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Logic!

Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 1

 Logic
• Crucial for mathematical reasoning
• Important for program design
• Used for designing electronic circuitry

• (Propositional )Logic is a system based on

propositions.
• A proposition is a (declarative) statement
that is either true or false (not both).
• We say that the truth value of a proposition
is either true (T) or false (F).
• Corresponds to 1 and 0 in digital circuits
Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 2
 The Statement/Proposition
Game
“Elephants are bigger than mice.”

Is this a statement? yes

Is this a proposition? yes

What is the truth

value true
of the proposition?
Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 3
 The Statement/Proposition
Game
“520 < 111”

Is this a statement? yes

Is this a proposition? yes

What is the truth

value fals
of the proposition? e
Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 4
 The Statement/Proposition
Game
“y > 5”

Is this a statement? yes

Is this a proposition? no

Its truth value depends on the value of

y, but this value is not specified.
We call this type of statement a
propositional function or open
sentence
Fall 2011
. CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 5
 The Statement/Proposition
Game
“Today is January 27 and 99 < 5.”

Is this a statement? yes

Is this a proposition? yes

What is the truth

value fals
of the proposition? e
Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 6
 The Statement/Proposition
Game
“Please do not fall asleep.”

Is this a statement? no
It’s a request.

Is this a proposition? no

Only statements can be propositions.

Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 7

 The Statement/Proposition
Game
“If the moon is made of cheese,
then I will be rich.”

Is this a statement? yes

Is this a proposition? yes

What is the truth

value probably true
of the proposition?
Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 8
 The Statement/Proposition
Game
“x < y if and only if y > x.”
Is this a statement? yes
Is this a proposition? yes
… because its truth value
does not depend on
specific values of x and
y.
What is the truth
value true
ofFall the
2011 proposition?
CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 9
 Combining Propositions

As we have seen in the previous

examples, one or more propositions can
be combined to form a single compound
proposition.

We formalize this by denoting

propositions with letters such as p, q, r,
s, and introducing several logical
operators or logical connectives.
Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 10
 Logical Operators
(Connectives)
We will examine the following logical operators:
• Negation (NOT, )
• Conjunction (AND, )
• Disjunction (OR, )
• Exclusive-or (XOR,  )
• Implication (if – then,  )
• Biconditional (if and only if,  )
Truth tables can be used to show how these
operators can combine propositions to
compound propositions.
Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 11
 Negation (NOT)

Unary Operator, Symbol: 

P P
true (T) false (F)
false (F) true (T)

Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 12

 Conjunction (AND)
Binary Operator, Symbol: 
P Q P Q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 13

 Disjunction (OR)
Binary Operator, Symbol: 
P Q PQ
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 14

 Exclusive Or (XOR)
Binary Operator, Symbol: 
P Q PQ
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F F

Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 15

 Implication (if - then)
Binary Operator, Symbol: 
P Q PQ
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 16

 Biconditional (if and only
if)
Binary Operator, Symbol: 
P Q PQ
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 17

Statements and Operators
Statements and operators can be combined in
any way to form new statements.

P Q P Q (P)(Q)
T T F F F
T F F T T
F T T F T
F F T T T

Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 18

 Statements and
Operations
Statements and operators can be combined in
any way to form new statements.

P Q PQ (PQ) (P)(Q)

T T T F F
T F F T T
F T F T T
F F F T T

Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 19

 Exercises
• To take discrete mathematics, you must
have taken calculus or a course in
computer science.
• When you buy a new car from Acme Motor
Company, you get $2000 back in cash or a
2% car loan.
• School is closed if more than 2 feet of
snow falls or if the wind chill is below -100.

Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 20

 Exercises
• To take discrete mathematics, you must
have taken calculus or a course in
computer science.
– P: take discrete mathematics
– Q: take calculus
– R: take a course in computer science
•P  Q  R
• Problem with proposition R
– What if I want to represent “take CSC301”?

Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 21

 Exercises
• When you buy a new car from Acme Motor
Company, you get $2000 back in cash or a
2% car loan.
– P: buy a car from Acme Motor Company
– Q: get $2000 cash back
– R: get a 2% car loan

•P  Q  R
• Why use XOR here? – example of
ambiguity of natural languages
Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 22
 Exercises
• School is closed if more than 2 feet of
snow falls or if the wind chill is below -100.
– P: School is closed
– Q: 2 feet of snow falls
– R: wind chill is below -100

•Q  R  P
• Precedence among operators:
,  ,  ,  , 

Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 23

 Equivalent Statements
P Q (PQ) (P)(Q) (PQ)(P)(Q)

T T F F T
T F T T T
F T T T T
F F T T T
The statements (PQ) and (P)  (Q) are logically equivalent, since they
have the same truth table, or put it in another way, (PQ) (P)  (Q) is
always true.

Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 24

 Tautologies and
Contradictions
A tautology is a statement that is always true.
Examples:
– R(R)
 (PQ)  (P)( Q)
A contradiction is a statement that is always false.
Examples:
– R(R)
 ((P  Q)  (P)  (Q))
The negation of any tautology is a contradiction,
and the negation of any contradiction is a
tautology.

Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 25

 Equivalence
Definition: two propositional
statements S1 and S2 are said to be
(logically) equivalent, denoted S1 
S2 if
– They have the same truth table, or
– S1  S2 is a tautology
Equivalence can be established by
– Constructing truth tables
– Using equivalence laws (Table 5 in Section
1.2)

Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 26

 Equivalence
Equivalence laws
– Identity laws, P  T  P,
– Domination laws, P  F  F,
– Idempotent laws, P  P  P,
– Double negation law,  ( P)  P
– Commutative laws, P  Q  Q  P,
– Associative laws, P  (Q  R) (P  Q)  R,
– Distributive laws, P  (Q  R) (P  Q)  (P  R),
– De Morgan’s laws,  (PQ)  ( P)  ( Q)
– Law with implication PQPQ

Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 27

 Exercises
• Show that P  Q   P  Q: by truth table
• Show that (P  Q)  (P  R)  P  (Q  R):
by equivalence laws (q20, p27):
– Law with implication on both sides
– Distribution law on LHS

Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 28

 Summary, Sections 1.1, 1.2
•Proposition
– Statement, Truth value,
– Proposition, Propositional symbol, Open proposition
•Operators
– Define by truth tables
– Composite propositions
– Tautology and contradiction
•Equivalence of propositional statements
– Definition
– Proving equivalence (by truth table or equivalence
laws)

Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 29

 Propositional Functions &
Predicates
Propositional function (open sentence):
statement involving one or more variables,
e.g.: x-3 > 5.
Let us call this propositional function P(x),
where P is the predicate and x is the
variable
What is .the truth value of P(2) ? false
What is the truth value of P(8) ? false
What is the truth value of P(9) ? true
When a variable is given a value, it is said
to be instantiated
Truth value depends on value of
variable
Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 30
 Propositional Functions
Let us consider the propositional function
Q(x, y, z) defined as:
x + y = z.
Here, Q is the predicate and x, y, and z are
the variables.
What is the truth value of Q(2, 3, 5) true
?
What is the truth value of Q(0, 1, false
2) ? is the truth value of Q(9, -9, 0) ? true
What
A propositional function (predicate) becomes a
proposition when all its variables are
instantiated
Fall 2011
. CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 31
 Propositional Functions
Other examples of propositional functions

Person(x), which is true if x is a person

Person(Socrates) = T
Person(dolly-the-sheep) = F
CSCourse(x), which is true if x is a
computer science course
CSCourse(CSC301) = T
CSCourse(MAT210) = F
How do we say
All humans are mortal
One CS course
Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 32
 Universal Quantification
Let P(x) be a predicate (propositional function).

Universally quantified sentence:

For all x in the universe of discourse P(x) is
true.

Using the universal quantifier :

x P(x) “for all x P(x)” or “for every x P(x)”

(Note: x P(x) is either true or false, so it is a

proposition, not a propositional function.)
Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 33
 Universal Quantification
Example: Let the universe of discourse be all
people
S(x): x is a AUN student.
G(x): x is a genius.
What does x (S(x)  G(x)) mean ?
“If x is a AUN student, then x is a genius.” or
“All AUN students are geniuses.”
If the universe of discourse is all AUN students,
then the same statement can be written as
x G(x)

Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 34

 Existential Quantification
Existentially quantified sentence:
There exists an x in the universe of discourse
for which P(x) is true.

Using the existential quantifier :

x P(x) “There is an x such that P(x).”
“There is at least one x such that
P(x).”

(Note: x P(x) is either true or false, so it is a

proposition, but no propositional function.)

Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 35

 Existential Quantification
Example:
P(x): x is a AUN professor.
G(x): x is a genius.

What does x (P(x)  G(x)) mean ?

“There is an x such that x is a AUN professor

and x is a genius.”
or
“At least one AUN professor is a genius.”

Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 36

 Quantification
Another example:
Let the universe of discourse be the real numbers.

What does xy (x + y = 320) mean ?

“For every x there exists a y so that x + y = 320.”

Is it true? yes

Is it true for the natural no

numbers?
Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 37
 Disproof by Counterexample
A counterexample to x P(x) is an object c
so that P(c) is false.

Statements such as x (P(x)  Q(x)) can be

disproved by simply providing a
counterexample.

Statement: “All birds can fly.”

Disproved by counterexample: Penguin.

Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 38

 Negation

(x P(x)) is logically equivalent to x (P(x)).

(x P(x)) is logically equivalent to x (P(x)).

See Table 2 in Section 1.3.

This is de Morgan’s law for quantifiers

Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 39

 Negation
Examples
Not all roses are red
x (Rose(x)  Red(x))
x (Rose(x)  Red(x))

Nobody is perfect
x (Person(x)  Perfect(x))
x (Person(x)  Perfect(x))

Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 40

 Nested Quantifier
A predicate can have more than one
variables.
– S(x, y, z): z is the sum of x and y
– F(x, y): x and y are friends
We can quantify individual variables in
different ways
 x, y, z (S(x, y, z)  (x <= z  y <= z))
 x y z (F(x, y)  F(x, z)  (y != z)  F(y, z)

Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 41

 Nested Quantifier
Exercise: translate the following
English sentence into logical
expression
“There is a rational number in between
every pair of distinct rational numbers”

Use predicate Q(x), which is true when

x is a rational number
x,y (Q(x)  Q (y)  (x < y) 
u (Q(u)  (x < u)  (u < y)))
Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 42
 Summary, Sections 1.3, 1.4
• Propositional functions (predicates)
• Universal and existential quantifiers, and
the duality of the two
• When predicates become propositions
– All of its variables are instantiated
– All of its variables are quantified
• Nested quantifiers
– Quantifiers with negation
• Logical expressions formed by
predicates, operators, and quantifiers
Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 43
 Let’s proceed to…

Mathematical
Reasoning

Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 44

 Mathematical Reasoning
We need mathematical reasoning to
• determine whether a mathematical argument is
correct or incorrect and
• construct mathematical arguments.

Mathematical reasoning is not only important for

conducting proofs and program verification,
but also for artificial intelligence systems
(drawing logical inferences from knowledge and
facts).

We focus on deductive proofs

Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 45
 Terminology
An axiom is a basic assumption about
mathematical structure that needs no proof.
- Things known to be true (facts or proven theorems)
- Things believed to be true but cannot be proved

We can use a proof to demonstrate that a

particular statement is true. A proof consists of a
sequence of statements that form an argument.
The steps that connect the statements in such a
sequence are the rules of inference.
Cases of incorrect reasoning are called fallacies.

Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 46

 Terminology
A theorem is a statement that can be shown
to be true.

A lemma is a simple theorem used as an

intermediate result in the proof of another
theorem.

A corollary is a proposition that follows

directly from a theorem that has been proved.

A conjecture is a statement whose truth

value is unknown. Once it is proven, it
becomes a theorem.
Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 47
 Proofs
A theorem often has two parts
- Conditions (premises, hypotheses)
- conclusion

A correct (deductive) proof is to establish that

- If the conditions are true then the conclusion is true
- I.e., Conditions  conclusion is a tautology

Often there are missing pieces between

conditions and conclusion. Fill it by an argument
- Using conditions and axioms
- Statements in the argument connected by proper
rules of inference

Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 48

 Rules of Inference
Rules of inference provide the justification of
the steps used in a proof.

One important rule is called modus ponens

or the law of detachment. It is based on the
tautology
(p  (p  q))  q. We write it in the following
way: The two hypotheses p and p  q are

p written in a column, and the

p q conclusion
____
q 2011
 Fall below a bar, where  means
CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 49
“therefore”.
 Rules of Inference

The general form of a rule of inference is:

p1 The rule states that if p1 and p2 and

p2 … and pn are all true, then q is true as
.
. well.
.
pn
____ Each rule is an established tautology
q of
p1  p2  …  pn  q

These rules of inference can be used

Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 50
in any mathematical argument and do
 Rules of Inference
p q
_____ pq Modus
Addition _____
 pq tollens
p

pq pq
_____ Hypothetical
Simplificatio qr
p _____ syllogism
n  p r (chaining)
p
pq
q Conjunction Disjunctive
_____ p
_____ syllogism
 pq
q (resolution)
Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 51
 Arguments
Just like a rule of inference, an argument
consists of one or more hypotheses (or
premises) and a conclusion.
We say that an argument is valid, if whenever
all its hypotheses are true, its conclusion is
also true.
However, if any hypothesis is false, even a
valid argument can lead to an incorrect
conclusion.

Proof: show that hypotheses  conclusion is

true using rules ofCSCinference
Fall 2011 213 - Discrete Structures 52
 Arguments
Example:
“If 101 is divisible by 3, then 1012 is divisible
by 9. 101 is divisible by 3. Consequently, 1012
is divisible by 9.”

Although the argument is valid, its conclusion

is incorrect, because one of the hypotheses is
false (“101 is divisible by 3.”).

If in the above argument we replace 101 with

102, we could correctly conclude that 1022 is
divisible by 9.

Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 53

 Arguments
Which rule of inference was used in the last
argument?

p: “101 is divisible by 3.”

q: “1012 is divisible by 9.”
p
pq Modus
_____ ponens
q

Unfortunately, one of the hypotheses (p) is

false.
Therefore, the conclusion q is incorrect.
Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 54
 Arguments

Another example:
“If it rains today, then we will not have a
barbeque today. If we do not have a barbeque
today, then we will have a barbeque
tomorrow.
Therefore, if it rains today, then we will have a
barbeque tomorrow.”

This is a valid argument: If its hypotheses are

true, then its conclusion is also true.
Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 55
 Arguments
Let us formalize the previous argument:
p: “It is raining today.”
q: “We will not have a barbecue today.”
r: “We will have a barbecue tomorrow.”
So the argument is of the following form:

pq
qr Hypothetical
______ syllogism
Pr

Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 56

 Arguments
Another example:

Gary is either intelligent or a good actor.

If Gary is intelligent, then he can count
from 1 to 10.
Gary can only count from 1 to 3.
Therefore, Gary is a good actor.

i: “Gary is intelligent.”
a: “Gary is a good actor.”
c: “Gary can count from 1 to 10.”

Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 57

 Arguments
i: “Gary is intelligent.”
a: “Gary is a good actor.”
c: “Gary can count from 1 to 10.”

Step 1: c Hypothesis
Step 2: i c Hypothesis
Step 3: i Modus tollens Steps 1 & 2
Step 4: ai Hypothesis
Step 5: a Disjunctive Syllogism
Steps 3 & 4

Conclusion: a (“Gary is a good actor.”)

Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 58
 Arguments
Yet another example:

If you listen to me, you will pass CSC 213.

You passed CSC 213.
Therefore, you have listened to me.

Is this argument valid?

No, it assumes ((p  q) q)  p.

This statement is not a tautology. It is false if p
is false and q is true.

Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 59

 Rules of Inference for Quantified
Statements
 x P(x)
__________ Universal
 P(c) if instantiation
cU
P(c) for an arbitrary cU
___________________ Universal
 x P(x) generalizatio
n
 x P(x)
______________________ Existential
 P(c) for some element cU instantiation

P(c) for some element

____________________ cU Existential
 x P(x) generalizatio
n
Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 60
 Rules of Inference for Quantified
Statements
Example:

Every AUN student is a genius.

George is a AUN student.
Therefore, George is a genius.

U(x): “x is a AUN student.”

G(x): “x is a genius.”

Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 61

 Rules of Inference for Quantified
Statements
The following steps are used in the argument:
Step 1: x (U(x)  G(x)) Hypothesis
Step 2: U(George)  G(George) Univ.
instantiation using Step 1
Step 3: U(George) Hypothesis
Step 4: G(George) Modus ponens
using Steps 2 & 3

x P(x)
__________ Universal
 P(c) if cU instantiation

Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 62

 Proving Theorems
Direct proof:
An implication p  q can be proved by showing
that if p is true, then q is also true.
Example: Give a direct proof of the theorem
“If n is odd, then n2 is odd.”
Idea: Assume that the hypothesis of this
implication is true (n is odd). Then use rules of
inference and known theorems of math to
show that q must also be true (n2 is odd).

Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 63

 Proving Theorems

n is odd.

Then n = 2k + 1, where k is an integer.

Consequently, n2 = (2k + 1)2.

= 4k2 + 4k + 1
= 2(2k2 + 2k) + 1

Since n2 can be written in this form, it is odd.

Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 64

 Proving Theorems
Indirect proof:
An implication p  q is equivalent to its contra-
positive q  p. Therefore, we can prove p 
q by showing that whenever q is false, then p is
also false.
Example: Give an indirect proof of the theorem

“If 3n + 2 is odd, then n is odd.”

Idea: Assume that the conclusion of this
implication is false (n is even). Then use rules of
inference and known theorems to show that p
must also be false (3n + 2 is even).
Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 65
 Proving Theorems
n is even.

Then n = 2k, where k is an integer.

It follows that 3n + 2 = 3(2k) + 2

= 6k + 2
= 2(3k + 1)

Therefore, 3n + 2 is even.

We have shown that the contrapositive of the

implication is true, so the implication itself is
also true (If 3n + 2 is odd, then n is odd).
Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 66
 Proving Theorems
Indirect Proof is a special case of proof by
contradiction

Suppose n is even (negation of the conclusion).

Then n = 2k, where k is an integer.
It follows that 3n + 2 = 3(2k) + 2
= 6k + 2
= 2(3k + 1)
Therefore, 3n + 2 is even.

However, this is a contradiction since 3n + 2 is

given to be odd, so the conclusion (n is odd)
holds.
Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 67
 Another Example on Proof
Anyone performs well is either intelligent or a
good actor.
If someone is intelligent, then he/she can count

from 1 to 10.
Gary performs well.
Gary can only count from 1 to 3.
Therefore, not everyone is both intelligent and
a good actor
P(x): x performs well
I(x): x is intelligent
A(x): x is a good actor
C(x): x can count from 1 to 10
Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 68
 Another Example on Proof
Hypotheses:
1. Anyone performs well is either intelligent or a good
actor.
x (P(x)  I(x)  A(x))
2. If someone is intelligent, then he/she can count
from 1 to 10.
x (I(x)  C(x) )
3. Gary performs well.
P(G)
4. Gary can only count from 1 to 3.
C(G)
Conclusion: not everyone is both intelligent and a good
actor
x(I(x)  A(x))

Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 69

 Another Example on Proof
Direct proof:

Step 1: x (P(x)  I(x)  A(x)) Hypothesis

Step 2: P(G)  I(G)  A(G) Univ. Inst. Step 1
Step 3: P(G) Hypothesis
Step 4: I(G)  A(G) Modus ponens Steps 2 & 3
Step 5: x (I(x)  C(x)) Hypothesis
Step 6: I(G)  C(G) Univ. inst. Step5
Step 7: C(G) Hypothesis
Step 8: I(G) Modus tollens Steps 6 & 7
Step 9: I(G)  A(G) Addition Step 8
Step 10: (I(G)  A(G)) Equivalence Step 9
Step 11: x(I(x)  A(x)) Exist. general. Step 10
Step 12: x (I(x)  A(x)) Equivalence Step 11

Conclusion: x (I(x)  A(x)), not everyone is both intelligent

and a good actor.
Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 70
 Summary, Section 1.5
• Terminology (axiom, theorem, conjecture,
argument, etc.)
• Rules of inference (Tables 1 and 2)
• Valid argument (hypotheses and conclusion)
• Construction of valid argument using rules
of inference
– For each rule used, write down and the
statements involved in the proof
• Direct and indirect proofs
– Other proof methods (e.g., induction, pigeon
hole) will be introduced in later chapters

Fall 2011 CSC 213 - Discrete Structures 71