
(2πfct)---(3)
Out of these 5 terms, 1,3,5 terms are unuseful terms
are eliminated by BPF.
 Generation of AM Wave
Output of BPF is given by,
V0(t) = a Ac Cos (2πfct)+ 2bx(t) Ac Cos (2πfct)---(4)

Switching Modulator:
 Generation of AM Wave
The carrier signalc(t) is connected in
serieswith modulating signal x(t).
Sum of these two signals is passed through a diode.
Output of the diode is passed through
a band pass filter and the result is an AM
wave.
V1(t) = x(t) + c(t) ---(1)
Amplitude of c(t) is much greater than x(t), so ON &
OFF of diode is determined by c(t)
When c(t) is positive, V2(t) = V1(t) ---(2)
When c(t) is negative, V2(t) = 0 ---(3), Finally,
V2(t) =
 Detection of AM Wave
Demodulation or detection is the process of
recovering the original message signal from the
received modulated signal.

Types of AM Detectors:
1. Square Law detector
2. Envelope detector
3. Rectifier detector
 Detection of AM Wave
Square Law detector:

The amplitude modulated wave is given as input to the

square law device.
V2(t)= aV1(t) + b V12(t)---(1)
When this is passed through square law device,
V2(t) = aAcCoswct + aAcmx(t)Coswct+ bAc2Cos2wct+
2bAc2mx(t)Cos2wct+ bAc2m2x2(t)Cos2wct---(2)
 Detection of AM Wave
In order to extract the original message signal, V2(t)
is passed through a low pass filter .
The output of LPF is,
V0(t) = mbAc2x(t) ---(3)
Envelope Detector:
 Detection of AM Wave
• The standard AM wave is applied at the input of
detector .
• In every positive half cycle of input, diode
is forward biased which charges capacitor ‘C’.
• When capacitor charges to peak value of
input voltage, diode stops conducting.
• The capacitor discharges through ‘R’
between positive peaks.
• This process continuous and capacitor
charges and discharges repeatedly.
 Detection of AM Wave

Rectifier detector:
 Detection of AM Wave
• In rectifier detector, diode acts as rectifier which
allows only positive half of the modulated signal
to the filter.

• The low pass filter removes all the high frequency

components giving envelope at its output.

• This envelope will have some dc value which can

be removed by passing through capacitor ‘C’.

• The output of rectifier detector is the

envelope with zero dc value.
Double Sideband-Suppressed Carrier(DSB-SC)
The equation of AM wave in simple form is given
by,
S(t) = Ac Cos wct +
Here, carrier component remains constant and
does not convey any information.
Therefore, if the carrier is suppressed, only
sidebands remain in the spectrum requiring less
power.
• DSB-SC Contains two side bands i.e USB & LSB
• Power efficiency is 100%
• % Power saving in DSB-SC w.r.t AM is 66.67%.
 DSB-SC Modulation
A DSB-SC signal is obtained by
multiplying the modulating signal x(t)
with carrier signal c(t).
So, we need a product modulator for
the generation of DSB-SC wave.
 DSB-SC Modulation
1. Balanced Modulator:
It consists of two amplitude modulators arranged
in balanced configuration to suppress the
carrier completely.
 DSB-SC Modulation
Operation:
• Carrier c(t) is applied to both the modulators.
• Message signal x(t) is applied directly to
modulator 1 and with a phase shift of 1800
to modulator 2.
Output of modulator 1 is,
S1(t) = Ac[1+ mx(t)] cos 2πfct ---(1)
Output of modulator 2 is,
S2(t) = Ac[1- mx(t)] cos 2πfct ---(2)
These two outputs are applied to
subtractor, whose output is, 2mAcx(t) cos 2πfct---
(3)
 DSB-SC Modulation
Ring Modulator:
2.

It operates in two modes

• Mode1: Without modulating signal x(t)
• Mode 2: With modulating signal x(t)
Mode1: c(t) is positive
• Diodes D1, D2 forward biased, D3,D4 Reverse biased
• Output of ring modulator will be zero.
C(t) is negative
• Diodes D1, D2 reverse biased, D3,D4 forward biased
• Output of ring modulator will be zero.
Mode2:
• When modulating signal is present, during positive half cycle D1,
D2 will be ON and secondary of T1 is directly applied to primary of
T2.
• Output will be positive
• During negative half cycle of modulating signal D3, D4 will be ON
producing positive voltage.
DSB-SC Modulation
Time Domain representation of DSB-SC
Message signal is given by,
x(t) =Am cos(2πfmt) ---(1)
Carrier signal is given by,
C(t) = Ac cos(2πfct) ---(2)
DSB-SC modulated signal is given by,
S(t) =
x(t) c(t) ---(3)
S(t) =
1/2AmAc[cos2π(fc+fm)t + cos2π(fc-
fm)t]--(4)
Frequency Domain representation of DSB-SC
The frequency spectrum of DSB-SC is
obtained by taking Fourier transform of s(t)
S(f) = F{[1/2AmAc[cos2π(fc+fm)t + cos2π(fc-fm)t]}

S(f) =
This is the spectrum of DSB-SC wave.
 Demodulation of DSB-SC
Coherent Detection:
The modulating signal x(t) is recovered from DSB-
SC wave s(t) by multiplying it with a locally
generated carrier and then passing through a
LPF.
 Demodulation of DSB-SC
V(t) = s(t) c(t) ---(1)
Where,
S(t) = 1/2AmAc[cos2π(fc+fm)t + cos2π(fc-fm)t]—(2)
C(t) = cos2πfct ---(3)
Substituting (2) & (3) in (1)

When this is passed through a LPF,

V0(t) =
 Single Sideband-Suppressed Carrier(SSB-SC)
The modulation process in which only one side band
is transmitted and with carrier suppression is
called Single sideband suppressed carrier (SSB-
SC).
Modulating Signal m(t) = Am Cos (2πfmt) and Carrier
Signal c(t) = Ac Cos (2πfct)
SSB-SC signal can be generated by passing DSB-SC
signal through BPF. And DSB-SC signal is
generated by multiplying m(t) & c(t).
Cos2π( )t (or)
ASSB-SC(t) =
+ )t
 Generation of SSB-SC
1. Filter or Frequency Discrimination Method:

Filter method of generating DSB-SC Signal requires

product modulator and BPF as shown in figure.
Here Product Modulator generates DSB-SC Signal
which contains two side bands i.e USB & LSB.
By passing DSB-SC Signal through BPF either of
sidebands are removed for generating SSB-SC
Signal.
 Generation of SSB-SC
2.Phase Shift or Phase Discrimination Method:

The figure shows the block diagram for the phase

shift method of SSB generation and this system is
used for the suppression of lower sideband.
This system uses two Product modulators
M1 and M2 and two 90o phase shifting networks.
 Vestigial Sideband Transmission
• VSB-SC is used to transmit Video Signal which is large
BW signal containing very low and very high
frequency components.
• Very low Frequencies raise sidebands near to carrier
frequency.
• It is not possible to suppress one complete
sideband.
• Very low frequencies contain most of useful
information, any effect to complete suppress the one
sideband would result phase distortion at these
frequencies.
• Therefore compromise has been made to
suppress the part of sideband. Hence VSB-SC Signal
 VSB Modulation & Demodulation
Modulation:
Modulating signal x(t) and carrier
signal c(t) are applied as inputs to the
product modulator.
S(t) = x(t)c(t)
This is the DSB-SC wave. It is applied to a side band
filter which passes the wanted sideband
completely and vestige of unwanted sideband.
 VSB Modulation & Demodulation
Demodulation:
The demodulation of VSB signal can be achieved
using a coherent detector by multiplying s(t) with
a locally generated carrier.
V(t) = s(t)AcCos2πfct
This signal is then passed through a LPF which
passes low frequency message signal and rejects
carrier.
 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation(QAM)
QAM is used to transmit color
information in TV signal transmission.
 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation(QAM)
The output of Transmitter S (t) = m1 (t) Cos (2πfct + m2 (t) Sin (2πfct)

The output of multiplier S1(t) = [m1 (t) Cos (2πfct + m2 (t) Sin (2πfct)] x
Cos (2πfct)
= m1(t) Cos2(2πfct) + m2(t) sin(2πfct) Cos(2πfct)
= m1(t)/2(1+Cos4πfct)) + m2(t)/2 Sin(4πfct)
=m1(t)/2 + m1(t)/2 Cos(4πfct)+ m2(t)/2 Sin(4πfct)
Second and Third terms are high frequency signals are eliminated by
LPF. So that output of LPF is m1(t)/2
The output of multiplier S2(t) = [m1 (t) Cos (2πfct
+ m2 (t) Sin (2πfct)] x

in (2πfct)
=m2(t)/2Sin(4πfct)+m2(t)/2-m2(t)/2Cos(4πfct)
 Super Heterodyne AM Receiver
Heterodyne means mixing two frequencies and
generating single or constant frequency and the
output of mixer will be fixed frequency.
Specification of AM Receiver:
• The frequency range of AM-MW( Medium wave)
: (540-1640) KHz
• Band width of receiver:1640 KHz – 540 KHz = 1100 KHz
• Band width of each AM station : 10 KHz
• No. of stations available: 110
• Intermediate frequency (fIF): 455 KHz
Super Heterodyne AM Receiver
 Super Heterodyne AM Receiver
Antenna: It is passive device which converts electromagnetic signal into
electrical signal.
RF Tuned Amplifier:
• It is broad band amplifier which contain tuning circuit and amplifier.
• Tuning circuit designed to select 110 stations and amplifier
provides
amplification for 1100 KHz band width.
• RF tuned amplifier is responsible for sensitivity, selectivity, Image signal
rejection and noise reduction.
Mixer:
• It is combination of frequency mixer and Band Pass Filter (BPF).
• Frequency generates sum and difference frequency of incoming signal
and locally generated signal.
• BPF selects difference frequency at the output whose center frequency is
equal to= 455 KHz.
Local Oscillator:
• It is either Colpits or Hartley oscillator.
• It generates carrier frequency 455 KHz greater than the incoming carrier
frequency to produce constant or fixed frequency.
 Super Heterodyne AM Receiver
IF Amplifier:
• It is narrow band, high gain and fixed frequency amplifier which provides
amplification for 10 KHz band width at center frequency of 455 KHz.
• It is cascade CE amplifier which provides 90% of total
receiver amplification.

Detector or Demodulator:
• It is frequency translator circuit which extracts modulating signal from
AM signal.
• Usually Envelope detector is used.
• Fidelity of the receiver is mainly depends on detector or demodulator.

Audio Amplifier:
• It is low frequency amplifier which provides amplification at (20- 20K) Hz.
• It contain cascade CE Voltage amplifier followed by Power amplifier.

Loud Speaker:
• It converts Electrical signal into sound or audio signal.
ANGLE MODULATION

Angle modulation is a process of varying angle of

carrier in accordance with the the
modulating signal. instantaneous values
of

Angle can be varied by varying frequency or

phase.

Angle modulation is of 2
types.

• Frequency Modulation
• Phase Modulation
 Frequency Modulation
The process of varying frequency the carrier in
accordance with the of values the
modulating signal.
instantaneous of

Relation between angle and frequency :

Consider carrier signal c(t)= Ac Cos (wct+φ)

= Ac Cos (2πfct +φ)
Where, Wc= Carrier frequency
φ = Phase

C(t) = Ac Cos[ψ(t)], where, ψ(t)= wct+φ

i.e Frequency can be obtained by

derivating angle and angle can be obtained by
integrating frequency.
Frequency Modulation

Frequency modulator converts input voltage

into frequency i.e the amplitude of modulating signal
m(t) changes to frequency at the output.

Consider carrier signal c(t) =Ac Coswct

The frequency variation at the output
is called instantaneous frequency and is
expressed as,
wi = wc + kf m(t)
Where, kf = frequency sensitivity factor in Hz/volt
 Frequency Modulation
The angle of the carrier after modulation can
written as, be

Frequency modulated signal can be written as,

AFM(t) = Ac Cos [ψi(t)] = Ac Cos [wct + kfʃm(t)dt]

Frequency Deviation in FM:

The instantaneous frequency, wi = wc + kf m(t)

= wc + Δw
Where, Δw = kf m(t) is called frequency deviation which
may be positive or negative depending on the sign
of m(t).
 Phase Modulation
The process of varying the phase of carrier in accordance
with instantaneous values of the modulating signal.

Consider modulating signal x(t) and carrier signal c(t) =

Ac
Coswct

Phase modulating signal,

APM(t) = Ac Cos[ ψi(t)]

Where, ψi(t) = wct + kpm(t)

Where, kp = Phase
sensitivity factor in rad/volt

APM
(t) = Ac Cos[wct +
 Phase Modulation
Frequency deviation in PM:

Conversion between Frequency and Phase

Modulation:
Modulation Index
Definition:
Modulation Index is defined as the ratio of frequency
deviation () to the modulating frequency (fm).

M.I.=Frequency Deviation
Modulating
Frequency

mf =δ
fm

In FM M.I.>1

Modulation Index of FM decides −

(i)Bandwidth of the FM wave.
(ii)Number of sidebands in FM wave.
Deviation Ratio
The modulation index corresponding to maximum
deviation and maximum modulating frequency is called
deviation ratio.

Deviation Ratio= Maximum Deviation

Maximum modulating Frequency

= δmax
fmax

In FM broadcasting the maximum value of deviation is

limited to 75
kHz. The maximum modulating frequency is also limited to
15 kHz.
Percentage M.I. of FM

The percentage modulation is defined as the ratio of

the actual frequency deviation produced by the modulating
signal to the maximum allowable frequency deviation.

% M.I = Actual deviation

Maximum allowable deviation


Mathematical Representation of FM

(i) Modulating
Signal:

It may be represented as,

em = Em (1)
cos mt
Here cos term taken for
simplicity
em
where, = Instantaneous amplitude
m = Angular velocity
= 2fm
fm = Modulating frequency
(ii) Carrier Signal:

Carrier may be represented as,

ec = Ec sin (ct + ) -----(2)

where,
ec = Instantaneous amplitude
c = Angular velocity
= 2fc
fc = Carrier frequency
 = Phase angle
(iii) FM Wave:

Fig. Frequency Vs. Time in FM

FM is nothing but a deviation of frequency.
From Fig. 2.25, it is seen that instantaneous frequency ‘f’ of the FM
wave is given by,
f =fc (1 + K Em cos mt) (3)
where,
fc =Unmodulated carrier frequency
K= Proportionality
constant
Em cos mt =Instantaneous
modulating signal
(Cosine term preferred for simplicity
otherwise we can use sine term also)
• The maximum deviation for this particular signal will occur, when
cos mt =  1fi.e.
=fcmaximum.
(1  K Em)  (4)
 Equation f(2.26)
=fc becomes,
K Emfc  (5)
So that maximum deviation  will be given by,
 = K Emfc  (6)
The instantaneous amplitude of FM signal is given by,
= A sin [f(c, m)]
eFM
= A sin   (7)
where,
f(c, m)= Some
function of carrier and modulating
frequencies
Let us write equation (2.26) in terms of  as,
 = c (1 + K Em
cos mt)
To find ,  must be =  dt
 integrated with respect to time.
Thus, = c (1 + K Em cos mt) dt
 =c (1 + K Em cos mt) dt
=  c (t+ KEm sin mt)
m
=ct + KEmc sin mt
m

=ct + KEmfc sin mt

m
=ct +  sinmt  = K Em fc]
[...
fm

Substitute value of  in equation (7)
Thus,
eFM = A sin (ct +  sinmt
)---(8)
fm
eFM = A sin (ct +mf sinmt

)---(9)

This is the equation of FM.

 Frequency Spectrum of FM
Frequency spectrum is a graph of amplitude versus
frequency. The frequency spectrum of FM wave tells us about
number of sideband present in the FM wave and their amplitudes.
The expression for FM wave is not simple. It is complex because it
is sine of sine function.
Only solution is to use ‘Bessels Function’.
Equation (2.32) may be expanded as,
eFM = {A J0 (mf) sin ct
+ J1 (mf) [sin (c + m) t − sin (c − m) t]
+ J1 (mf) [sin (c + 2m) t + sin (c − 2m) t]
+ J3 (mf) [sin (c + 3m) t − sin (c − 3m) t]
+ J4 (mf) [sin (c + 4m) t + sin (c − 4m) t]
+ }  (2.33)
From this equation it is seen that the FM wave consists of:
(i)Carrier (First term in equation).
(ii)Infinite number of sidebands (All terms except
first term are
sidebands).
The amplitudes of carrier and sidebands depend on ‘J’
coefficient.
 = 2f ,  = 2f
Fig. : Ideal Frequency Spectrum of
FM
Bandwidth of FM
From frequency spectrum of FM wave shown in Fig.
2.26, we can say that the bandwidth of FM wave is
infinite.
But practically, it is calculated based on how many
sidebands have significant amplitudes.
(i) The Simple Method to calculate the bandwidth is −

BW=2fmx Number of significant sidebands --(1)

With increase in modulation index, the number of

significant sidebands increases. So that bandwidth also
increases.
(ii) The second method to calculate bandwidth is by
Carson’s rule.
Carson’s rule states that, the bandwidth of FM wave is
twice the sum of deviation and highest modulating frequency.
BW=2( +fmmax)
(2)

Highest order side band = To be found from table 2.1 after

the
calculation of modulation Index m where, m = /fm

e.g. If m= 20KHZ/5KHZ

From table, for modulation index 4, highest order side band is 7th.
Therefore, the bandwidth is
B.W. = 2 fm  Highest order side band
=2  5 kHz  7
=70 kHz
Types of Frequency Modulation

FM (Frequency Modulation)

Narrowband Wideband FM
FM (NBFM) (WBFM)
[When [When modulation index is
modulation index large]
is small]
Comparison between Narrowband
and Wideband FM
Sr. Parameter NBFM WBFM
No.
1. Modulation Less than or slightly Greater than 1
index greater than 1
2. Maximum 5 kHz 75 kHz
deviation
3. Range of 20 Hz to 3 kHz 20 Hz to 15 kHz
modulating
frequency
4. Maximum Slightly greater than 1 5 to 2500
modulation
index
5. Bandwidth Small approximately Large about 15 times
same as that of AM greater than that of
BW = 2fm NBFM.
BW = 2(+fmmax)
6. Applications FM mobile communication Entertainment
like police wireless, broadcasting (can be used
ambulance, short range for high quality music
ship to shore transmission)
communication etc.
Representation of FM
FM can be represented by two ways:
1. Time domain.
2. Frequency domain.
1.FM in Time Domain
Time domain representation means continuous variation of voltage with respect
to time as shown in Fig. .

Fig. 1 FM in Time Domain

2.FM in Frequency Domain
• Frequency domain is also known as frequency spectrum.
• FM in frequency domain means graph or plot of amplitude versus frequency as
shown in Fig. 2.29.

Fig. 2: FM in Frequency Domain

Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis
• Pre and de-emphasis circuits are used only in frequency modulation.
• Pre-emphasis is used at transmitter and de-emphasis at receiver.
1. Pre-emphasis
• In FM, the noise has a greater effect on the higher modulating frequencies.
• This effect can be reduced by increasing the value of modulation index (mf), for
higher modulating frequencies.
• This can be done by increasing the deviation ‘’ and ‘’ can be
increased by
increasing the amplitude of modulating signal at higher frequencies.
Definition:
The artificial boosting of higher audio modulating frequencies
in
accordance with prearranged response curve is called pre-emphasis.
• Pre-emphasis circuit is a high pass filter as shown in Fig.
As shown in Fig. 1, AF is passed through a high-pass filter, before
applying to FM modulator.
• As modulating frequency (fm) increases,
capacitive reactance decreases and modulating voltage
goes on increasing. fm  Voltage of modulating signal
applied to FM modulat Boosting is done according to pre-arranged
curve as shown
in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2: P re-emphasis
Curve
•

The time constant of pre-emphasis is at 50 s in all CCIR standards.

• In systems employing American FM and TV standards, networks having
time constant of 75 sec are used.
• The pre-emphasis is used at FM transmitter as shown in Fig.

Fig. FM Transmitter with Pre-emphasis

De-emphasis
• De-emphasis circuit is used at FM receiver.
Definition:
The artificial boosting of higher modulating frequencies in
the
process of pre-emphasis is nullified at receiver by process called
de-emphasis.
• De-emphasis circuit is a low pass filter shown in Fig.

Fig. De-emphasis Circuit

 Fig. De-emphasis Curve

As shown in Fig.5, de-modulated FM is applied to the de-emphasis

circuit (low pass filter) where with increase in fm, capacitive reactance Xc
decreases. So that output of de-emphasis circuit also reduces •
Fig. 5 shows the de-emphasis curve corresponding to a time
constant
50 s. A 50 s de-emphasis corresponds to a frequency response curve
that is 3 dB down at frequency given by,
f = 1/ 2πRC
= 1/ 2π x 50x 1000
= 3180 Hz
Comparison between Pre-emphasis
and De-emphasis
Parameter Pre-emphasis De-emphasis

1. Circuit used High pass filter. Low pass filter.

2. Circuit diagram

Fig. 2.36
Fig. 2.37
3. Response curve
Fig. 2.38 Fig. 2.39

4. Time constant T = RC = 50 s T = RC = 50 s

5. Definition Boosting of higher Removal of higher

frequencies frequencies

6. Used at FM transmitter FM receiver.

Comparison between AM and FM
Parameter AM FM

1. Definition Amplitude of carrier is Frequency of carrier is

varied in accordance with varied in accordance with
amplitude of modulating the amplitude of
signal keeping frequency modulating signal keeping
and phase constant. amplitude and phase
constant.
2. Constant Frequency and phase. Amplitude and phase.
parameters

3. Modulated signal

4. Modulation Index
m=Em/Ec m = / fm

5. Number of Only two Infinite and depends on mf.

sidebands
6. Bandwidth BW = 2fm BW = 2 ( + fm (max))

7. Application MW, SW band broadcasting, Broadcasting FM, audio

video transmission in TV. transmission in TV.
FM GENERATION

There are two methods for generation of FM wave.

Generation of FM

Direct Method
Indirect Method

1.Armstrong Method
1. Reactance Modulator
2. Varactor Diode
Reactance Method

Fig. : Transistorized Reactance

Varactor Diode Modulator

Fig. : Varactor Diode Frequency

Modulator
Limitations of Direct Method of FM Generation
1. In this method, it is very difficult to get high order
stability in carrier frequency because in this method the
basic oscillator is not a stable oscillator, as it is controlled by
the modulating signal.

2.Generally in this method we get distorted FM, due

to non-linearity of the varactor diode.
FM Transmitter (Armstrong Method)
FM Generation using IC 566

Fig. : Basic Frequency Modulator using NE566

VCO
Advantages/ Disadvantages/Applications of FM
Advantages of FM
1. Transmitted power remains constant.
2. FM receivers are immune to noise.
3. Good capture effect.
4. No mixing of signals.

Disadvantages of FM
The greatest disadvantages of FM are:
1. It uses too much spectrum space.
2. The bandwidth is wider.
3. The modulation index can be kept low to minimize
the
bandwidth used.
4. But reduction in M.I. reduces the noise immunity.
5. Used only at very high frequencies.

Applications of FM
5. FM radio broadcasting.
6. Sound transmission in TV.
Demodulation of FM Signal

Two steps involved in FM demodulation

• Conversion of FM signal into AM signal,
Tank or parallel resonance circuit converts FM
into AM signal.
•An envelope detector is used to extract
modulating signal from modulated signal.
Slope Demodulator:
Demodulation of FM Signal
• The input signal is a frequency modulated signal.
It is applied to the tuned transformer (T1, C1, C2
combination) which converts the incoming FM signal into
AM.
•This AM signal is applied to a simple diode
detector
circuit, D1. Here the diode provides the rectification, while
C3 removes any unwanted high frequency components,
and R1 provides a load.
Advantages:
Simple and low cost
Enables FM to be detected without any additional circuitry.
Disadvantages:
Nonlinear operation
Both frequency and amplitude variations are demodulated
Demodulation of FM Signal

Foster Seeley Demodulator or detector:

Demodulation of FM Signal

• Foster seeley demodulator contains two

tuning circuits and two envelope detectors.

• One section of tuning circuit and

envelope detector works for incoming frequency
is greater than carrier frequency and vice versa for
incoming frequency less than carrier frequency.

• Tuning circuit converts FM signal to AM signal

and Envelope detector extracts message signal from
AM signal.
Demodulation of FM Signal
Ratio Demodulator:

• Ratio detector is similar to Foster

seeley demodulator except of Diode of D2 is
reversed potential divider circuit.
• Potential divider circuit suppress the noise
and this advantage of ratio detector.
Demodulation of FM Signal
PLL Demodulator or detector:
• Phase Locked Loop is closed loop system
which contains Phase detector, VCO and loop filter
or LPF as shown in figure.

• It continuously finds the phase difference

between incoming FM signal and locally generated
carrier.
• And based on Phase
difference it generates Modulating signal.
Demodulation of FM Signal

Zero Crossing Demodulator or detector:

Demodulation of FM Signal

• Zero crossing detector contains hard limiter, Zero crossing

detector, Multi vibrator, and Averaging Circuit.

• Hard limiter is two sided independent clipper which

converts continuous FM signal into Digital.

• Zero crossing detector is differentiator which generates

spikes when signal crosses zero and no. of zero crossings is
proportional to modulating signal amplitude.

• Mono stable multivibrator is generates pulses with

constant amplitude and width for each spike.

• Averaging is LPF circuit which integrates pulses and

generates modulating signal.
Super Heterodyne FM Receiver

Antenna: It is passive device which converts electromagnetic signal

into electrical signal.
RF Tuned Amplifier:
It is broad band amplifier which contain tuning circuit and amplifier.
Tuning circuit designed to select 100 stations and amplifier provides
amplification for 20MHz or20 000 KHzband width.
RF tuned amplifier is responsible for sensitivity, selectivity, Image
signal rejection and noise reduction.
Super Heterodyne FM Receiver
Mixer: It is combination of frequency mixer and
Band Pass Filter (BPF).
Frequency generates sum and difference frequency
of incoming signal and locally generated signal.
BPF selects difference frequency at the
output whose center frequency is equal to =
10.7MHz.

Local Oscillator:
It isgenerates carrier
either Colpits or frequency
Hartley oscillator. than
10.7MHz.greater
incoming carrier frequency to produce
constant frequency. the or
fixed
IF Amplifier:
It is narrow band, high gain and fixed frequency
amplifier which provides amplification for 20 MHz
band width at center frequency of 10.7 MHz.
Super Heterodyne FM Receiver
Limiter:
It is combination of hard limiter and BPF.
Hard limiter is two sided independent clipper removes
the noise spikes.
Detector or Demodulator or Discriminator:
It is frequency translatorcircuit which extracts
modulating signal from FM signal.

De-emphasis:
It is LPF which attenuates frequencies of Audio signal
from
2 KHz to 20 KHz to get the original modulating signal.
Audio Amplifier:
It is low frequency amplifier which provides
amplification at (20- 20K) Hz.

Loud Speaker:
Frequency Division Multiplexing
Allocation of different frequency bands or carrier
frequency to different channel is called “Frequency
Division Multiplexing”. And it is used to transmit
Radio & TV signals.
Frequency Division Multiplexing

FDM Multiplexing:
• Different carrier frequencies are used for
different stations or channels.
• Modulator is used in the
transmitter Band width of FDM
system,
BWFDM = N. BWCH+ (N-1) BWG
Where N = No. of channels or
, stations BWCH= Bandwidth of
each channel BWG=
Bandwidth of guard band
Guard band is frequency gap between two
channels
Frequency Division Multiplexing
FDM De-Multiplexing:

• BPF filter is used select channels or

stations
• Demodulator is used in the receiver.
 NOISE IN COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
Noise: It is an unwanted signal which tends to
interfere with the modulating signal.
Types of noise:
Noise is basically divided into,
1. External Noise
2. Internal Noise
 Classification of Noise
1. External Noise:
• Atmospheric Noise: Radio noise caused by natural
atmospheric processes, primarily
lightening discharges in thunder storms.
• Extraterrestrial Noise: Radio disturbances
from sources other than those related to the
Earth. Cosmic Noise: Random noise that originates
outside the
Earth’s atmosphere.
Solar Noise: Noise that originates from the Sun is called
Solar noise.
 Classification of Noise
• Industrial Noise: Noise generated by automobile
ignition, aircrafts, electric motors, Switch
gears, welding etc.
2. Internal Noise:
• Shot Noise: Random motion of electrons in the
semiconductor devices generates shot noise.
• Thermal or Johnson’s Noise: Random motion of
electrons in the resistor is called Thermal noise.
Vn = KT0BR
Where, K= Boltzmann constant, R= Resistance
T0= Absolute temperature B= Bandwidth
 Noise Temperature and Noise Figure
Noise temperature(Te): It is a means for specifying
noise in terms of an equivalent temperature. It is
expressed as ,
Te = (Fn-1) T0
Where, Fn = Noise Figure, T0 = Absolute temperature
Noise figure(Fn): It is the ratio of output and input
noise of an amplifier or network. It is expressed
as, =
Where, N = Noise added by the network or
amplifier.
G = gain of an network or amplifier
 Noise Temperature and Noise Figure
Noise Figure of Cascade Amplifier or Network:
Noise Figure of an cascade network
or amplifier is expressed as,
Fn =
Where, F1= Noise figure of 1st stage
G1= Gain of 1st stage
F2= Noise figure of 2nd stage
G2 = Gain of 2nd stage
Fn = Noise figure of nth stage
Gn = Gain of nth stage
 Noise equivalent Bandwidth
When white noise (flat spectrum of frequencies like
white light) is passed through a filter having a
frequency response , some of the noise power is
rejected by the filter and some is passed through
to the output.
The noise equivalent bandwidth is defined in the
following picture,
 Figure of Merit
Figure of Merit (FOM): It is ratio of output SNR to
input SNR of a communication system.
FOM =
Where S0= Output Signal Power &N0=
Output Noise Power
Si= Input Signal Power &Ni= Input Noise Power
Receiver model for noise calculation:
 Receiver model for noise calculation
• The receiver is combination of Band Pass Filter
(BPF) and Demodulator.
• The BPF is combination of RF Tuned Amplifier,
Mixer and Local Oscillator whose band width
is equal to band width of modulated signal
at transmitter.
• Channel Inter connects transmitter & receiver.
Channel adds noise to the modulated signal
while transmitting and it is assumed to be
white noise whose Power Spectral Density is
uniform.
• BPF converts white noise in to color or Band pass
 Receiver model for noise calculation
PSD of white noise and Narrow band pass noise are,

Power of band pass noise P = =

Where B = Band width noise.
 Communication system model for noise
calculation

• The communication system model for noise calculation

contains transmitter, channel and receiver.
• Transmitter is replaced by modulator which converts low
frequency modulating signal x(t) into high
frequency bandpass signal with the help of carrier
signal.
• Channel is replaced or modelled as additive noise which
adds white noise with PSD η/2 and it contains
 Communication system model for noise
calculation
• Receiver is modelled as BPF followed by demodulator.
• BPF is combination of RF tuned amplifier, mixer ,
local oscillator.
• Passband or badnwidth of BPF is equal to bandwidth of
modulated signal.
• BPF converts white noise into color or bandpass
noise ηB(t).
Input to BPF is s(t) + ηw(t)
Output of BPF is s(t) + ηB(t)
• Demodulator converts high frequency or bandpass signal
into low frequency or baseband signal.
 Bandpass noise representation
Bandpass noise is represented by,
1. Time Domain representation
• Quadrature representation
• Envelope representation
2. Frequency Domain representation
Quadrature representation:
Bandpass noise can be represented as,
ηB(t) = ηi(t) ocs Wct ηq(t)SinWct
Where, ηB(t) = Bnadpass noise
ηi(t) = Inphase component of
lowpass noise ηq(t) = Quadrature
 Quadrature representation
ηi(t) and ηq(t) can be recovered from ηB(t),
 Bandpass noise representation
Frequency domain representation:
Bandpass noise can be represented in
frequency domain as,

Properties of ηB(t):
• ηB(t), ηi(t) , ηq(t) will have same
power.
• The PSD of ηi(t) & ηq(t) is,
 Figure of Merit calculation in DSB-SC

• Transmitter contains DSB-SC modulator, whose

output s(t) = m(t) coswct.
• Noise generated by the channel is considered as
white noise ηw(t) with uniform noise power
spectral density η/2 .
 Figure of Merit calculation in DSB-SC
• Band pass filter’s bandwidth is equal to modulated
signal bandwidth.
• BPF allows DSB-SC signal and converts white noise
into color noise or bandpass noise ηB(t).
Therefore, o/p of the BPF is yi(t) = s(t) + ηB(t).
• Synchronous detector is used to extract modulating
signal m(t) which contain multiplier followed by
low pass filter.
Input signal power is , Si = m2(t)/2, Input noise power, Ni = η. 2fm,
Output signal power, S0 = [m(t)/2]2, Output noise power, N0 = η. fm/2
Substituting these values, FOM=(S0/N0)/(Si/Ni)= 2
 Figure of Merit calculation in SSB-SC
SSB-SC signal,
Output of BPF, yi(t) = s(t) + ηB(t)
Bandpass noise, ηB(t) = ηi(t) ocs Wct
ηq(t)SinWct

Input signal power is , Si = m2(t), Input noise power, Ni = η. fm

Output signal power,S0 = m2(t)/4 , Output noise power, N0 = η. fm/4
Substituting these values, FOM= (S0/N0)/(Si/Ni)= 1
 Noise calculation in AM system
AM signal, S(t) = [Ac+m(t)] Coswct
Output of BPF is, yi(t) = s(t) + ηB(t)
= [Ac+m(t)] Coswct + ηB(t)

Input signal power is , Si = [Ac2/2]+[m2(t)/2]

Input noise power, Ni = 2 η. Fm, Output signal power,S0 = m2(t)
Output noise power, N0 = 2η. Fm
Using these values, FOM= 2.
 Noise calculation in FM system
Frequency modulated signal s(t) = Ac Cos [ wct + Kfʃm(t) dt]
Output of BPF is, yi(t) = s(t) + ηB(t)
= Ac Cos [ wct + Kfʃm(t) dt] + ηB(t)

Input signal power is , Si = Ac2/2, Input noise power, Ni = 2 η. Δf

Output signal power, S0 = γ2K f2m2(t)
Substituting these values, FOM= (S0/N0)/(Si/Ni)
FOM = (3/4π2)mf3, Where mf = Δf/fm
 Noise calculation in PM system
PM signal S(t) = Ac Cos[wct+ Kpm(t)]
Output of BPF is, yi(t) = s(t) + ηB(t)
= Ac Cos[wct+ Kpm(t)] + ηB(t)

Input signal power is , Si = Ac2/2, Input noise power, Ni = 2 η. Δf

Output signal power,S0 = γ2Kp2m2(t), Output noise power, N0 = 2η.
Fm
Substituting these values and substituting m2(t)= Am2/2
2
FOM= (S0/N0)/(Si/Ni) = mp (Δf/ fm)
 Comparison between different
Modulation Systems with respect to FOM
ANALOG PULSE MODULATION SCHEMES
Pulse Modulation:
The process of transmitting the signals in the form of
pulses by using some special techniques.

There are two types of pulse modulation systems,

1. Pulse Amplitude Modulation
2. Pulse Time Modulation

Pulse time modulation is further divided into,

• Pulse Width Modulation
• Pulse Position Modulation
 PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION(PAM)
In Pulse amplitude modulation, the amplitude of
pulses of carrier pulse train is varied in
accordance with the modulating signal.

In PAM , the pulses can be flat top type or natural

type or ideal type.

Out of these, flat top PAM is widely used because of

easy noise removal.
 PAM GENERATION

• The sample and hold circuit consists of two FETs

and a capacitor.
• The sampling switch is closed for a short duration
by a short pulse applied to the gate G1 of
transistor.
 PAM GENERATION
• During thisperiod, the capacitor is quickly
charged to voltage equal to instantaneous
a
sample value of incoming signal x(t)
• Now the sampling switch is opened and
capacitor holds the charge.
• The discharge switch is then closed by a pulse
applied to gate G2 of second transistor.
• Due to this the capacitor is discharged to zero
volts. The discharge switch is then opened
and the capacitor has no voltage.
• Hence the output of sample and hold circuit
consists of a sequence of flat top samples.
PAM GENERATION
 Transmission bandwidth of PAM
In PAM signal the pulse duration τ is assumed to be
very small compared to time period Ts i.e τ< Ts
If the maximum frequency in the modulating signal
x(t) is fm then sampling frequency fs is given by
fs<=2fm Or 1/Ts <= 2fm or Ts <= 1/2fm
Therefore, τ< Ts <= 1/2fm
If ON and OFF time of PAM pulse is equal then
maximum frequency of PAM pulse will be fmax =
1/ τ+ τ = 1/2 τ
Therefore, transmission bandwidth >=1/2 τ >=
1/[2(1/2fm)>= fm
 Demodulation of PAM
Demodulation is the reverse
modulation process of in which
modulating
recovered back signal signal.
from the modulated
is
 Demodulation of PAM
• For PAM signals, demodulation is done using a
holding circuit.
• The received PAM signal is first passed through a
holding circuit and then through a lowpass
filer.
• Switch S is closed during the arrival of the pulse
and is opened at the end of the pulse.
• Capacitor C is charged to pulse amplitude value
and holds this value during the interval
between two pulses.
• Holding circuit output is then passed through a
 Advantages, Disadvantages of PAM
Advantages:
• It is the simple process for modulation and
demodulation
• Transmitter and receiver circuits are simple and easy to
construct.
Disadvantages:
• Bandwidth requirement is high
• Interference of noise is maximum
• Power requirement is high
Applications:
• Used in microcontrollers for generating control signals
• Used as electronic driver for LED lighting
 SAMPLING
It is the process of converting a continuous time
signal into a discrete time signal
During sampling, sufficient number of samples of
the signal must be taken so that original signal is
correctly represented in its samples and possible
for reconstruction.
Number of samples to be taken depends on
maximum signal frequency present in the signal.
• Different types of samples are,
• Ideal
• Natural
• Flat top
 SAMPLING
Sampling theorem:
A continuous time signal may be completely
represented in its samples and recovered back if
the sampling frequency fs>2fm
Nyqyist rate and Nyquist interval:
When sampling rate becomes exactly equal to 2fm
samples per second, it is called Nyquist rate
fs=2fm Hz
Maximum sampling is called Nyquist
interval interval.
Ts = 1/fs=1/2fm sec
 NATURAL SAMPLING
In natural sampling, pulse has a finite width equal
to τ.
 NATURAL SAMPLING
Let an analog continuous time signal x(t) sampled
at a rate fs Hz and sampling function c(t) which is
a train of periodic pulse of width τ and frequency
fs Hz
Case i: When c(t) is high

Switch S is closed and output g(t) is exactly equal to

input

g(t) = x(t)
 NATURAL SAMPLING
Case ii: When c(t) is low
Switch s is open
g(t)
=0
The time domain representation of
naturally sampled signal is given by,
g(t) = x(t)
The spectrum of naturally sampled
signal is given by,
G(f) =
 Pulse Width Modulation(PWM)
In PWM, the width of pulses of carrier pulse train is
varied in proportion with amplitude of
modulating signal.
 PWM GENERATION

A sawtooth generator generates a sawtooth signal

of frequency fs.
This is applied to inverting terminal of comparator.
 PWM GENERATION
• Modulating x(t) is applied to non-inverting
signal of comparator.
terminal
• Comparator output remains high as long as
instantaneous amplitude of x(t) is higher than
sawtooth signal.
• This gives the PWM output at the output of
comparator.
• The leading edges of PWM waveform coincide with
falling edges of ramp signal
• Therefore, leading edges of PWM signal are always
generated at fixed time intervals
• Occurrence of falling edge of PWM signal is dependent
on instantaneous amplitude of x(t)
PWM GENERATION
 DETECTION OF PWM

• The PWM signal received at the input of

detector circuit will contain noise
• This signal is applied to a pulse generator which
regenerates the PMW signal.
• Some of the noise is removed and the pulses are
squared up.
 DETECTION OF PWM
• The regenerated pulses are applied to a reference pulse generator.
• It produces a train of constant amplitude and constant
width
pulses.
• These pulses are synchronized to the leading edges of regenerated
PWM pulses but delayed by fixed intervals.
• The regenerated PWM pulses are also applied to a ramp generator
whose o/p is a constant slope ramp for the duration of the pulse.
• At the end of the pulse a sample and hold circuit retains the final
ramp voltage until it is reset at the end of the pulse.
• The constant amplitude pulses at the o/p of the
reference generator are then added to ramp signal.
• O/P of the adder is then clipped off at a threshold level
to
generate a PAM signal.
DETECTION OF PWM
 PULSE POSITION MODULATION(PPM)
Modulation technique in which position of pulses
of carrier pulse train is varied in accordance with
amplitude of modulating signal.
Generation:
 PPM GENERATION
• The block diagram is similar to PWM
except monostable multivibrator.
• PWM pulses at the
obtained
comparator are applied output of to
multivibrator. a
• monostable multivibrator ismonostable
a negative edge
triggered circuit. At each trailing edge of
PWM signal the monostable output goes high.
• PPM output remains high for a fixed
duration from trailing edge of PWM signal.
PPM GENERATION
DETECTION OF PPM
 DETECTION OF PPM
• The circuit consists of S-R flipflop which is set or
gives high output when reference pulses arrive.
• Reference pulses are generated by a
reference pulse generator.
• Flip-flop circuit is reset and gives low output
at the leading edge of PPM signal.
• The process repeats and we get PWM pulses
at the output of flip-flop.
• PWM pulses are then demodulated in a
PWM demodulator to get original modulating
signal.
DETECTION OF PPM
 Radio receiver measurements
The important characteristics of
superheterodyne radio receiver are,
• Sensitivity
• Selectivity
• Fidelity
Sensitivity:
• It is defined as the ability of receiver to amplify
weak signals
• It is defined in terms of voltage which must be
applied at the receiver input terminals to provide a
standard output power at the receiver output.
 Radio receiver measurements
• Sensitivity is expressed in milli volts
• For practical receivers sensitivity is expressed in terms of
signal power required to produce minimum acceptable
output with minimum acceptable noise.

• Sensitivity of superheterodyne radio receiver depends on

• Gain of RF amplifier
• Gain of IF amplifier
• Noise figure of RX
 Radio receiver measurements
Selectivity:
It is defined as the ability of
receiver to reject unwanted signals.

Selectivity depends on
• Receiving frequency
• Response of IF section
 Radio receiver measurements
Fidelity:
It is the ability of a receiver
to reproduce all the modulating frequencies
equally.