Linear Algebra and

Differential equations
(HS 1071)
Linear Transformation
 Introduction
In this chapter we shall study functions from and standard (arbitrary)
vector space to another standard (arbitrary) vector space and its various
properties. The aim of such study is to show how a linear transformation
(mapping or function) can be represented by a matrix. The matrix of a
linear transformation is uniquely determined for a standard (particular)
basis.

Definition and Examples of Linear Transformation

Definition : A mapping T : V  W from a vector space
V to a vector space W is called a linear transformation
if it satisfies following conditions.
For Every u , v  V and   R
(i ) T u  v  T(u )  T(v )
(ii ) T u  T(u ).
Definition Domain, Codomain and range of linear
transformation
If function T : V → W is linear transformation then V is called
the domain of T and W is called co-domain of T, while T(V ) is
range of linear transformation T.

Example. Identity transformation

The transformation I : V → V defined as I(u) = u, for every u in
V is a linear transformation from V to V . This transformation
is called as identity transformation on V .

Example. Zero(Null) transformation

The transformation T : V → W defined as T(u) = 0,
for every u in V is a linear transformation from V to W. This
transformation is called as zero(null) transformation on V .
Note: If V=W , then T is called as a linear operator

Theorem : If is a linear transformation then T(0)=0.

But converse is not true i.e. If T(0)=0 then may or may not be a
linear transformation.

Remark: (i) Zero transformation is a linear transformation.

(ii) Identity transformation is a linear transformation
Examples:
(i) Let be defined as T(x, y) = (x + 1, y + 2) Determine whether T
is a linear transformation.

(ii) Let be defined as T(x, y) = (, , xy) Determine whether T is a

linear transformation.

(iii) Let be defined as T(x, y, z) = (x+y +z, 2x−3y +4z) Determine

whether T is a linear transformation.

(iv) Let be defined as T(x, y) = (0, 0, 0) Determine whether T is a

linear transformation.
Example : Every matrix transformation is
linear transformation. Consider A mn matrix
n
which transforms a vector in R into a vector
m n m
of R . The transformation T : R  R is
defind as T( x) Ax.
Solution : Let x, y  R n
 T( x  y ) A( x  y ) Ax  Ay T( x )  T( y ).
T(x) A(x) A(x) T(x).
Example : The tranformation T : C1  F ,
( where C1  set of all differentiable functions, F  set of all functions.)
df
defind by T( f ( x))   f ( x) is a linear transformation .
dx

Example : The tranformation T : C  a, b   R,

b
defined by T  f ( x)  f ( x) d x is a linear transformation .
a
 1 
 1 2 3   1 
Ex : Let A   , u   3  , b  
  1 2 1   1   1

the Transformation T : R 3  R 2 , is defined as T( x) Ax

(a ) Find T(u )
(b) Find x in R 3 , such that T( x) b.
(c) Is there more than one x,such that T( x) b.

1 
 1 2 3    4 
  1 2 1   3   4 
    
  1
  x1 
 1 2 3    1 
Ax b    x 
    1
2
  1 2 1    
 x3 

1 2 3  1  1 2 3  1
 A | B    R2  R1   .
  1 2 1   1  0 4 4  0
This gives 4x2  4x3 0, x1  2x2  3x3 1.
Let x3 t  R, then x2  t , x1 1  t.
1  t 
 
Thus x   t  , t  R.
 t 
Example : Let A 68 matrix.Find the values of a and b,
such that T : R a  R b defind by T( x) Ax is well defined.

Example : What should be the order of matrix A such that

A represents the matrix of the transformation T : R 5  R 7 .
Example : Suppose T : R 2  P2 be a linear transformation such that
 1 2  2 1 
T   2  x  2 x , T   2  x.Find T   .
 1 1   2

1  1  2
Let   a    b    a 3, b  1
 2  1 1 
1  1  2 
  3      .But T is a linear transformation
 2  1 1 
1  1  2
 T   3T    T  
 2  1 1 
2 2
3(2  x  2 x )  (2  x) 4  2 x  6 x .
Matrix of a Linear Transformation

Consider the linear transformation T : R n  R m such that

let  e1 , e2 , ..., en  be a standard basis for R n .
 a11   a12   a1n 
a  a  a 
 21   22   2n 
 .   .   . 
let T(e1 )   , T(e 2 )   , ..., T(e n )  
 .   .   . 
 .   .   . 
     
 am1   am 2   amn 
Then the m n matrix whose n columns correpond to
T(ei ), i 1, 2,..., n .
  a11 a12 ... a1n 
a a 
 21 22 ... a2 n 
 . . . . 
A  T(e1 ) T(e 2 ) ... T(e n )   
 . . . . 
 . . . . 
 
 am1 am 2 ... amn 
is such that T(v) Av for every v in R n .
A is called the standard matrix for T.
 Example : Find the standard matrix of the linear
transformation T : R 3  R 2 defined by T( x, y, z )  x  3 y, 2 x  y .

  1    0    0 
     1    3       0
T(e1 ) T   0     , T(e2 ) T   1     , T(e1 ) T   0     .
  0   2   0     1   1   0
     

 1 3 0
  T  A  T(e1 ) T(e 2 ) T(e3 )    .
 2  1 0
 dp
Example : T : P3  P2 be a linear transformation defined by T ( p( x))   p ( x).
dx
Find the matrix of the linear transformation.

Solution : The standard basis for P3 1, x, x 2 , x 3 

T(1) 0, T( x) 1, T( x 2 ) 2 x, T( x3 ) 3 x 2

 0  1  0  0
T(1) 0  0  , T( x) 1  0  , T( x 2 ) 2 x  2  , T( x 3 ) 3 x 2  0 
 0   0   0   3

 0 1 0 0
 A  0 0 2 0  (the matrix of transformation)
 0 0 0 3 
  a b  3 2
T : M 2 (R)  P3 , T     ax  bx  cx  d ,
 c d 
find the matrix of the linear transformation.

1 0 0 0
0 1 0 
0
T   0 0 1 0
 
0 0 0 1
 Kernel and Range of a Linear Transformation
Definition: Kernel of a linear transformation (Null space): Let T : V → W be
a linear transformation, then the set of all vectors in V which maps into 0
is called the Kernel of T. It is denoted by ker(T).
i.e., ker(T) = {u ∈ V : T(u) = 0}.

Definition: Range of a linear transformation: Let T : V → W be a linear

transformation, then the set of all vectors in W those are images under T
of at least on vector in V is called the range of T. It is denoted by: Range(T).
i.e., Range(T) = {w ∈ W : T(u) = w for some u ∈ V }.
Note:
(i) If T : V → W is zero linear transformation then Ker(T) = V
and R(T) = {0}
(ii) If I : V → W is Identity transformation then Ker(I) = {0} and
R(I) = V .

Theorem
Let T : V → W be linear transformation then
(a) The kernel of T is a subspace of V.
(b) The range of T is a subspace of W.
Definition: Rank: Let T : V → W be a linear transformation then the
dimension of the range of T is called the rank of T. Notation: Rank(T).

Definition: Nullity: Let T : V → W be a linear transformation then the

dimension of kernel of T is called the nullity of T. Notation: nullity(T)

Rank-Nullity(Dimension) Theorem

Statement : Let T : V → W be a linear transformation with dim(V ) = n

then,
rank(T) + nullity(T) = n

i.e., for any linear transformation the rank plus nullity is equal to the
dimension of domain vector space.
Example: If is defined as,

then find bases for range and kernel of T. Hence determine rank and
nullity of T and verify the dimension theorem.

Q)The linear transformation is defined by T(x)=Ax find

ker(T),Nullity(T),Range(T),Rank(T)

1. A=

2.A=

3.A=
Q) be a linear transformation. Use the given information to find nullity
of T?
a)rank(T)=2 b)rank(T)=1 c)rank(T)=0 d)rank(T)=3

Example: Let A be a 6×7 matrix with rank 4. What is the dimension

of solution space of AX = 0.
One-to-One
Onto

W T(V)

T (u ) T (v)  u v OR
u v  T (u ) T (v)

One-One + Onto = Bijective

Definition : One-to-one Linear Transformation
A transformation T : V → W is one-to-one(injective) if distinct
elements of V are transformed into distinct elements of W.
That is if u v ⇒ T(u) T(v).

Definition : Onto Linear Transformation

A transformation T : V → W is said to be onto(surjective) if for
given w ∈ W there exist v ∈ V such that T(v) = w i.e. if range
of T is the entire co-domain W.

A linear transformation which is both one-one and onto is

called bijective.
Theorem: A linear transformation T : V → W is one-one if and
only if ker(T) = {0}.

Theorem: Let T : V → W be a linear transformation where W

is finite dimensional then T is onto if and only if rank T is equal
to dimension of W.

Theorem: Let T : V → W be a linear transformation with

vector spaces V and W both of dimension n then T is one-one
if and only if it is onto.
Q)Which of the following linear transformations are
one-to-one , onto ?

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Q) The linear transformation is defined by T(x)=Ax
Which of the following is one -one and onto?

1.A=

2.A=

3.A=
Invertible/Regular Linear Transformation

A linear transformation T : R n  R n defined by T X  AX,is said to be

invertible or non singular or regular if the matrix of transformation A is
non singular matrix, i.e., invertible.

The corresponding inverse transformation T  1 : R n  R n is given by

T  1 Y  A  1Y.
 2 2  x   2x  4 y 
Consider, T:R  R defined as T    .
 y   3x  5 y 
Is T a regular transformation? If yes, find the image of
  2 1
  under T .
 3

2 4 1  5 4   5 / 22 4 / 22 
T   3 5 22 0. T     3 2    3 / 22 2 / 22  .
1

22    
 5 / 22 4 / 22    2   1 / 11 
  3 / 22 2 / 22   3   6 / 11 
    
Q) Which of the following linear
transformations are regular, if possible, find
it’s inverse?

• 2.
Composite Linear Transformation
T:V  U
S: U  W
ST : V  W
(S  T)( v) S(T( v))

 S  T  S T 
  x
   x  2y  z 
T : R 3  R 2 defined by T  y    and S : R 2
 R 4
defined by
 z    x 5y  z 
 
 2y 
 
x
  x  y
S     .Which is well defined T  Sor S  T ? Find the matrix of the same.
 y   2x 
 
 x  y 
3 2 2 4
As T : R  R and S : R  R , S  T is a
3 4
well defined map. S  T : R  R .
0 2    2 10 2 
 1 1  1 2 1  0 7 2
  
 S  T   S T  
 
   
2 0    1 5 1  1 4 2 
   
 1  0  1 2 1
Q) In each case compute SoT and ToS .

1.

2.)

3. with
Q) Let defined by

a) Find ?
b) Find rank and nullity of each transformation?
c) Which of the above transformation is one-one and onto? justify your
answer.
Orthogonal Transformation :
A linear transformation T : R n  R n defined as T(X)=AX
is said to orthogonal if A is a orthogonal matrix.
Orthogonal Matrix :
Matrix A is said to be orthogonal matrix if
AAT AT A I, where I is a n n identity matrix.
  a  b a  b
Find the condition on a and b so that the matrix  
 a  b a  b 
is orthogonal.

t  a  b a  b   a  b a  b   1 0
AA I       
 a  b a  b  a  b a  b   0 1 
     a  b a  b   b  a a  b   1 0 
2 2
a  b  b  a
   
 a  b a  b   a  b b  a  a  b   a  b 
2 2
  0 1 
 2a 2  2b 2 1 and a 2  b 2 0. This gives

1
a=b=  .
2
Q) The linear transformation is defined by T(x)=Ax Which of the
following represents an orthogonal transformation?

1.A=

2.A=

3.A=
Geometric Linear Transformations in

Reflection
Scaling
Shearing
Rotation
Projection
Reflection:

The reflection of a geometric object through a line produces

the mirror image of the object across the line.

Type 1 : Reflection about X-axis

Type 2 : Reflection about Y-axis
Type 3 : Reflection about the line y=x
Type 4 : Reflection about the line y=-x
Type 5 : Reflection about origin
  0   1   0   1
S :square with vertices   ,   ,   ,  
 0   0   1   1
1 0 
Consider A  
 0  1
1 0   0  0 1 0   1  1
 0  1  0   0  ,  0  1  0   0  ,
         
 1 0   0   0   1 0   1  1 
 0  1  1    1  ,  0  1  1    1 
         
1 0   x   x 
 0  1  y    y 
    
  0   1   0   1
S :square with vertices   ,   ,   ,  
 0   0   1   1
  1 0
Consider A  
 0 1
 1 0   0   0    1 0  1    1
 0  1  0   0  ,  0 1   0   0  ,
         
  1 0   0   0    1 0   1   1 
 0 1   1    1  ,  0 1   1   1 
         
  1 0  x    x 
 0 1   y   y 
    
  0   1   0   1
S :square with vertices   ,   ,   ,  
 0   0   1   1
 0 1
Consider A  
 1 0
 0 1  0   0   0 1  1   0 
 1 0   0   0  ,  1 0   0   1  ,
         
 0 1  0   1   0 1  1  1
 1 0   1   0  ,  1 0   1  1 
         
 0 1  x   y 
 1 0   y   x 
    
  0   1   0   1
S :square with vertices   ,   ,   ,  
 0   0   1   1
 0  1
Consider A  
 1 0 
 0  1  0   0   0  1  1   0 
  1 0   0   0  ,   1 0   0    1 ,
         
 0  1  0    1  0  1  1    1 
  1 0   1   0  ,   1 0   1   1 
         
 0  1  x    y 
  1 0   y    x 
    
  0   1   0   1
S :square with vertices   ,   ,   ,  
 0   0   1   1
 1 0 
Consider A  
 0  1
  1 0   0   0    1 0   1    1
 0  1  0   0  ,  0  1  0   0  ,
         
  1 0   0   0    1 0   1   1 
 0  1  1    1  ,  0  1  1    1 
         
 Reflection through origin

 1 0   x   x
 0  1  y    y 
    
Scaling:

A transformation on an object that results in contraction or

dilation (stretching) is called a scaling.

Type 1: Horizontal Scaling

Type 2 : Vertical Scaling
Type 3 : Scaling in both directions
  0   1   0   1
S :square with vertices   ,   ,   ,  
 0   0   1   1
 k 0
Consider A  
 0 1
 k 0  0   0   k 0  1   k 
 0 1   0   0  ,  0 1   0   0  ,
         
 k 0   0   0   k 0   1  k 
 0 1   1   1  ,  0 1   1   1 
         
 k 0   x   kx 
 0 1   y   y 
    
  0   1   0   1
S :square with vertices   ,   ,   ,  
 0   0   1   1
 1 0
Consider A  
0 k
 1 0  0   0   1 0  1   1 
 0 k   0   0  ,  0 k   0   0  ,
         
 1 0   0   0   1 0   1  1 
 0 k   1   k  ,  0 k   1  k 
         
 1 0  x   x 
 0 k   y   ky 
    
  0   1   0   1
S :square with vertices   ,   ,   ,  
 0   0   1   1
 k 0
Consider A  
 0 1
 k 0  0   0   k 0  1   k 
 0 1   0   0  ,  0 1   0   0  ,
         
 k 0   0   0   k 0   1  k 
 0 1   1   1  ,  0 1   1   1 
         
 k 0   x   kx 
 0 1   y   y 
    
  0   1   0   1
S :square with vertices   ,   ,   ,  
 0   0   1   1
 1 0
Consider A  
0 k
 1 0  0   0   1 0  1   1 
 0 k   0   0  ,  0 k   0   0  ,
         
 1 0   0   0   1 0   1  1 
 0 k   1   k  ,  0 k   1  k 
         
 1 0  x   x 
 0 k   y   ky 
    
Scaling

 k 0   x   kx 
 0 k   y   ky 
    
Shearing :

The transformation which produces the visual effect of

Slanting is called shearing

Type 1 : shear in X-direction

Type 2 : shear in Y-direction
  0   1   0   1
S :square with vertices   ,   ,   ,  
 0   0   1   1
1 k
Consider A  
 0 1
1 k  0  0 1 k  1  1
 0 1   0   0  ,  0 1   0   0  ,
         
 1 k   0   k   1 k   1  1  k 
 0 1   1   1  ,  0 1   1   1 
         
 1 k   x   x  ky 
 0 1   y   y 
    
  0   1   0   1
S :square with vertices   ,   ,   ,  
 0   0   1   1
 1 0
Consider A  
 k 1
 1 0  0   0   1 0  1   1 
 k 1   0   0  ,  k 1   0   k  ,
         
 1 0   0   0   1 0   1  1 
 k 1   1   1  ,  k 1   1   1  k 
         
 1 0  x   x 
 k 1   y   kx  y 
    
Rotation :

The transformation which rotates given a point in through an

angle is called Rotation.

Type 1 : counterclockwise rotation(θ > 0)

Type 2 : clockwise rotation (θ < 0)
  0   1   0   1
S :square with vertices   ,   ,   ,  
 0   0   1   1
 cos   sin  
Consider A  
 sin  cos  
 cos   sin    0   0   cos   sin    1   cos  
 sin  cos    0   0  ,  sin  cos    0   sin   ,
         
 cos   sin    0    sin  
 sin  cos    1   cos   ,
    
 cos   sin    1  cos   sin  
 sin  cos    1  cos   sin  
    
  0   1   0   1
S :square with vertices   ,   ,   ,  
 0   0   1   1

In particular if   then the images are
2
 0  1  0   0   0  1  1   0 
 1 0   0   0  ,  1 0   0   1  ,
         
 0  1  0    1  0  1  1    1
 1 0   1   0  ,  1 0   1  1 
         
 Rotation

  1  0
1  1
   

  1
 0
 
 Rotation
 cos   sin    x   x cos   y sin  
 sin      
 cos    y   x sin   y cos  
 Example:
Find the transformation which produces shear in
posive X- direction of factor 3, followed by reflection through
the line y=x.
 1 3
:- Shear in posive X- direction of factor 3 : A=  
 0 1 
 0 1
reflection through the line y=x : B  
 1 0 
 0 1   1 3  0 1 
The matrix of transformation is BA=       .
 1 0   0 1   1 3
 y1   0 1  x1   x2 
Hence the required transformation is Y=        
y
 2  1 3 x
 2  1 x  3 x 2
Example: Give a geometric description of the linear transformation
defined by the matrix product

 1 0
First action is by marix   , which is expansion in
 0 3
 0 1
positive Y -direction of factor 3.   is reflection about
 1 0
y  x. Hence the effect is scaling in positive Y -direction of
factor 3 followed by reflection about y  x.
Example:

 x  x  y  1 1
The matrix of transformation T   =   is A=   .
 y  y   0 1
 0  0  1 1
We will first find images of vertices   ,   ,   and   .
 0  2  2  0
 1 1  0   0   1 1  0   2   1 1  1   3 
 0 1  0   0  ,  0 1  2   2  ,  0 1  2   2 
              
 1 1  1   1 
and       .
 0 1  0   0 
 0  1
 
   2
 2

 0  1
     2
 0  0  
 2  3
 
 2

 0  1
   
 0  0
Projection: A geometrical transformation in which one line,
shape etc. is converted into another according to certain geometrical
rule is called projection

Projection on X axis in is given by a matrix

Projection on Y axis in is given by a matrix

Example: Find the image of point (3,4) if it is projected on the Y axis?

Geometric Linear Transformations in

Reflection
Scaling
Shearing
Rotation
Projection
Three Dimensional
Transformations:
• The 3x3 matrix produces a linear transformation in the form of
scaling , shearing , Rotation and reflection.
•Reflection
1 0 0 
0 1 0 
 
 0 0  1
 1 0 0
 0  1 0
 
 0 0 1 
  1 0 0
 0 1 0
 
 0 0 1 
Scaling:The matrix of Scaling in is
given by

Where, a is scaling in X-Coordinate

e is scaling in Y-Coordinate
j is scaling in Z-Coordinate
Shearing: The off-diagonal terms of
matrix produce shear in three
dimension

Example: Write the transformation matrix for each of the following

transformations.
1) Shear in y-co-ordinate proportional to z-co-ordinate by factor 4.
2) Shear in z-co-ordinate proportional to x-co-ordinate and y-co-
ordinate by factor 3 and 2 respectively.
Solution:
1) The transformation matrix [T] for shearing in y-co-ordinate
proportional to z-co-ordinate by factor 4 is

2) The transformation matrix [T] for shearing in z-co-ordinate

proportional to x-co-ordinate and y-co-ordinate by factor 3 and 2
respectively is
•Rotation about standard axes

1 0 0 
 0 cos   sin  
 
 0 sin  cos  

 cos  0 sin  
 0 1 0 
 
  sin  0 cos  

 cos   sin  0 
 sin  cos  0 
 
 0 0 1 
Example:

Find the standard matrix for T:R 3  R 3 , that first

reflects about xy - plane, then rotates the resulting
vector in counterclockwise direction through an
angle  , z  axis and then finally resultant vector
is projected on xz - plane.
The standard matrix for reflection about xy -
1 0 0 
plane is A1  0 1 0 
 0 0  1
The standard matrix for rotation about z-axis
 cos   sin  0 
is A2  sin  cos  0 
 0 0 1 
The standard matrix of projection on xz - plane
1 0 0
is A3  0 0 0 
 0 0 1 
 1 0 0   cos   sin  0  1 0 0 

A3 A2 A1   0 0  
0   sin  cos   
0  0 1 0  
 0 0 1   0 0 1   0 0  1
 cos   sin  0

 0 0 0 
 0 0  1
Projection: A geometrical transformation in which one line,
shape etc. is converted into another according to certain
geometrical rule is called projection.

Orthographic Projection: The projection formed by parallel

projectors such that they are perpendicular to the projection plane, is
called orthographic projection.

The orthographic projections are projections on one of the co-

ordinate planes x=0 (yz-plane), y=0 (xz-plane), z=0 (xy- plane)
respectively.
i) If the point is projected onto z=0 plane the matrix for the
projection onto z=0 plane is

[
ii) If the point is projected onto x=0 plane,
the matrix for the projection onto x=0 plane is
[

iii) If the point is projected onto y=0 plane,

the matrix for the projection onto y=0 plane is
[

Example: Find the combined transformation matrix for the following

sequence of transformations: Rotation about x-axis by , followed by
scaling in x and y direc0tions by factors 3 and ½ respectively, followed
by reflection through the xy-plane.
Apply it on the point [ 1 3 2].
Multiple Transformation:
Example: Find the concatenated transformation matrix for successive
transformations
i) Reflection in XY- plane
ii) Scaling in x,y,z co-ordinate by factor 4,2,1 units respectively.
iii) Shearing in X-co-ordinate by a factor -4 units proportional to z-co-
ordinate.
Apply the resulting concatenated transformation matrix on the position
vector [2 2 1].

Example: Obtain the concatenated matrix representation of the

following transformations
iv) Scaling in x, y and z co-ordinate by factor by -1,2,1 units
respectively.
v) Rotation about z-axis by .
vi) Reflection in XY plane.
Hence find the transformed position vector of the point A[3 2 1].
Example: Obtain the concatenated transformation matrix for the
following sequence of transformation:
1) Scaling in x and z co-ordinate by factor 2 and 3 respectively.
2) Reflection through YZ- plane.
Apply the resulting transformation matrix on the position vector
P[2 -7 11].

Example: Find combine transformation matrix for the following

sequence of transformation
i)Rotation about Y-axis by an angle
ii)Scaling in X,Y and Z axis by 2,3,4 units respectively
ii)Reflection in XY plane
Apply this combine transformation matrix on the point P[3,2,1]
Example: Find the combined transformation matrix for the following
sequence of transformations: Rotation about X-axis by an angle ,
followed by rotation about Y-axis by an angle , followed by scaling in
X & Z co-ordinates by factor of 3 and 2 respectively. Apply it on the
point [2 1 3].

Example: Obtain the concatenated transformation matrix for the

following sequence of transformation: Shearing in x co-ordinate by
factor of 2 units proportional to Z co-ordinate followed by reflection
YZ plane.