0% found this document useful (0 votes)
3 views44 pages

Lesson1 160127200215

This document provides an overview of basic statistics, emphasizing its importance in understanding variability and making informed decisions based on data. It defines key concepts such as population, sample, statistic, and parameter, and discusses the distinction between accuracy and precision in data analysis. The document also introduces descriptive statistics and their role in summarizing data effectively.

Uploaded by

umar3648
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
0% found this document useful (0 votes)
3 views44 pages

Lesson1 160127200215

This document provides an overview of basic statistics, emphasizing its importance in understanding variability and making informed decisions based on data. It defines key concepts such as population, sample, statistic, and parameter, and discusses the distinction between accuracy and precision in data analysis. The document also introduces descriptive statistics and their role in summarizing data effectively.

Uploaded by

umar3648
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 44

AN OVERVIEW OF BASIC STATISTICS

Statistics being a branch of mathematics is often associated with anxiety or unease


particularly among students who fear mathematics for one reason or another. Well, if you are
one of those students then sit, relax, and read this chapter first as it will take you through a
journey in which you will discover a world of fun, excitement, vision, and creativity. With
minimum mathematical details, this chapter introduces key concepts and universal terms that
are used among statisticians and briefly discusses common statistical tools, their underlying
principles and their practical merits.

1
Why should you learn statistics?
In the general sense, statistics is the science of dealing with variability, uncertainty, and
subjectivity to produce objective and quantitative information that can assist in making reliable
decisions about numerous situations in life. Globally, statistics is a key tool in governments and
organizations activities.

The reason we need statistics is that we are living in a world of numbers, or more precisely a
world of data.

• Numbers are called data, only when they reflect information

• Data, on the other hand, are called statistics when they reflect specific or descriptive measures
of the phenomenon or the event under study
Notes:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 2
What is statistics?

Definitions of statistics

Definition Source
"The mathematics of the collection, organization, and American Heritage Dictionary®
interpretation of numerical data, especially the analysis of
population characteristics by inference from sampling."

"A branch of mathematics dealing with the collection, analysis, The Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate
interpretation, and presentation of masses of numerical data." Dictionary®

“The scientific application of mathematical principles to the The American Statistical


collection, analysis, and presentation of numerical data.” Association (ASA,
http://www.amstat.org/)

Notes:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3
What is statistics?

“The science and art of reading, describing, and manipulating data, which represents variables so that
practical observations about a population can be made from a sample drawn from the population, and
guidelines can be established to allow making precise and accurate conclusions about a certain
process or system”

Statistics: between science and art


• Science stems from the use of mathematical concepts
• Art stems from extrapolation, interpretation, and judgment

It is well-known, statistics does not provide causes and


effects; it only yields analysis outcome based on the data
used.
It is then your job to provide causes and effects.

This is where the art of reading data and interpreting


the results of the statistical analysis comes into play.

Notes:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
4
What is statistics?

“The science and art of reading, describing, and manipulating data, which represents variables so that
practical observations about a population can be made from a sample drawn from the population, and
guidelines can be established to allow making precise and accurate conclusions about a certain
process or system”

Mean Value = 194.6 pound


Minimum = 100 pound
Numbers, data and statistics Maximum = 300 pound
Range = 200 pounds

Statistics

Human Weight (pound):

100, 140, 213, 230, 180, 211, 120, 160, 200, 110, 260, 235, 280, 180, 300

DATA

100, 140, 213, 230, 180, 211, 120, 160, 200, 110, 260, 235, 280, 180, 300

NUMBERS
Notes:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
5
What is statistics?

“The science and art of reading, describing, and manipulating data, which represents variables so that
practical observations about a population can be made from a sample drawn from the population, and
guidelines can be established to allow making precise and accurate conclusions about a certain
process or system”

A Constant is a parameter that does not change:

- Your social security number will not change over time


- Your birth date will not change over time

A Constant may also refer to a controlled variable:

*** If you can maintain your grade at an “A” from course to course, it
becomes
a controlled variable or a constant

A Variable is a parameter that is likely to change

- Grades of different students


- Your income from one year to another
- The heights of different students in your class

Notes:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
6
What is statistics?

“The science and art of reading, describing, and manipulating data, which represents variables so that
practical observations about a population can be made from a sample drawn from the population, and
guidelines can be established to allow making precise and accurate conclusions about a certain
process or system”

A population implies a totality or a complete collection of


things (all students in a college, all people in a town, all
machines in a factory, and so on)

A sample is a sub-collection of units or components selected


from a population (few students from a college, few people from a
town, and few machines from a factory, and so on)
Population
Sample
A census is a collection of data from every member of the
population (all students’ grades, all people ages, and all machines’
efficiencies, and so on).

Notes:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
7
What is statistics?

“The science and art of reading, describing, and manipulating data, which represents variables so that
practical observations about a population can be made from a sample drawn from the population, and
guidelines can be established to allow making precise and accurate conclusions about a certain
process or system”

Example: In a survey conducted in a community college of 5000 students, 800 students were selected
randomly and asked if they would transfer to a four-year university. Five hundred and fifty of the students said
yes. Identify the population and the sample. Describe the data set.

Solution:

• The population consists of all students in the college (5000 students)

• The sample consists of all the students who were randomly selected (800 students)

• The actual data set consists of 550 yes’s and 250’s no’s.

• 68.75% said “Yes” & 31.25% said “No”

Notes:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
8
What is statistics?

“The science and art of reading, describing, and manipulating data, which represents variables so that
practical observations about a population can be made from a sample drawn from the population, and
guidelines can be established to allow making precise and accurate conclusions about a certain
process or system”

Working Problem 1.1:

Major television networks constantly monitor the popularity of their programs via asking

some specialized organizations such as Nielsen company to sample the preferences of

TV viewers.

(a)Suppose 1000 TV prime-time viewers selected randomly were asked if they watched a new talk-show, and 450
indicated they watched the show. Identify the population and the sample. Describe the data set.

(b)In another survey, suppose 1100 TV prime-time viewers selected randomly were asked if they watched the 2009
Super Ball on TV, and 999 indicated they watched the game. Identify the population and the sample. Describe the
data set.

Notes:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
9
What is statistics?

“The science and art of reading, describing, and manipulating data, which represents variables so that
practical observations about a population can be made from a sample drawn from the population, and
guidelines can be established to allow making precise and accurate conclusions about a certain
process or system”

Statistic and parameter

A statistic is any statistical measure of sample data

Examples: Sample Mean value and Sample Range

A parameter is any statistical measure of


population data

It can either be calculated from an entire population data or estimated from


sample data taken from a population

Examples: Population Mean value and Population Range


Notes:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
10
What is statistics?

“The science and art of reading, describing, and manipulating data, which represents variables so that
practical observations about a population can be made from a sample drawn from the population, and
guidelines can be established to allow making precise and accurate conclusions about a certain
process or system”

Example: Decide whether the numerical values given below describe a sample statistic or a
population parameter.

(a)A sample of community college professors in the U.S.A. revealed that the average starting salary of a
college professor is $52,000 and the range of salaries is $62,000.

(b)In a college survey of all freshmen students, it was revealed that 85% of the students were fresh out of the
high school and 15% were students who graduated from high schools more than 5 years ago

Solution:

(a) The average is a sample statistic and the range is a sample statistic

(b) The proportion or percent of students is a parameter describing the population of


freshmen students

Notes:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
11
What is statistics?

“The science and art of reading, describing, and manipulating data, which represents variables so that
practical observations about a population can be made from a sample drawn from the population, and
guidelines can be established to allow making precise and accurate conclusions about a certain
process or system”

Working Problem 1.2:

Determine whether the numerical values given below describe a sample statistic or
a population parameter.

(a) Based on monitoring all units of a product prior to shipping, a company


indicates that the
percent of second-quality units is 2%

(b)New residents of an apartment complex were asked if they like the landscaping surrounding the
complex. Eighty five percent indicated that they like it.

(c)The average salary of a group of 120 employees selected randomly from different divisions of a
company was found to be $65,000

Notes:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
12
What is statistics?

“The science and art of reading, describing, and manipulating data, which represents variables so that
practical observations about a population can be made from a sample drawn from the population, and
guidelines can be established to allow making precise and accurate conclusions about a certain
process or system”

What is the difference between precision and accuracy?

Accuracy means: all data meet a target value

Precision means: all data are very close in values 10 10

Accurate measure: A measure is said to be accurate Inaccurate/Precise Accurate/Imprecise


when the measured values are very close to a target
or an actual value.

Precise measure: A measure is said to be precise 10 10


when the measured values are close to each other.

Notes:
Inaccurate/Imprecise Accurate/Precise
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
13
What is statistics?

“The science and art of reading, describing, and manipulating data, which represents variables so that
practical observations about a population can be made from a sample drawn from the population, and
guidelines can be established to allow making precise and accurate conclusions about a certain
process or system”

Working Problem 1.3:

Suppose a lab refrigerator holds a constant temperature of 38.0 F. A temperature


sensor is tested 10 times in the refrigerator. The temperatures from the test yield
the following values of temperatures:

38.3 37.8 36.0 38.3 38.2 37.6 38.2 38.4 37.9 38.3 39.0

Describe these values in terms of precision and accuracy and explain your
answer.

Notes:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
14
What is statistics?

“The science and art of reading, describing, and manipulating data, which represents variables so that
practical observations about a population can be made from a sample drawn from the population, and
guidelines can be established to allow making precise and accurate conclusions about a certain
process or system”

• A process implies one or more of five basic elements: machine, material, methodology, people,
and environment.
• A system is an entity that has inputs and outputs

Notes:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
15
Material
(Books &
Notes)

Machine People
(Projectors & (Teachers &
computers) Students)

Education
Process

Methodology Environment
(Face-to-Face, (Classroom or
Distance Laboratory)
Learning)

Notes:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
16
Input System Output
(A)
Yarns Fabric
(Weaving
Machine)

Examples of System Data:

Inputs: Outputs:
- Fiber type - Fabric width
- Yarn strength - Fabric thickness
- Yarn diameter - Fabric weight

Output-Input Relationships

Notes:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
17
Descriptive statistics: how to describe data

• The starting point in any statistical analysis is to read data using the language of statistics

•This language uses the so called ‘descriptive statistics’ to establish an organized and
meaningful display of data with the goal being to reduce the flood of data presented down
to few statistics that can fully describe the data

Problem: The four sets of data shown below represent student grades of four consecutive
statistics quizzes given to a class of 10 students. Describe each set of data by closely
observing it and writing your comments.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Quiz 1 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90
Quiz 2 82 86 78 30 88 82 79 77 81 99
Quiz 3 68 90 89 71 92 95 73 75 94 66
Quiz 4 82 76 85 88 95 86 84 87 96 78

Notes:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
18
Simple Numerical descriptive statistics
Using statistics, we can provide two types of description:

(1) Data Center (e.g. Mean Value)

76 78 82 84 85 86 87 88 96 95

(2) Data Spread (Variability)


(e.g. Range)

Example: Grades 82 76 85 88 95 86 84 87 96 78

R = 96-76 = 20
Notes:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 19
Simple Numerical descriptive statistics
Working Problem 1.4:

Calculate the mean and the range for the following data set of people

income ($):

20,000, 22,000 ,28,000, 30,000, 27,000, 45,000, 50,000, 60,000

Working Problem 1.5:

Calculate the mean and the range for the following data set of people weight (pound)

125, 145, 160, 155, 110, 95, 175, 158

Working Problem 1.6:

Calculate the mean and the range for the following data set of people temperature (Fo)

95.5, 98.0, 99.0, 96.5, 95.0, 97.0, 96.0, 98.0

Working Problem 1.7:

Calculate the mean and range for the following data set of property taxes ($)
8100, 3500, 7000, 4200, 3000, 5000, 5100, 4000, 7500, 4800

20
Histogram and frequency distribution
A histogram or a frequency distribution is a simple x-y graph in which the horizontal x-axis
represents the values (or classes of values) of the variable and the vertical y-axis represents
the number of observations corresponding to each value (or the frequency).

Observation # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Grades 75 65 90 75 90 75 65 90 75 100

3
Frequency

0
65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Grade
Notes:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
21
Typical Example of a Histogram: Data of human weight (lb) of a random sample of 60 people
Weigh Weigh
n t n t n Weight n Weight n Weight n Weight
1 146 11 145 21 144 31 153 41 127 51 146
2 145 12 157 22 267 32 162 42 145 52 159
3 147 13 148 23 151 33 144 43 137 53 157
4 120 14 155 24 143 34 160 44 160 54 144
5 187 15 158 25 161 35 110 45 141 55 159
6 157 16 195 26 148 36 142 46 154 56 162
7 143 17 142 27 240 37 155 47 152 57 157
8 117 18 154 28 128 38 145 48 149 58 149
9 170 19 160 29 136 39 150 49 125 59 283
10 138 20 160 30 110 40 136 50 139 60 154

The Bulk of the Data

Extreme Values: Outliers

Notes:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 22
Notes:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
23
Key Points about Descriptive Statistics:

• Any statistical analysis should begin by performing descriptive statistics

•Descriptive statistics represent a powerful tool of data description particularly


when a large amount of data must be analyzed

•The key elements of descriptive statistics are the measures of central tendency
and the measures of variability

•Using descriptive statistics, data abnormality or data errors can be detected


even for a large amount of data

•Frequency distributions and histograms represent graphical approaches of data


description

Notes:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
24
What is probability?

Most people use terms such as chance, likelihood, or probability to reflect the level of uncertainty
about some issues or events. Some of the common examples of using these terms are as follows:

•As you watch the news every day, you hear forecasters saying that there is a 70% chance of rain
tomorrow.

•As you plan to enter a new business, an expert in the field tells you that the probability of making a
profit in this business is only 0.4, or there is a 40% chance that you will make a profit.

•As you take a new course, you may be wondering about the likelihood of passing or failing the
course.

•Your friend is undergoing a surgery and the physician is telling him that his chance of surviving the
surgery is 95%.

•You hear it on health news all the time that a smoker has a greater chance of getting lung cancer
than a nonsmoker.

These are all expressions of probability that we often hear or read about and they can affect
our planning or intention to do or not to do things in life.

25
What is a probability Value?

The general definition of probability is that it is a value between zero and one, which reveals
the relative possibility an event will occur.

• A probability of zero or close to zero implies that an event is very improbable to occur

• A probability of one or close to one gives us higher assurance that an event will occur.

•Between these two extremes, different values of probability will be expressed as a decimal
such as 0.33, 0.7, or 0.50, as a fraction such as 1/3, 7/10, or 1/2, or as a percent such as
33.33%, 70%, or 50%.

Classically, probability is defined by the ratio of the number of particular target outcomes of an
event to the number of all possible equally likely and mutually exclusive outcomes. For example,
we know that in tossing a coin, the chance of head being the outcome is 50% or, in the context
of probability, we say that the probability of head occurrence is 0.5. This value is a direct
calculation from the classic definition of probability where the total number of possible
outcomes in tossing a coin is 2 (head or tail), and the chance of head being the outcome is 1/2.

H T 26
Sampling and sampling techniques

Sampling:

• Selecting a number of representative samples (say, k samples, each of size n) from a


population using a technique suitable for the population under consideration and the
purpose of testing

•Testing the samples and listing sample data

Why Sampling?

• Population can be too immense to test

• Test can be destructive

Notes:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
27
What are the different types of sampling?

Population Sample

Random
Sampling

I II
II

I
Stratified

Sampling
IV

III
III IV
Notes:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 28
What are the different sources of variability?

Notes:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 29
Working Problem 1.9:

Identify the following sources of variability as inherent or induced:

(a) If one picks any boll of cotton from the field, one will not find two cotton
fibers in this boll that are similar in length, diameter, or maturity.

Inherent ( ) Induced ( )

b. You open a box of water bottles and you find that some bottles are completely filled and some are
half-empty

Inherent ( ) Induced ( )

c. At the workplace, you find some people performing better than other people of the
same experience and background

Inherent ( ) Induced ( )

d. In a sample of natural soil aggregates taken from a certain area you find no two soil particles
that are alike in size or texture.

Inherent ( ) Induced ( )

30
What are the different types of variables?

Two Ways to Classify variables:

Classification by data nature or measurement


levels:

•Continuous variables

•Discrete variables

•Special variables

Classification by Information Nature:

Quantitative Variables

Qualitative Variables

Notes:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 31
Working Problem 1.10:

Decide whether the following variables are discrete or continuous. Explain your reasoning.

1. The weights of football players in a team:

Discrete ( ) Continuous ( )

2. The number of defects in a shipment of cellular phones:

Discrete ( ) Continuous ( )

3. The number of passing students in a course:

Discrete ( ) Continuous ( )

4. Student grades in a course:

Discrete ( ) Continuous ( )

5. The speed at which different cars run on a highway:

Discrete ( ) Continuous ( )

32
What are the levels of measurements?

Quantitative, meaningful magnitude, zero


Ratio has numerical meaning, ratio between
Measures numbers is meaningful, and meaningful
order (e.g. weight, and length)

Zero has no numerical meaning, meaningful


Interval order but constant incremental difference (e.g.
Measures temperature)

Zero has no numerical meaning, and meaningful order


(e.g. ranking products as 1= superior, 2= very good, 3=
Ordinal Measures good, 4= fair, 5= poor)

Qualitative, no magnitude, no order


Nominal Measures (e.g. colors, genders, country name, person name)

Notes: The Pyramid of Data Levels of Measurements


……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 33
Key tips to figure out the level of measurement:

In order to avoid any confusion about what level of measurement a variable belongs to, we
should begin by addressing the following key questions (Michael Sullivan III, 2010, Statistics-
Informed Decisions Using Data, Third Edition, Prentice Hall, Pearson Education, Inc.):

•Does the variable simply categorize each individual? If so, the variable is nominal (e.g.
gender)

• Does the variable categorize and allow ranking of each value of the variable? If so, the
variable is ordinal (letter grade in your calculus class)

•Do differences in values of the variable have meaning, but a value of zero does not mean
the absence of the quantity? If so, the variable is interval (e.g. temperature).

• Do ratios of values of the variable have meaning and there is a natural zero starting
point?
If so, the variable is ratio (e.g. human weight and number of hours you study every week)
Notes:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 34
What are the levels of measurements?

Example: What is the level of measurement for each of the following variables?

a. Your score in the first Math quiz

b. People income in a given business

c. Classification of students by gender

d. Ranking of education by K-12, community college, and four-year University

e. The number of hours you spend watching TV every week

Notes:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 35
Working Problem 1.11:

What is the level of measurement reflected by the following data?

(a) The ages of a sample of students entering first year of college:

18, 21, 19, 17, 16, 22, 21, 22, 23, 18, 18, 17, 19

(b)In a survey of 500 luxury-house owners (above $2million price), 200 were from California, 150 from New York, and 150 from
Florida.

Working Problem 1.12:

What is the level of measurement for each of the following variables?

a. Student scores in the first stat test


b. Waiting time (minutes) waiting for a school bus
c. Classification of employee by gender
d. A ranking of students as freshman, sophomore, junior, and senior
e. The weight of football players

36
What is a Normal Distribution?

The normal distribution is the key to numerous Statistical Concepts


A normal data set of a variable will typically have
the following basic characteristics:

• Relatively few components or elements will


exhibit low values of the variable

• Relatively few components or elements will


•The
exhibit highof
majority values
valuesofwill in the middle
thebevariable
Examples:
• People Income
• Student Grades
• People Weight
Frequency

Notes: 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………Ch…a…ra…c…teristic value
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 37
General Features of a Normal Distribution

High Values

Center Values
Low Values
Frequency

Measures of Data Dispersion

Measures of Central Tendency

Characteristic value
Mean

Mode
Median
Notes:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 38
Example: The Areas of Two Different Types of Ceramic Tiles

Frequency

Type A

Type B

Low variability
High variability

Mean Area
Mode
Median

Comparison of the Distributions of Area of Ceramic Tiles of Two Different Types

Notes:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 39
Classifying Variables by the Nature of Values:

Smaller-the-Better Variables Larger-the-Better Variables


- Number of defects - Students grades
- Number of failing students - Machine efficiency
- Number of car accidents - People income

Nominal-the-Best Variables
- Thickness of wood board
- Area of ceramic tiles
- Shoe size
Frequency

Characteristic value

Distributions associated with Different Categories of Variables

Notes:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 40
Working Problem 1.13:
The frequency distributions below illustrate the grades of three quizzes for students taking a biology
class. The final frequency distribution combines all the grades of the three quizzes. Describe the
students’ performances in each quiz and the overall performance of the class.
50
45 40
40 35
35
30
30
Percent

25

Percent
25
20
20
15
15
10 10
5 5
0 0

Quiz 1 Quiz 2
50 25
45
40 20
35
30 15
Percent

Percent
25
20 10
15
10 5
5
0 0

Quiz 3 All Quizzes


41
Working Problem 1.14:
The frequency distributions shown below are the same as those in Working Problem 1.13 but
superimposed. Describe the progressive students’ performances in each quiz and the overall
performance of the class.

50

45
Quiz 3
40
Quiz 2
35
Quiz 1
Percent Frequency

30

25

20

15

10 All Quizzes

5.0

0.0

40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 90 95
Grades
85

Notes:
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 42
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Working Problem 1.15:

The frequency distribution shown below represents the average grades of the three quizzes in
Working Problems 1.13 or 1.14. Describe this distribution.
Frequency Distribution of Average Grades of the Three Quizzes
35

30

25

20
Percent

15

10

Grade Averages
43
Inferential statistics: how do you estimate population parameters from sample statistics?

Sample

Population
Descriptive Statistics

Population Parameters
Sample Statistics
Population mean ()
Population Mode Inferential Statistics Sample mean (X-bar)
Population Range Sample Mode
Population Standard Deviation () Sample Range
Sample Standard
Deviation (s)
Descriptive Statistics: The analysis of determining sample statistics (e.g. mean and range)
Inferential Statistics: The analysis of estimating population parameters from sample
statistics

Notes:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 44

You might also like