IV.

CONCENTRATION AND
CRYSTALIZATION
The Subsidation process has given a clear juice
(sugar dissolved in water together with certain
impurities)
 So far the impurities have removed as far as
possible, what remains with the juice is water
 The water from the purified juice is removed by
evaporation in a multiple effect evaporator
As we extract water from the juice, the sugar will
become concentrated.
1
 massecuites: mixture of crystallized sugar and
sugar syrups which is produced during manufacture
of sugar.
 centrifugation separates the sugar crystals (which
The name given to the mixture so obtained of solid
crystals and viscous mother liquor is “Massecuites“
 Such a mass (Massecuites) obviously cannot be
handle like juice or liquid syrup.

Thus the concentration process consists of two

phases:
Evaporation: Dealing with liquid material and Include
a step from clear juice to syrup production

Sugar boiling : Commence just before the stage

where crystals appear in the syrup , and proceed up
to the maximum concentration. 2
Boundary between evaporation and sugar
boiling
 The point at which cane juice begin to crystallize is in
the neighborhood of 78 -80° brix.
 Theoretically, therefore, the evaporation could be
carried on up to 72 or 75° brix.
 In practice , the sugar boiler require a syrup capable
of dissolving further crystals , so that they may
dissolve false grains
 For this reason a brix figure of 72° is never exceed for
evaporation
 Thus the evaporators are designed and operated in
such a way that the brix of the syrup lies:
3
 Between 60 and 70° brix for raw sugar manufacture
 Between 50 and 60° brix for white sugar manufacture
 Historically Evaporation was achieved by applying heat in the
following ways:-
 By open fire
 Heating by steam
 Applying vacuum to reduce boiling point
 Multiple effect evaporation
 The evaporation process is the process of concentration of
the solids in juice with removed of the water, without
substantial changes in the composition or character of the
solids in the solution.
 The most energy intensive phase are the two phases of
evaporation (Evaporators and pan boiling).
 The 1st phase is done in multiple effects evaporators4 for
improved thermal economy and the 2 nd phase is performed in
Multiple-effect Evaporation:
 It was developed by Norbert Rillieux, in 1830, was the
greatest advancement in the history of sugar
manufacture.
 steam is used for heating juice to evaporate the water.
 The obstacle: Juice at atmospheric pressure may be
heated and evaporated with a steam at 110°C.
 The vapor of juice so boiling at atmospheric pressure is at
100°C and temperature difference is necessary b/n the
heating fluid and the fluid to be heated, it is impossible to
boil juice at the same temperature.
 The solution: Rillieux resolved this difficulty by putting
the vessels following the first under vacuum
 The reason behind this solution is water or juice can boil
at 90°c under 23 cm of vacuum , at 80°c under 40 cm of
vacuum , at 70°c under 52 cm etc .
 Thus it became possible to create the necessary
temperature difference and utilize the vapor arising from 5
the juice in the first vessel to heat the juice in the second
vessel , the vapor produced by the second to heat the
 PRINCIPLES
Multiple effectOF MULTIPLEof
evaporators EFFECT
RillieuxEVAPORATION
are now used all over
the world.
 1st Rillieux Principle: - each kg of steam supplied to the 1st
body will evaporator 1 Kg of water in each body in series.
(With “n” effects 1 Kg of steam evaporates “n” Kg of water)
assuming that the water entering each effect is at or near its
boiling point.
 2nd Rillieux Principle: If vapor are with drawn from a given
effect of the multiple effect evaporator and used outside the
evaporator system in place of steam,

the steam saving will be = No. of withdrawn effect x Kg vapor withdrawn

Total No. of effects
 If 1 Kg of vapor with drawn form the 2 nd effect a five effect
evaporator, the steam saving would be = 2 x 1/5 = 0.4 Kg steam.
6
 If one kg of steam withdrawn from 3 rd effect of the same
evaporators set, the steam saving would be = 3 x 1/5 = 0.6 Kg
steam
3RD RILLIEUX PRINCIPLE : - IN ANY APPARATUS IN WHICH STEAM OR
VAPOR IS CONDENSED, IT IS NECESSARY TO WITHDRAW CONTINUOUSLY
THE NON CONDENSABLE GASES, WHICH LEFT IN HEATING COMPARTMENT.

7
OBJECT OF EVAPORATION
 In the clarification process impurities are removed
from juice as far as possible.
 The clarified juice contains about 13 – 18% solids,
depending on
 Concentration of the original juice in the cane and
 the imbibition practice employed.
 To produce sugar, the water content of clear juice
has to be removed almost entirely.
 Hence the evaporation process is separated into two
phases.
a. Evaporation so called, which proceeds from clear
juice to syrup, and during which only liquid
material is handled. 8

b. The sugar boiling (pan boiling), in which further

 The clear juice at 13 – 18 Brix must be converted to syrup
of Brix 65 –70 by the removal of water.
 In practice, water removal is done by boiling the juice
in evaporator vessels and
 the Brix of the syrup leaving the last vessel is raised to
the required range.
 Further evaporation, combined with crystal growth, is
carried out in other vessels some what different from
evaporators.
 These two steps are called evaporation and pan boiling
(sugar boiling) respectively.
 The second step is carried out in vacuum pans: being
specifically designed to handle mixture of crystals in syrup.
9
 The aim of evaporation is to boil off water from clear juice,
increasing its Brix concentration.
The upper and lower limit temperatures
 There is a certain critical temperature above which

• The sugar in juice tends to caramelize

• Causing at the same time a loss of sucrose and
coloration
Upper limit
 For cane juice a temperature of 120°C suggested as
the maximum and 125°c for the steam in the first
vessel

Reason: For the normal acidity of the juice (P H =6.5-7.2)

• The loss of sucrose by inversion scarcely exceed 0.1%
per hour at 110°c
• Above this, the loss increased rapidly
• So that it remain insignificant in an ordinary multiple
effect where the juice remains several minute, or where
10
it spends 1-2 minutes
• It is advisable not to exceed the upper limit indicated
Lower limit:
 The lower limit of the temperature range is the
boiling point corresponding to the vacuum obtained
in the last vessel of the set.
 But it is of advantage to maintain a vacuum of only
63-66cm or 56-52°c.
 High vacuum can cause:

1. Sugar Entrainment loss in vapor

Entrainment: A phenomenon by which suspended
droplets of liquid are carried in the escaping vapor
during boiling /evaporation
2. Syrup temperature falls and favors formation of
false grains and makes reheating a must which is
troublesome
3. The formation of soft and round crystals rather
than the desired hard and sharp edge crystals 11
4. High Massecuites viscosity that favor slow rate of
crystal formation and growth
Calculation of Total Evaporation
 There are several methods of calculating for the
design of a multiple effect.
 The total quantity of water to be evaporated (E) is
calculated

E = J (1 – BJ/BS )

J – Weight of juice; BJ – Brix of juice; BS – Brix of

syrup

Eg. Crushing Rate = 95 TCH.

Brix of Clarified Juice is 16,

12
Brix Required for Syrup is 80,
Eg. To calculate a complete quadruple effect for a sugar
factory, operating under the following conditions.
Crushing Rate =100 TCH. Consider the quadruple effect
evaporator, Weight of Mixed Juice inlet is 100 tons
juice/hr, Brix of Clarified Juice is 13, Brix Required for
Syrup is 65, Temperature of Juice before Heating = 30
0
C

13
 The total quantity of water to be evaporated (E) =
100(1  13/65) = 80 t/h.
 The amount evaporated in each effect therefore is 80/4
= 20 t/h.
 The exhaust steam is requirement therefore also 20 t/h.
 The liquid flow from the first effect is 100 – 20 = 80 t/h,
and
 from the second and third effects is 60 and 40 t/h
respectively.
 The DS in liquid from the first effect is 100 * 13/80 =
16.25
14
 The DS values from the second and third effects are 21.7
% and 32.5 % respectively.
(B) With vapor bleeds: Assume that 16 t/h is bled from
the first effect and 6 t/h from the second.
 Thus vapor bleeding will bring advantages in terms of
both steam economy and capacity. However,
increasing the vapor bleed will result in a reduction in
the bleed pressure.

15
 The total amount of evaporation remains the same, at
80 t/h.
 However the amount evaporated in each effect is
different from the previous example because of the
bleeds.
 This can be calculated assuming that the amount
going to the condenser is x.
 The amount evaporated in the third effect is also x,
 but the amount evaporated in the second effect is
now (x + 6)
 The amount evaporated in the first effect is that going
to the second effect i.e. (x + 6) as well as the 16 t/h
bled from the first vessel. 16
 Adding the total evaporation together, we get:
 This must still equate to the total evaporation of 80
t/h.
 Therefore x = (80 - 28)/4 = 13 t/h.
 The amount evaporated in each of the last 2 effects is
13 t/h, in the second effect is 19 t/h and in the first
effect is 35 t/h.
 From Rellieux’s principles, the saving in exhaust
steam from these bleeds is 16*1/4 = 4 and 6 * (2/4) =
3, a total of 7 t/h.
 The saving calculated above is the difference
between (20 + 22) = 42 and 35 t/h, as Rellieux’s
principle indicates. 17

 the amount of steam used in the first effect is equal

Juice feeding and circulation
 The evaporation process starts with feeding juice to the
successive vessels.
 It is important to maintain the juice level at its optimal value in

the evaporator vessel

Reason: The efficiency of the evaporator falls rapidly below or
above that value. As a result If the juice level is too:
• Low, the boiling juice cannot reach the top of the tubes, thus
there will not be juice circulation in the calandria
• High, the tubes will be drowned or fully submerged, thus there
will no climbing film.
 What is this optimum level?

18
Control of brix of syrup
 For proper operation of the pans and good exhaustion of
the molasses, it is important to have syrup of uniform and
constant brix
 Otherwise, the sugar boiler will become confused and the
setting of automatic pan controllers will have to be altered
frequently
Entrainment:
 A process in which suspended droplets of liquid are carried
in the escaping vapor during boiling /evaporation
 The risk of entrainment is associated with the size of
droplets
• When they are relatively large, a slight increase in the
height of the vessel is sufficient to stop them 19

• If they occur in the form of a mist or fog, it is much

 To avoid losses by entrainment, the evaporator
vessel should be furnished with a device for
separating the drops of the juice .
 It is generally placed in at the top of the vessel, and
is termed a “Save-all”, or “Entrainment separator”.
 The danger of entrainment is greater as the
vacuum becomes greater
 It is therefore mainly in the last vessel that
entrainment is most to be feared.
 In order to catch these before they reach the
condenser, an entrainment separator is inserted
in the vapor pipe going to the condenser
20
21
 CAUSES OF ENTRAINMENT
1. Faulty boiling operation due to:
 Incorrect level of juice in the vessel:- higher level of
juice in to vessel leads to entrainment.
 Sudden Fluctuation of vacuum and restoration of
vacuum rapidly after short shut down is the most
prevalent fault occurring in practice.
 High vapor velocity: The danger of entrainment
accurse when the vapor velocity exceeds 30
meters/sec in the 1st and the following effects, and 45
meters/sec in the last effect.
 Flashing of liquor entering the vessels: Flashing occurs
mostly at the point where the liquor enters the vessel
due to pressure and temperature difference
22
 So The incoming juice must be directed into the
circulating stream in the direction of its movement and
2. Faulty design of the evaporator due to:
 Insufficient height of the vapor space.
 Defective circulation of juice.
 Defective arrangement for juice feeding
 Entrainment by the faulty operation can be
remedied by adopting proper mode of working.
 But when it is done to faulty design, it is capable
to being improved by the installation of suitable
design of save alls, (Entrainment separations)

23
Precautions to be taken against entrainment
a. Avoid increasing the vacuum to unnecessary high
figure
b. Arrange the juice entry at the bottom of the vessel
and not above the upper tube plate where it would
provoke splashing & break up the juice to a fine mist
c. Avoid forcing the multiple effect above their normal
capacity
d. Avoid allowing the juice level to rise appreciably above
the optimum level
e. Provide the vessel with “save -alls” or use high vessels
Removal of the syrup:
 The syrup from the last vessel is recovered juice
pumped together in to single effect vacuum pan to be
boiled. 24
 The syrup leaves the last vessel with about 65% solids
and 35% water
SUGAR BOILING AND VACUUMS PANS
 Concentration of the syrup coming from the
evaporators is continued during boiling at 65 – 70 Bx
 When the brix reaches 78-80, crystals begin to appear
and the nature of the material changes
 It passes progressively from liquid state to a part –
solid, part-liquid condition → “MASSECUITE “
 vacuum pan is an evaporative crystallizer in which
degree of super saturation is controlled by evaporating
solvent as the solute crystallizes out.
Consequence : It loses its fluidity, and completely
different method are requiring for handling
 Its consistency no longer permit of boiling it in narrow
tubes or of circulating it easily from one vessel to
another 25
 For this reason boiling takes place in single-effect
vacuum pans
 THE BOILING PROCEDURE :THREE BOILING
SYSTEM
 The first boiling of raw /virgin syrup yields:

 The first massecuite is called A massecuite that in

turn yields A sugar
 The mother liquor separated from it in the
centrifugals is called A molasses
 However, this “A molasses” still contains a high
proportion of crystallisable sugar.
 It is used to “build up” further Massecuites on a
suitable footing of first grade massecuite
• Such a massecuite is then called B or second
massecuite that in turn yields B sugar , and
26
• The mother liquor which is separated from it in the
centrifugals is termed B (or second) molasses.
NB: The B sugar is mixed with the A sugar → commercial
output of the factory.
 The second or B molasses is of much lower purity and
in turn is re-boiled on a footing of syrup crystal to form
low-grade or C massecuite.
 The C sugar is mix or blend with a syrup and used for A
and B massecuite “seed
 This operation may be repeated several times, but the
number of massecuites is soon limited because:
1. The molasses becomes more and more exhausted of
the sugar
2. All the sugar which it contains is not crystallisable ,
since non sugar immobilize a certain proportion of
sugar
3. The decrease of purity consequent on the removal of
sugar and an increase in the viscosity of the successive27
molasses obtained , rendering the last massecuite very
difficult to treat and keep in circulation in the pans.
 28
Fig. Three boiling/ Masscuite system
 CRYSTALLIZATION
 The massecuite when discharged from the pan
is at high supersaturation
 If it is allowed to stand, the sugar still
contained in the mother liquor will continue to
be deposited as crystal
 But this massecuite is very dense and the
mother liquor is very viscous
 As result, crystallization will soon stop if the
massecuite left undisturbed b/c:
• The layer of mother liquor surrounding the
crystals will be rapidly exhausted result in an
increase in viscosity of the mass
• The viscosity of the mass will prevent the
29
more distant molecules of sugar from
circulating and coming in contact with the
Crystallization: is a process which consists of
mixing the massecuite for a certain time before
passing to the centrifugals

Aim: Completing the formation of crystals and

forcing further exhaustion of the mother liquor

In order that crystals should form in sugar liquor,

there should be a considerable supersaturation
Degree of saturation =

% of saccharose in the
supersaturated solution
% of saccharose in the saturated
solution 30
Four regions with different degree of saturation
can be recognized

1. Unsaturated region ( S<1.0) no crystallization

2. Metastable region (1.0<S<1.2) Existing

crystals ↑ in size but new crystals can’t form

3. Intermediate region (1.2<S<1.3) new crystals

can form but only in the presence of existing
crystals ( not in syrup alone)

4. Labile zone (S>1.3) Existing crystals grow and

31

new crystals can form even in the absence of

SOLUBILITY OF SUCROSE
 Sucrose is very soluble in water.
 The solubility of sucrose in water increases
with the increase of temperature.
 For example 1 Kg of water at 20 0C dissolves
2.00 Kg. of sucrose. But at 75 0C, 1 Kg water
dissolves 3.40 Kg of sucrose. That is 1.75
times.
a. Saturated Sucrose Solution: It is sugar
solutions which contain (dissolve) maximum
possible sucrose at a given temperature.
b. Super saturated sucrose solution: It is
32
sugar solutions which contain more dissolved
sucrose than saturated solution.
Calculation
Pty of Strike = 84%
(% dry substance) Bx = 81.7
Boiling Temperature = 75 C
0

Find coefficient of super saturation, S = ?

Solution
100 Kg of the strike contain = 100  Bx = 100  81.7 = 18.3 Kg
water
Quantity of sucrose (Pol) = Bx x Pty = 81.7 x 84 =
68.63 Kg pol
100 100
It means that 68.63 Kg of sucrose (pol) is dissolved in 18.3 Kg of water.
 In 1 Kg of water = 68.63/18.30 = 3.75 Kg sucrose/Kg water
From solubility table coefficient of solubility at 75 0C = 3.47 Kg/ Kg water.

S = Sucrose % Water in Super Saturated Solution

Sucrose % Water in Saturated Solution 33

S = 3.75 = 1.08
3.47
NB:

 In case of A and B massecuite boiling, crystallization

rates are rapid enough so that the necessary
crystallization can be carried out in the vacuum pan.

 In the low raw boiling (C massecuite boiling) the

massecuite is run to large cylinders with stirring
element called Crystallizers

• The syrup is cooled continuously to keep the

supersaturation degree constant

• Stirring is necessary to reduce the diffusion

34
resistance of the mass.
Summary of the sugar boiling crystallization process

A Strike consists of four principal phases:

A. Concentration

 Sugar boiler introduces in to the pan a certain quantity

of either syrup or a mixture of syrup and molasses of
about 75 purity
 This quantity introduced should be as small as
possible ,while being sufficient to cover the calandria , or
the bottom coil
 The smaller the volume of the syrup drawn in
• There would be caramelization of the splashes and
small drops of syrup
35
• The smaller will be the number of crystals in the final
massecuites , and the larger will be the crystals
 As the concentration of the syrup Increase the
volume in the pan is decreased

Thus : Syrup should add to maintain the liquid level

high enough to cover the heating surface

In General: In this first step

• The solution is concentrated under vacuum

supersaturation

• Crystallization of sucrose can start 36

B. Graining:
 Once the syrup is supersaturated (brix value 80 )the
crystal building is induced by:
1. Seeding :
• The syrup is only concentrated to Y=1.15-1.20
(Metastable zone )
• At this supersaturation level, a measured amount,
standardize, very finely ground ,sugar crystals are
introduced
2. Shocking:
• The syrup is concentrated to Y=1.30
( intermediate zone);
• At this higher concentration level a small amount of
powdered sugar is injected in to the pan
37
 Sugar by its mere presence shocked the unstable
syrup in to spontaneous nucleation to form most
of the needed grain

NB: The right time corresponding to brix order of 80

can be known by instrumental, speed of syrup
flow & string proof method

 In General : Nucleation and Crystallization is

induced until the crystals are visible
38
C. Building up the grain
 The third step is necessary for further growth of the
crystals

HOW ? Fresh thick juice is added to get bigger and

homogenous crystals mass
 Guided by experience , the sugar boiler continue to
introduce syrup in the pan at a rate sufficient

1. To compensate for the quantity of water

evaporated

2. To increase slowly and progressively the volume

of the massecuite in the pan
39

NB: When the massecuite has reached the level

corresponding to the full pan the brix will
D. Tightening the massecuite:
 At this step the pan is very tight and ,the
massecuite is very viscous
 Concentration is continued to tighten the material
to the maximum obtainable thus circulation is of
which is very laborious/impossible
 In this final phase of the strike, water will be
introduced to:

• Improve circulation

• Reducing the supersaturation

40
• Reduce the risk of false grain formation
(uncontrolled nucleation)
NB: Once the crystal occupy the maximum
space , and the mother liquor occupies only
the void volume remaining between the
adjacent crystals the strike is “dropped”.

That is : The vacuum connection is shut off

and the discharge door of the pan is opened
to the crystallizer (C massecuite) ,mixers or
centrifugal separators (A and B massecuite )

41
False grains: New grains which may form either crystals
of

• Different size, rendering the fugalling very difficult , or

• Fine crystals which is liable to pass through the holes of

the centrifugal gauzes and so enrich the molasses which
is separated
 False grains may be due to:
 Sudden increase in vacuum or sudden fall in steam
pressure
 Rate of evaporation forced too high
 Introduction of juice at too low a temperature
42
 Entry of air by leakage at the bottom door of the pan, if it
is not tightly closed.
CENTRIFUGALS SEPARATION
Purging/centrifuging/centrifugaling/
fugalling:
 Is the process following crystallization and
exhaustion of the mother liquor.

Aim: To separate the crystal from exhausted mother

liquor in order to obtain the sugar in the
commercial form.
 This operation is carried out in centrifugal dryers
(centrifuges, centrifugals or fugals)

43
The centrifugation process:
 The massecuite to be fugalled is fed in to a mixer-
distributor placed behind the head of the centrifugal
 A movable sloping channel enables massecuite to be
run from the mixer to charge to the basket
 The massecuite fed to the basket is carried on a
vertical shaft , which is driven by motor (that drive
the centrifugal)
 The basket is

• Pierced with numerous holes to allow the molasses

to escape and
• Lined with metal gauze to retain the sugar while
allowing the molasses to pass through
NB: For high grade centrifugals, water pipes run along
the length of the battery to allow washing the sugar
44

before the end of fugalling.

Washing:
 From the centrifuging point of view, there are three
fractions of molasses :
1. The excess molasses
• The proportion in excess of what is necessary to fill
the space between the crystals
• Renders the massecuite fluid and is removed very
readily
2. The proportion just necessary to fill the gap
between crystals.
• Removed by flowing between the crystals and
• Is more difficult to remove
45
3. The molasses film surrounding the crystals. The
most difficult to remove because of its adhesion
NB: Due to this film, it is difficult to produce a
suitable commercial sugar without some washing
Washing consists of applying water in a fine spray
on the surface of the sugar
 After the first two fractions of molasses have been removed

 Before the sugar is transported to the dryer by conveyers

The water:
• Wash the molasses film and removes it
• Unavoidably dissolve a small amount of sugar &
drop purity
Solution: To avoid detrimental effect on the purity46
drop, the amount of washing must keep to a
The best moment for applying washing is

• When 75% of the molasses has been eliminated

• Effected about 50 second after charging or about

20 seconds before the end
It is important to obtain as uniform distribution of the
spray as possible.
In general: Washing is less effective at the upper
part of the basket, it is advisable to direct the sprays
slightly upwards.
Quantityof water for washing often vary between 2
47
and 10 % on weight of sugar
For good performance at the
centrifugals:

1.. The massecuite should have uniform

grain size
 A definite symptom of non uniform grain
size is the appearance of a film of
molasses on the inner face of the wall of
sugar

Solution: Slower and gradual acceleration

of the machine can be tried against this
problem.
48
2. Viscosity of the mother liquor and
density of the massecuite should be
Solution
A. Dilution of the massecuite
 This is generally carried out in the discharge chute from
the crystallizer to assure a more even distribution of the
water.
 It is not necessary to introduce more than 1 or 2 % of
water by weight of massecuite
Reason: There is a risk of reducing the supersaturation to
1 or less.
B. Reheating of the massecuite:
Why reheating? It is very difficult to dilute a massecuite
without causing a certain re-solution of the crystals
 The viscosity of the massecuite falls by 50% (fugalability
rises by 50%) when the temperature is increased by
5°C 49
 Reheating also substantially improves exhaustion
 SUGAR REFINING
 Although a small amount of direct
consumption brown sugar is produced in
some raw cane sugar mills,
 it is refined to produce high purity low color
sugar required by the market.
 The major task of the refiner is to remove
color, and in the process also reduce the
quantity of non sucrose components in the
product.
50
 Cane sugar refining is the production of high quality
sugars from re-melted raw cane sugars
 The Refining process involves:
1. Washing the sugar with warm, almost saturated
syrup
2. Separation of the crystals from the syrup in a
centrifuge
3.Washing the crystal with hot water
4.Melting/affination of the washed raw sugar
molasses
5. The clarification step (= juice purification) to
remove residual particulates 51

 Two clarification methods are commonly used:

 Chemical clarification is the preferred method and
two chemical methods are commonly used:
 Phosphatation: phosphoric acid, lime and
polyacrylamide flocculent are used to produce Ca-
phosphate floc
 Carbonation: Bubbling CO
2 through the liquor to
produce Ca-carbonate precipitate
6. The clarification step is followed by a decolorization
which removes soluble impurities by adsorption (e.g.
Activated carbon)
7. The decolorized sugar is sent to multiple effect
evaporator and then to vacuum pans for the
crystallization
8.The separation of syrup and crystal is done in
centrifuges 52
 DRYING AND STORAGE OF SUGAR
 Drying is the final unit operation in the production of
raw sugar.
 It involves the apparently simple process in which
excess moisture is removed from the sugar crystals
after centrifuging.

Drying of raw sugar is necessary in most cases for two

reasons:

1. To achieve the required handling characteristics of

the sugar, i.e. to ensure that it becomes and remains
free-flowing and has the physical and aesthetic
qualities demanded by the market.
53
2. To reduce the likelihood of loss of sucrose or color
formation via microbiological or chemical degradation
 The commercial sugar leaving the centrifugals has a
MC of 0.5-2%.
 Moisture is very detrimental to keeping qualities of

the sugar
 Particularly when it rises above 1% this value can be

reduced to between 0.2-0.5% with a dryer

Safety factor (ƒ)
 This limit depends on the proportion of impurities

present in the sugar.

 A given percentage of water is more detrimental with

a sugar of higher purity:

ƒ= % water------------- ƒ<0.25: the sugar will not deteriorate or

100 - polarisationdeteriorate slowly 54

ƒ>0.25: the sugar will deteriorate rapidly

Dilution factor (D.I) : Is a modification of
safety factor

D.I.= % moisture x 100

100 – (% sucrose + % moisture)

NB: It is considered that values of D.I. above

50 indicate considerable risk of deterioration.

55
SUGAR STORES
 For good keeping qualities of the sugar in store:

1. The sugar should be bagged dry. Above 38°C, it will

harden the sacks.

2. The bottom layer of bags should be protected from

dampness

3. The bags should arrange in large stacks ,cubical

possible, to decrease the surface relative to volume

4. The stacks should be covered with bitumen lined

paper at the top and sides

5.The roof should be paint with aluminum to decrease

56
temperature
6. Maintain the humidity in the sugar store
as uniform and as low as possible .It should
not rise above 65%

NB: Hygroscopicity (ability to readily absorb

water)is the property of sucrose (↑ with
invert sugars)

7. Keep at a temperature as uniform as

possible .

8. It should not be opened except on dry

and cooler days
57
BY-PRODUCT UTILIZATION
 A cane sugar mill produces a number of different
products produced,
 The products other than sugar are often referred
to as by-products or co-products;
 in addition to these, the products which can be
produced through subsequent processing are
considered
 These are sometimes referred to as value-added
products

58
 59
SUGAR MILL PRODUCTS
FILTER CAKE
 Filter cake represents the material separated
from cane juice in clarification and filtration.
 It includes most of the solid material in the raw
juice and solids precipitated in the process of
heating and liming the juice.
 In most cases the filter cake is returned to the
cane fields, since
 it has value both as a fertilizer and as a soil
conditioner.
 Filter cake has value as a feed because of the
60
protein in the cake together with some
carbohydrate
BAGASSE
 The dry matter is composed mainly of the three
components of cane fiber, namely cellulose,
semicellulose and lignin, as well as a small
amount of ash and soluble material, mainly
sucrose.
 The main use for bagasse is as a fuel for the
boilers.
 Use in pulp and paper
 for animal feed
 used to produce Furfural production
 used to produce Integrated biomass processing 61

 used to produce Charcoal and activated carbon

CANE LEAVES AND TOPS

 Leaves and tops are a potential source of

fiber and fermentable substrates
 Collection as additional fuel
 Cane leaves and tops may be the source of
chemicals which can be usefully recovered.

62
MOLASSES
 Fermentation products
 Products which use sugar for fermentation can in
theory be made from molasses or sugar or high test
molasses
 Molasses is a widely used ingredient in cattle feeds.
 The ash content is particularly high in molasses. It
contains virtually all the inorganic species in the cane
and is particularly high in potash for fertilizers.
 ethanol production: fermented to yield ethanol and
carbon dioxide
63
 It may be possible to recover some products of value
from molasses such as or acid.
64