Unit-4 Sensors & Instrumentation

Data Acquisition Systems and Conversion:

Introduction.
by

Dr Snigdha Chaturvedi
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
 Data Acquisition Systems and
Conversion: Introduction
Data Acquisition is sampling real-world physical conditions and
converting the resulting samples into digital numeric values that a
computer can manipulate.
The components of data acquisition systems include:
- Sensors that convert physical parameters to electrical signals.
- Signal conditioning circuitry to convert sensor signals into a form
that can be converted to digital values.
- Analog-to-digital converters, which convert conditioned sensor
signals to digital values.
- Communication channel for transmission of data to a computer.
Unit-4
 Example of a Data Acquisition
System
• For a race engineer of a renowned motorsports team. It is important
to meet the expected performance.
• To analyze vehicle performance
• To analyze driver performance
• To help with vehicle development
• To monitor reliability and safety
• To determine vehicle parameters
• To keep maintenance logs
Unit-4
Components of DAQ
 Data
Acquisitio
n • Transducers have­ a crucial role in acquiring
data. They perform the­ task of converting
Transduce energy from a source­ into electronic signals.
The output signal ge­nerated by these­ devices
r Signals varies de­pending on the specific parame­ter
being measure­d. Data acquisition systems are
commonly identifie­d by the type of output they
produce­, which can either be digital or analog.
Digital Signals
Analog Signals
Signal Conditioning
Common Signal
Conditioning Examples
Amplification
Amplification and SNR
(Signal to Noise Ratio)
Attenuation
Filtering
Isolation
Importance of Data
Acquisition System

Accurate Data Colle­ction: The precise and

consiste­nt gathering of data from various sensors
and sources is facilitate­d, resulting in reduced
pote­ntial for human error and ensuring the inte­
grity of the collected information.

Real-Time­Monitoring: Systems that acquire data

provide re­al-time insights into processes. This e­
nables prompt responses to changing conditions,
le­ading to improved safety and enhance­d
operational efficiency.
Importance of Data
Acquisition System

Data storage and re­trieval play a Energy Manage­ment: In energy-re­

crucial role in ensuring the­availability lated fields, systems for colle­cting data
of historical data for analysis, play a crucial role in monitoring the
compliance, and auditing purposes. By production, distribution, and
facilitating seamle­ss storage and easy consumption of ele­ctricity. This
access to information, this proce­ss facilitates efficient e­nergy
enables organizations to analyze past management and promote­s
effe­ctively. conservation practices.
Types of Data
Acquisition
Systems
• Analog Data Acquisition System
• Automated Data Acquisition System
• Single Channel Data Acquisition System
• Multichannel Analog multiplexed system using a
single A/D converter
• Multichannel Data acquisition system using
digital multiplexing
Analog Data Acquisition Systems

• Analog Data Acquisition Systems (DAS)

play a role, in fields as they enable the
conversion of real-world analog signals
into digital data for analysis and
processing. These systems consist of
sensors that capture analog data like
voltage or current along with signal
conditioning circuitry that filters,
amplifies, and preprocesses the signals.
To facilitate storage and analysis by
computers or microcontrollers analog to
digital converters (ADCs) are used to
convert these analog signals into a format.
 Multiplexer in a Data
Acquisition System
• A multiplexer is a system of multiple inputs and just one output to receive signals from
multiple acquisition networks. The device transfers all input signals to a microprocessor,
which receives and processes the data, transmits it to the output devices, and controls the
system.
• With multiplexing, a measuring system can sequentially channel multiple signals to a
single digital converter, thereby providing a low-cost means of increasing the number of
channels of the system. A multiplexer consists of a set of switches and provides a
significant cost reduction by making use of just one A/D converter for multiple inputs.
Automated Data
Acquisition System
 Data Loggers

• Data logging is the process whereby

collected data is recorded. This data is
collected over a defined amount of time.
Data loggers tend to be small, and they
are mostly used for the measurement of
relatively small signals. Many of these
data acquisition systems are intended for
the collection of data over a long period
of time.
 Data Loggers

• Data loggers use a microprocessor, an internal memory for data storage,

and a sensor to collect data. They are generally small and battery-powered
devices. Data loggers can either interface with a computer and use
software to view and analyze the collected data or be used as a stand-
alone device with a local interface. There are also wireless data
loggers available.
Single-channel
Data Acquisition
system
• A Single Channel Data Acquisition
System consists of a signal conditioner
followed by an analog-to-digital (A/D)
converter, performing repetitive
conversions at a free-running, internally
determined rate. The outputs are in
digital code words including over-range
indication, polarity information, and a
status output to indicate when the
output digits are valid.
Single-channel Data
Acquisition system
• The popular Digital Panel Meter (DPM) is a well-known example. However,
there are two major drawbacks to using it as a DAS.
1.It is slow and the BCD must be changed into binary coding if the output is to
be processed by digital equipment.
2.While it is free running, the data from the A/D converter is transferred to the
interface register at a rate determined by the DPM itself, rather than
commands beginning from the external interface.
Multichannel
Analog multiplexed
system using a
single A/D
converter
Multichannel Analog multiplexed
system using a single A/D converter

• Individual signals are applied after signal conditioning.

• These analog signals are converted into digital using ADC.
• For the best time utilization, the multiplexer seeks the next channel to be
converted while the previous data is stored in S/H.
• After completion of the conversion, the sample and hold circuit are switched
to hold mode.
Multichannel Data acquisition system using digital multiplexing
Multichannel Data acquisition system using digital multiplexing

• It is now economically feasible to employ an A/D converter for each

analog input and multiplex the digital outputs.
• Since each analog-to-digital converter (A/D) is assigned to an
individual channel, the conversion rate of the A/D need only be as
fast as is needed for that channel, compared to the higher rates that
would be needed if it were used as in a multi-channel analog
multiplexed system.
 Multichannel Data acquisition
system using digital multiplexing

• Parallel conversion stage

• High Speed of Operation
• This scheme will be useful where many strain gauges, thermocouples, LVDT, etc,
are distributed in larger areas of plant.
• Logic and arithmetic operations will be performed in the processor and take
decisions as well.
 Data Acquisition Signal Used by DAQ
Systems

• Voltage Signals
• The voltage signal is the most used signal employed by DAQ systems. Strain gauge bridge circuits,
thermocouples, and gas concentration probes, for example, all produce a voltage signal. Data acquisition
hardware conditions the signal and then converts it into a digital number by employing an analog-to-digital
converter. This digital value is stored by the computer. Data acquisition systems are often able to directly
handle low-voltage inputs that are, to say, a few millivolts up to a few volts.
• Current Signals
• Current is usually used for transmitting signals in noisy environments since it is much less affected by
environmental background noise. A data acquisition system measures the amount of current that flows and
then stores the value in a computer for analysis.
Data Acquisition Signal Used by DAQ
Systems

• Power Signals
• Signals from electrical power supplies can be monitored when the current signal is
sensed with a current-sensing resistor and resistive dividers are used to break down
high voltage signals. The current-sensing resistor will provide data to the data
acquisition system for measurement and storage so that the power signals can be
monitored.
• Resistance
• Resistance measurements are performed employing a current source together with a
normal voltage input. The current flows through an unknown resistance and the
voltage drop across that resistance is measured. This voltage drop is then recorded by
the data acquisition system.
Data Acquisition Signal Used by DAQ
Systems

• Digital Signals
• Digital outputs produced by switches and so on are treated as logic signals. These signals
are sensed as on(1) or off(0). For volt-free contacts, where there is no switching of
external voltage, a small sensing voltage is applied to determine the switch state. This will
usually be 5V to be compatible with TTL levels. Where voltage is being switched, the
logic state can be determined by the voltage level itself. The type of input required is
determined by the voltage levels, for example, TTL, up to 12 V logic or 24 V DC. When
the digital signals are rapidly changing and become pulse trains, counter-timer-type inputs
must be considered.
Factors to be considered
while selecting a DAQ
• When establishing a data acquisition system, there are several important
factors to consider:
• Sensor Selection: The appropriate­sensors or transducers that
accurately capture­the data neede­d should be carefully chosen. Factors
such as me­asurement range, re­solution, and sensitivity need to be­
considered in order to make­an informed decision.
• Signal Conditioning: The quality of acquire­d data can be enhanced by
e­mploying signal conditioning techniques. This may include amplification,
filte­ring, or other necessary adjustme­nts.
Factors to be considered
while selecting a DAQ
• Noise Reduction: Measure­s can be implemente­d to minimize noise
interfe­rence, which has the pote­ntial to distort data. One effective­
approach is through the use of shielding, grounding, and filte­ring
techniques.
• Calibration: Regularly, it is important to calibrate­sensors and
measureme­nt equipment in order to maintain the­ir accuracy and
reliability.
• Data Storage: The de­cision to be made is regarding an appropriate­
method for data storage. One should conside­r options such as on-site
storage, cloud-based solutions, or a combination of both.
Factors to be considered
while selecting a DAQ
• Data Transmission: If applicable, it is important to cre­ate a plan for
transmitting data from remote se­nsors to a central system. This plan
should prioritize re­liable and secure communication me­thods.
• Power Supply: To preve­nt any loss of data or system failures, it is esse­
ntial to ensure a stable and re­liable power supply for both the se­nsors and
data acquisition equipment. This will guarantee­uninterrupted functionality.
• Environmental Conditions: Considering the­environment in which the
data acquisition syste­m will operate is crucial. It is important to safeguard
the­equipment from extre­me temperature­s, humidity, and other
environmental factors.
 Applications of Data Acquisition
System
• Electronics
• Data acquisition systems are utilized in the electronics industry. They are utilized in the
testing of many variables that are involved in the design of electronics like heat production,
resistance, conductivity, magnetics, etc.
• Automotive Industry
• Data acquisition devices are utilized in automotive manufacturing for testing the quality of
the parts that are manufactured.
• Imaging
• Data acquisition systems are used for the quality testing of imaging equipment like a
photographic lens or video camera, as well as with scientific equipment such as scanners,
and microscopes.
• Laser Technology
• Data acquisition systems are utilized in laser technology to test laser performance, light
intensity, and color
 Applications of Data Acquisition
System
• Industrial Machines
• Industrial machines are created to perform multiple times. Therefore, repeatability is of critical
importance. Data acquisition systems are often utilized for testing these machines for their tolerance
to repetitive forces.
• Non-Destructive Testing
• Data acquisition systems are utilized in the non-destructive testing of structures, geology,
seismology, and ultrasonic measurements, as well as with the analysis of acoustic emission
phenomena.
• Gas Detection
• Gas detectors are used to find leaks using tracer gases, such as hydrogen and helium. Once a
chamber is filled with the trace gas, the loss of gas is measured with a mass spectrometer that detects
the trace gas. Gas detection is used to determine the amount and composition of the gas being lost
from a system or machine.
 Advantages of Data Acquisition
System
• Accuracy
• Flexibility
• Scalability
• High efficiency and reliability of processes
• Faster analysis and resolution of problems
• Reduced data redundancy
• Decrease in update errors
• Supervision of data without human interaction
• Cost effectiveness
 Advantages of Data Acquisition
System
• Improved data security
• Cost effectiveness
• Quality control
• Better file control and transfer capabilities
Write the steps to develop
a DAQ for temperature
controller using RTD
ANALOG TO DIGITAL
CONVERTERS
 Analog to digital Conversion
• Analog-to-digital conversion is the process of converting analog
signals to digital form.
• ADCs are used for data acquisition.
• ADC process occurs in three steps:
• Sampling
• Quantization
• Encoding
3-bit conversion example
Quantization levels

Eg 5V divided into 8
levels – each 0.625
Each binary representation is a “range”
46
 Quantization Error
• The difference between actual analog value and quantized digital
value.
 ENCODING
• Encoding is the process that assigns ones and zeros (stream of bits)
for every quantization level.
• The number of bits assigned for each level (n) depends on the level’s
number (L); such that 2^n=L
 Types of Analog to Digital
Converters
• Direct conversion ADC

• Successive Approximation Register (ADC)

• Integrating ADCs: Single slope, dual slope, and ramp ADC

• Sigma-delta ADC
 Successive Approximation
Register ADC
• The Successive Approximation ADC is the ADC of choice for low-cost medium to high-
resolution applications, the resolution for SAR ADCs ranges from 8 - 18 bits, with sample
speeds up to 5 mega-samples per second (MSPs). Also, it can be constructed in a small form
factor with low power consumption, which is why this type of ADC is used for portable
battery-powered instruments.

• As the name implies, this ADC applies a binary search algorithm to convert the values, which
is why the internal circuitry may be running at several MHZ. Still, the actual sample rate is
much less due to the Successive Approximation algorithm.
 Successive Approximation Register ADC

ADC consists of a comparator, a digital-to-analog converter, and a successive approximation register

along with the control circuit. Now, whenever a new conversation starts, the sample and hold
circuit samples the input signal. And that signal is compared with the specific output signal of the DAC.
 Conversion Steps
• Step 1 : As we start the conversion, the most significant bit (MSB) is
set to one and the rest of the values become 0.
• Step2: The DAC receives the above data and converts the digital input
into analog input which is represented by .

• The received signal is compared with the signal obtained by D/A

converter.
• If
• If
 Conversion Steps
• Step 4 : Now the second clock bus is active due to which the next bit
to MSB is active and becomes one and rest becomes zero.
• Step 5 : Step 2 to 4 are repeated till n cycles are completed.
 Advantages and Disadvantages
of SAR-type ADC
• It has high accuracy and low power consumption, whereas it's easy to use
and has a low latency time.
• The latency time is the time of the beginning of the signal acquisition and
the time when the data is available to fetch from the ADC, typically
this latency time is defined in seconds.
• A major disadvantage of SAR ADC is its design complexity and cost of
production.
 Applications of a SAR-type DAC

• As this is the most commonly used ADC, it's used for many applications
like uses in biomedical devices that can be implanted in the patient, these
types of ADCs are used because they consume very little power. Also, many
smartwatches and sensors use this type of ADC.
 Sigma- Delta Analog to Digital
converter
One of the more advanced ADC technologies is the so-called delta-sigma, or
(using the proper Greek letter notation). In mathematics and physics, the
capital Greek letter delta represents difference or change, while the capital
letter sigma represents summation: the adding of multiple terms together.
Sometimes this converter is referred to by the same Greek letters in reverse
order: sigma-delta, or .
 Sigma- Delta Analog to Digital
converter
In a converter, the analog input voltage signal is connected to the input of an integrator,
producing a voltage rate-of-change, or slope, at the output corresponding to input
magnitude. This ramping voltage is then compared against ground potential (0 volts) by a
comparator. The comparator acts as a sort of 1-bit ADC, producing 1 bit of output (”high”
or ”low”) depending on whether the integrator output is positive or negative. The
comparator’s output is then latched through a D-type flip-flop clocked at a high frequency,
and fed back to another input channel on the integrator, to drive the integrator in the
direction of a 0 volt output.
Sigma- Delta Analog to Digital
converter
 Sigma- Delta Analog to Digital
converter
• Step 1: Two inputs are given to different amplifiers
1st input – Signal input from user
2nd input – Signal input from ADC (Feedback mechanism)
So, the result (from ADC) and input is given to the integrator
• Step 2: Integrator adds this value to the comparator
• Step 3: Now the integrated output is forwarded to the comparator ( or one bit ADC)
 Comparator compares the positive terminal voltage to the negative terminal
voltage
If +ve>-ve then output=1
If –ve>+ve then output=0
 Sigma- Delta Analog to Digital
converter
• Note : If more positive voltage is given then more numbers of 1s are
received as digital output.
• Step 4 : The received 1 or 0 bitstream is given to 1 bit DAC, which
produces the output according to 1 bitstream.
If 1 is given to 1 bit DAC, then output is +1.
If 0 is given to 1 bit DAC, then output is -1.
• Step 5 : Again, input is given to different amplifiers and the process is
continued.
Sigma- Delta Analog to Digital
converter
Sigma- Delta Analog to Digital
converter
 Advantages of Sigma-Delta
ADCs
• High resolution ( 16-24 bits)
• Low distortion (noise shaping property)
• Reduced sensitivity to component mismatch
• Versatility : Well-suited for low frequency signals
• Digitization of low-frequency signals: Suitable in digitizing low
frequency signals.
 Disadvantages
• Conversion speed: Sigma-Delta ADCs have slow conversion speed
• Complexity: Sigma-Delta ADCs are more complex as compared to
other ADCs.
• High power consumption due to complexity
• Non linearities due to opamp in feedback path
• Limited applicability for High-speed signals
 Key features and
Characteristics of Sigma-Delta
ADC
• Oversampling: Sigma-Delta ADCs sample the input signal at a much
higher rate than what is required to meet the desired resolution. This
oversampling allows improved accuracy, especially in low-frequency
or low-amplitude signals.
• Noise-shaping: The integrator in the sigma-delta ADC acts as a low
pass filter, filtering all the noise signals. Therefore, it helps in noise
shaping.
 Key features and
Characteristics of Sigma-Delta
ADC
• Modulation: The oversampled data is then modulated by comparing it to a
reference voltage. This comparison generates a high-frequency, one-bit
digital output which is also known as bitstream.
• Digital Filter: The bitstream is passed through a digital filter, often a high-
order integrator, to remove high-frequency noise and recover the desired
signal.
Timers
 Introduction
• In many application we require certain device to be on or off for a fixed
length of time.
• For example, a valve of a certain container should be open every 1 minute
for only 3 seconds, and this process should continue till we switch off the
system. Or we need a fire alarm that beeps every 2 seconds till corrective
action is taken.
• All these applications require a system that generates electrical pulse signals
at pre-determined time intervals and of pre-set width.
• Such signals are generated using the timer circuits. The most common of
these circuits is a family of special circuits called multivibrators.
 Types of Multivibrator circuits

There are three categories of multivibrator circuits –

• Astable Multivibrator

• Monostable Multivibrator

• Bi-stable Multivibrator
 555 Timer IC
• The multivibrators can be built by using a popular analog integrated circuit
called Timer IC and its identifying number is IC555.
• The main two modes of operating timer IC555 are astable mode and
monostable mode.
• In certain applications, we require a single pulse to be generated in response
to some trigger, like switching off the valve for a set period of few minutes
when the tank is full or keep an indicator LED on for the same seconds when
a process gets over. In all such situations, we need a single pulse starting
with the same control signal (trigger).
• A circuit producing such a single pulse is called a monostable multivibrator or
a mono-shot.
 555 Timer IC
• In an astable multivibrator or free-running mode, a continuous pulse train of
the desired duty cycle is generated.
• These pulses can be used as clock pulses for any control circuit or can drive
an LED that keeps on continuously blinking (switching on and off) depending
on the ON-time and OFF-time of the pulses.
PIN DIAGRAM OF 555 IC
Ground: All voltages are measured with respect to this
terminal.
Trigger: This pin is responsible for the transition of flip-
flops from set to reset.
Output: This pin provides an output of the timer.
Reset: This pin is used to reset the timer by applying a
negative pulse to this pin.
Control: This pin is used to control threshold and trigger
levels.
Threshold terminal: This is non-inverting input terminal of
comparator 1 that compares output voltage applied to this
terminal with a reference voltage of +
Discharge: This pin is connected internally to the collector
of the transistor and a capacitor is connected between this
terminal and the ground.
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF IC 555
 ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR USING
IC 555
• In the monostable multivibrator we obtain a single pulse at the output of the multivibrator circuit in response to a trigger
pulse. But if we require to generate a continuous rectangular wave at the output of the multivibrator, we need to
automatically generate a trigger within the circuit. This principle is used in the design of a free running rectangular wave
oscillator or an astable multivibrator.

• In the astable (free-run) mode, only one additional component, RB, is necessary. The trigger is now tied to the threshold
pin. At the time when power is switched on, the capacitor is discharged, holding the trigger low.

• This triggers the timer, which establishes the capacitor charging path through RA and RB. When the capacitor reaches the
threshold level of the output drops low and the discharge transistor turns ON. The timing capacitor now discharges
through RB. When the capacitor voltage drops to the trigger comparator changes its state, automatically re-triggering the
timer, creating a continuously running oscillator circuit.
Thank
You