Introductory Lecture

Operating Systems

McGraw-Hill Technology Copyright © 2006 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All

 Text and Reference Books
Text Book:

Operating
System
Concepts
7th edition
by Avi Silberschatz
Reference Book:

Operating Systems
Internals and Design
Principles
by William Stallings
13A-2
 Course Website and Contacts

CMS Website:
Operating Systems Website
http://web.uettaxila.edu.pk/cms/teOSbsAU09/

Email Correspondence:
[email protected]

13A-3
 Course Outline

Chapters
Part 1: Overview
1. Introduction
2. Operating-System Structures
Part 2: Process Management
3. Processes
4. Threads
5. CPU Scheduling
6. Process Synchronization
7. Deadlocks
13A-4
 Course Outline

Chapters
Part 3: Memory Management
8. Main Memory
9. Virtual Memory
Part 4: Storage Management
10. File-System Interface
11. File-System Implementation
12. Mass-Storage Structure
13. I/O Systems

13A-5
 Course Outline
Chapters
Part 5: Protection and Security
14. Protection
15. Security
Part 6: Distributed Systems
16. Distributed System Structures
17. Distributed File Systems
18. Distributed Coordination
Part 7: Special-Purpose Systems
19. Real-Time Systems
20. Multimedia Systems
13A-6
 Course Outline

Chapters
Part 8: Case Studies
21. The Linux System
22. Windows XP
23. Historical Perspective

13A-7
Chapter 1: Introduction
• What Operating Systems Do
• Computer-System Organization
• Computer-System Architecture
• Operating-System Structure
• Operating-System Operations
• Process Management
• Memory Management
• Storage Management
• Protection and Security
• Distributed Systems
• Special-Purpose Systems
• Computing Environments
 Objectives

• To provide a grand tour of the major

operating systems components
• To provide coverage of basic computer
system organization
What is an Operating System?
• A program that acts as an
intermediary between a user of a
computer and the computer hardware.
• Operating system goals:
– Execute user programs and make solving
user problems easier.
– Make the computer system convenient to
use.
– Use the computer hardware in an
efficient manner.
Computer System Structure
• Computer system can be divided into four
components
– Hardware – provides basic computing resources
• CPU, memory, I/O devices
– Operating system
• Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various
applications and users
– Application programs – define the ways in which the
system resources are used to solve the computing
problems of the users
• Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database
systems, video games
– Users
• People, machines, other computers
Four Components of a Computer System
Operating System Definition

• OS is a resource allocator
– Manages all resources
– Decides between conflicting requests
for efficient and fair resource use
• OS is a control program
– Controls execution of programs to
prevent errors and improper use of the
computer
Operating System Definition (Cont.)
• No universally accepted definition
• “Everything a vendor ships when you
order an operating system” is good
approximation
– But varies widely
• “The one program running at all times
on the computer” is the kernel.
Everything else is either a system
program (ships with the operating
system) or an application program
 Computer Startup
• bootstrap program is loaded at power-
up or reboot
– Typically stored in ROM or EPROM,
generally known as firmware
– Initializates all aspects of system
– Loads operating system kernel and starts
execution
Computer System Organization
• Computer-system operation
– One or more CPUs, device controllers
connect through common bus providing
access to shared memory
– Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices
competing for memory cycles
Computer System Organization
Computer-System Operation
• I/O devices and the CPU can execute
concurrently.
• Each device controller is in charge of a
particular device type.
• Each device controller has a local buffer.
• CPU moves data from/to main memory
to/from local buffers
• I/O is from the device to local buffer of
controller.
• Device controller informs CPU that it has
finished its operation by causing an interrupt.
Common Functions of Interrupts
• Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt
service routine generally, through the interrupt
vector, which contains the addresses of all the
service routines.
• Interrupt architecture must save the address
of the interrupted instruction.
• Incoming interrupts are disabled while another
interrupt is being processed to prevent a lost
interrupt.
• A trap is a software-generated interrupt
caused either by an error or a user request.
• An operating system is interrupt driven.
 Interrupt Handling
• The operating system preserves the
state of the CPU by storing registers
and the program counter.
• Determines which type of interrupt has
occurred:
– polling
– vectored interrupt system
• Separate segments of code determine
what action should be taken for each
type of interrupt
Interrupt Timeline
 I/O Structure
• After I/O starts, control returns to user program
only upon I/O completion. (Synchronous)
– Wait instruction idles the CPU until the next interrupt
– Wait loop (contention for memory access).
– At most one I/O request is outstanding at a time, no
simultaneous I/O processing.
• After I/O starts, control returns to user program
without waiting for I/O completion. (Asynchronous)
– System call – request to the operating system to allow
user to wait for I/O completion.
– Device-status table contains entry for each I/O device
indicating its type, address, and state.
– Operating system indexes into I/O device table to
determine device status and to modify table entry to
include interrupt.
Two I/O Methods

Synchronous Asynchronous
Device-Status Table
Direct Memory Access Structure
• Used for high-speed I/O devices able to
transmit information at close to memory
speeds.
• Device controller transfers blocks of
data from buffer storage directly to main
memory without CPU intervention.
• Only one interrupt is generated per
block, rather than the one interrupt per
byte.
 Storage Structure
• Main memory – only large storage media that
the CPU can access directly.
• Secondary storage – extension of main
memory that provides large nonvolatile
storage capacity.
• Magnetic disks – rigid metal or glass platters
covered with magnetic recording material
– Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which
are subdivided into sectors.
– The disk controller determines the logical
interaction between the device and the computer.
 Storage Hierarchy

• Storage systems organized in hierarchy.

– Speed
– Cost
– Volatility
• Caching – copying information into
faster storage system; main memory
can be viewed as a last cache for
secondary storage.
Storage-Device Hierarchy
 Caching
• Important principle, performed at many levels in a
computer (in hardware, operating system, software)
• Information in use copied from slower to faster
storage temporarily
• Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if
information is there
– If it is, information used directly from the cache (fast)
– If not, data copied to cache and used there
• Cache smaller than storage being cached
– Cache management important design problem
– Cache size and replacement policy
Performance of Various Levels of Storage

• Movement between levels of storage

hierarchy can be explicit or implicit
Migration of Integer A from Disk to Register
• Multitasking environments must be careful to use most recent
value, no matter where it is stored in the storage hierarchy

• Multiprocessor environment must provide cache coherency in

hardware such that all CPUs have the most recent value in their
cache
• Distributed environment situation even more complex
Operating System Structure
• Multiprogramming needed for efficiency
– Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times
– Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has
one to execute
– A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
– One job selected and run via job scheduling
– When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job
• Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU
switches jobs so frequently that users can interact with each job
while it is running, creating interactive computing
– Response time should be < 1 second
– Each user has at least one program executing in memory process
– If several jobs ready to run at the same time  CPU scheduling
– If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out to
run
– Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in
memory
Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System
Operating-System Operations
• Interrupt driven by hardware
• Software error or request creates exception or trap
– Division by zero, request for operating system service
• Other process problems include infinite loop,
processes modifying each other or the operating
system
• Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and
other system components
– User mode and kernel mode
– Mode bit provided by hardware
• Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user code
or kernel code
• Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable in
kernel mode
• System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets it to
user
Transition from User to Kernel Mode
• Timer to prevent infinite loop / process hogging
resources
– Set interrupt after specific period
– Operating system decrements counter
– When counter reaches zero it generate an interrupt
– Set up before scheduling process to regain control or
terminate program that exceeds allotted time
 Process Management
• A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work within
the system. Program is a passive entity, process is an active
entity.
• Process needs resources to accomplish its task
– CPU, memory, I/O, files
– Initialization data
• Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable
resources
• Single-threaded process has one program counter
specifying location of next instruction to execute
– Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time, until
completion
• Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread
• Typically system has many processes, some user, some
operating system running concurrently on one or more CPUs
– Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the processes /
threads
Process Management Activities

• The operating system is responsible for the

following activities in connection with process
management:
– Creating and deleting both user and system
processes
– Suspending and resuming processes
– Providing mechanisms for process synchronization
– Providing mechanisms for process communication
– Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling
 Memory Management
• All data in memory before and after processing
• All instructions in memory in order to execute
• Memory management determines what is in memory
when
– Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response to users
• Memory management activities
– Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being
used and by whom
– Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data to
move into and out of memory
– Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed
 Storage Management
• OS provides uniform, logical view of information
storage
– Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit - file
– Each medium is controlled by device (i.e., disk drive, tape
drive)
• Varying properties include access speed, capacity, data-
transfer rate, access method (sequential or random)
• File-System management
– Files usually organized into directories
– Access control on most systems to determine who can
access what?
– OS activities include
• Creating and deleting files and directories
• Primitives to manipulate files and dirs
• Mapping files onto secondary storage
• Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media
Mass-Storage Management
• Usually disks used to store data that does not fit in main memory
or data that must be kept for a “long” period of time.
• Proper management is of central importance
• Entire speed of computer operation hinges on disk subsystem
and its algorithms
• OS activities
– Free-space management
– Storage allocation
– Disk scheduling
• Some storage need not be fast
– Tertiary storage includes optical storage, magnetic tape
– Still must be managed
– Varies between WORM (write-once, read-many-times) and RW
(read-write)
 I/O Subsystem
• One purpose of OS is to hide
peculiarities of hardware devices from
the user
• I/O subsystem responsible for
– Memory management of I/O including
buffering (storing data temporarily while it is
being transferred), caching (storing parts of
data in faster storage for performance),
spooling (the overlapping of output of one
job with input of other jobs)
– General device-driver interface
– Drivers for specific hardware devices
 Protection and Security
• Protection – any mechanism for controlling access of processes
or users to resources defined by the OS
• Security – defense of the system against internal and external
attacks
– Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms, viruses, identity
theft, theft of service
• Systems generally first distinguish among users, to determine
who can do what
– User identities (user IDs, security IDs) include name and associated
number, one per user
– User ID then associated with all files, processes of that user to
determine access control
– Group identifier (group ID) allows set of users to be defined and
controls managed, then also associated with each process, file
– Privilege escalation allows user to change to effective ID with
more rights
Computing Environments

• Traditional computer
– Blurring over time
– Office environment
• PCs connected to a network, terminals attached to
mainframe or minicomputers providing batch and
timesharing
• Now portals allowing networked and remote systems
access to same resources
– Home networks
• Used to be single system, then modems
• Now firewalled, networked
Computing Environments (Cont.)
 Client-Server Computing
 Dumb terminals supplanted by smart PCs
 Many systems now servers, responding to requests generated by
clients
 Compute-server provides an interface to client to request
services (i.e. database)
 File-server provides interface for clients to store and retrieve
files
 Peer-to-Peer Computing
• Another model of distributed system
• P2P does not distinguish clients and
servers
– Instead all nodes are considered peers
– May each act as client, server or both
– Node must join P2P network
• Registers its service with central lookup service
on network, or
• Broadcast request for service and respond to
requests for service via discovery protocol
– Examples include Napster and Gnutella
 Web-Based Computing
• Web has become ubiquitous
• PCs are most prevalent devices
• More devices are becoming networked to
allow web access
• New category of devices are invented to
manage web traffic among similar servers:
load balancers
• Use of operating systems like Windows 95,
client-side, have evolved into Linux, Windows
XP and Vista, which can be clients and
servers
 The End

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McGraw-Hill Technology Copyright © 2006 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All