1

3
Structured Program
Development in C
 2

OBJECTIVES
In this chapter you will learn:
 Basic problem-solving techniques.
 To develop algorithms through the process of
top-down, stepwise refinement.
 To use the if selection statement and if...else
selection statement to select actions.
 To use the while repetition statement to execute
statements in a program repeatedly.
 Counter-controlled repetition and sentinel-controlled
repetition.
 Structured programming.
 The increment, decrement and assignment operators.
 3

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Algorithms
3.3 Pseudocode
3.4 Control Structures
3.5 The if Selection Statement
3.6 The if...else Selection Statement
3.7 The while Repetition Statement
3.8 Formulating Algorithms: Case Study 1
(Counter-Controlled Repetition)
3.9 Formulating Algorithms with Top-Down, Stepwise
Refinement: Case Study 2 (Sentinel-Controlled
Repetition)
3.10 Formulating Algorithms with Top-Down, Stepwise
Refinement: Case Study 3 (Nested Control Structures)
3.11 Assignment Operators
3.12 Increment and Decrement Operators
 4

3.1 Introduction
 Before writing a program:
– Have a thorough understanding of the problem
– Carefully plan an approach for solving it
 While writing a program:
– Know what “building blocks” are available
– Use good programming principles
 5

3.2 Algorithms
 Computing problems
– All can be solved by executing a series of actions in a
specific order
 Algorithm: procedure in terms of
– Actions to be executed
– The order in which these actions are to be executed
 Program control
– Specify order in which statements are to be executed
 6

3.3 Pseudocode
 Pseudocode
– Artificial, informal language that helps us develop
algorithms
– Similar to everyday English
– Not actually executed on computers
– Helps us “think out” a program before writing it
- Easy to convert into a corresponding C++ program
- Consists only of executable statements
 7

3.4 Control Structures

 Sequential execution
– Statements executed one after the other in the order written
 Transfer of control
– When the next statement executed is not the next one in
sequence
– Overuse of goto statements led to many problems
 Bohm and Jacopini
– All programs written in terms of 3 control structures
- Sequence structures: Built into C. Programs executed sequentially
by default
- Selection structures: C has three types: if, if…else, and switch
- Repetition structures: C has three types: while, do…while and for
 8

Flowcharting C’s sequence structure.

 9

3.4 Control Structures

 Flowchart
– Graphical representation of an algorithm
– Drawn using certain special-purpose symbols connected by
arrows called flowlines
– Rectangle symbol (action symbol):
- Indicates any type of action
– Oval symbol:
- Indicates the beginning or end of a program or a section of code
 Single-entry/single-exit control structures
– Connect exit point of one control structure to entry point of the
next (control-structure stacking)
– Makes programs easy to build
 10

3.5 The if selection statement

 Selection structure:
– Used to choose among alternative courses of action
– Pseudocode:
If student’s grade is greater than or equal to 60
Print “Passed”
 If condition true
– Print statement executed and program goes on to next
statement
– If false, print statement is ignored and the program goes
onto the next statement
– Indenting makes programs easier to read
- C ignores whitespace characters
 11

Good Programming Practice 3.2

Pseudocode is often used to “think out” a

program during the program design
process. Then the pseudocode program is
converted to C.
 12

3.5 The if selection statement

 Pseudocode statement in C:
if ( grade >= 60 )
printf( "Passed\n" );
– C code corresponds closely to the pseudocode
 Diamond symbol (decision symbol)
– Indicates decision is to be made
– Contains an expression that can be true or false
– Test the condition, follow appropriate path
 13

Flowcharting the single-selection if statement.

 14

3.6 The if…else selection statement

 if
– Only performs an action if the condition is true
 if…else
– Specifies an action to be performed both when the
condition is true and when it is false
 Psuedocode:
If student’s grade is greater than or equal to 60
Print “Passed”
else
Print “Failed”
– Note spacing/indentation conventions
 15

Good Programming Practice 3.3

Indent both body statements of an if...else

statement

If there are several levels of indentation, each

level should be indented the same additional
amount of space
 16

3.6 The if…else selection statement

 C code:
if ( grade >= 60 )
printf( "Passed\n");
else
printf( "Failed\n");
 Ternary conditional operator (?:)
– Takes three arguments (condition, value if true, value if false)
– Our pseudocode could be written:
printf( "%s\n", grade >= 60 ? "Passed" : "Failed" );
– Or it could have been written:
grade >= 60 ? printf( “Passed\n” ) : printf( “Failed\
n” );
 17

Flowcharting the double-selection if...else statement.

 18

3.6 The if…else selection statement

 Nested if…else statements
– Test for multiple cases by placing if…else selection
statements inside if…else selection statement
– Once condition is met, rest of statements skipped
– Deep indentation usually not used in practice
 19

3.6 The if…else selection statement

– Pseudocode for a nested if…else statement
If student’s grade is greater than or equal to 90
Print “A”
else
If student’s grade is greater than or equal to 80
Print “B”
else
If student’s grade is greater than or equal to 70
Print “C”
else
If student’s grade is greater than or equal to 60
Print “D”
else
Print “F”
 20

3.6 The if…else selection statement

 Compound statement:
– Set of statements within a pair of braces
– Example:
if ( grade >= 60 )
printf( "Passed.\n" );
else {
printf( "Failed.\n" );
printf( "You must take this course
again.\n" );
}
– Without the braces, the statement
printf( "You must take this course
again.\n" );
would be executed automatically
 21

Software Engineering Observation 3.1

A compound statement can be placed anywhere

in a program that a single
statement can be placed.
 22

Common Programming Error 3.1

Forgetting one or both of the braces

that delimit a compound statement.
 23

3.6 The if…else selection statement

 Block:
– Compound statements with declarations
 Syntax errors
– Caught by compiler
 Logic errors:
– Have their effect at execution time
– Non-fatal: program runs, but has incorrect output
– Fatal: program exits prematurely
 24

Common Programming Error 3.2

Placing a semicolon after the condition in an

if statement as in if ( grade >= 60 ); leads
to a logic error in single-selection if statements
and a syntax error in double-selection if
statements.
 25

Error-Prevention Tip 3.1

Typing the beginning and ending braces of

compound statements before typing the
individual statements within the braces helps
avoid omitting one or both of the braces,
preventing syntax errors and logic errors
(where both braces are indeed required).
 26

Software Engineering Observation 3.2

Just as a compound statement can be placed

anywhere a single statement can be placed, it is
also possible to have no statement at all, i.e., the
empty statement.
The empty statement is represented by placing
a semicolon (;) where a statement would
normally be.
 27

3.7 The while repetition statement

 Repetition structure
– Programmer specifies an action to be repeated while some
condition remains true
– Pseudocode:
While there are more items on my shopping list
Purchase next item and cross it off my list
– while loop repeated until condition becomes false
– Example:
int product = 2;
while ( product <= 1000 )
product = 2 * product;
 28

Common Programming Error 3.3

Not providing the body of a while statement

with an action that eventually causes the
condition in the while to become false.

Normally, such a repetition structure will

never terminate—an error called an “infinite
loop.”
 29

Common Programming Error 3.4

Spelling the keyword while with an

uppercase W as in While (remember that
C is a case-sensitive language).

All of C’s reserved keywords such as while,

if and else contain only lowercase letters.
 30

Flowcharting the while repetition statement.

 31

3.8 Counter-Controlled Repetition

 Counter-controlled repetition
– Loop repeated until counter reaches a certain value
– Definite repetition: number of repetitions is known
– Example: A class of ten students took a quiz. The grades
(integers in the range 0 to 100) for this quiz are available to
you. Determine the class average on the quiz.
1 /* Fig. 3.6: fig03_06.c 32
2 Class average program with counter-controlled repetition */
3 #include <stdio.h>
4
5 /* function main begins program execution */
6 int main( void )
7 {
8 int counter; /* number of grade to be entered next */
9 int grade; /* grade value */
10 int total; /* sum of grades input by user */ Counter to control while loop
11 int average; /* average of grades */
12
13 /* initialization phase */
14 total = 0; /* initialize total */
15 counter = 1; /* initialize loop counter */ Initialize counter to 1
16
17 /* processing phase */
18 while ( counter <= 10 ) { /* loop 10 times */ while loop iterates as long as
19 printf( "Enter grade: " ); /* prompt for input */ counter <= 10
20 scanf( "%d", &grade ); /* read grade from user */
21 total = total + grade; /* add grade to total */
22 counter = counter + 1; /* increment counter */
23 } /* end while */
Increment the counter
24 33
25 /* termination phase */
26 average = total / 10; /* integer division */
27
Calculate the average
28 printf( "Class average is %d\n", average ); /* display result */
29
30 return 0; /* indicate program ended successfully */
31
32 } /* end function main */

Enter grade: 98
Enter grade: 76
Enter grade: 71
Enter grade: 87
Enter grade: 83
Enter grade: 90
Enter grade: 57
Enter grade: 79
Enter grade: 82
Enter grade: 94
Class average is 81
 34

Common Programming Error 3.5

If a counter or total is not initialized, the

results of your program will probably be
incorrect. This is an example of a logic
error.
 35

Error-Prevention Tip 3.2

Initialize all counters and totals.

 36

3.9 Formulating Algorithms with Top-

Down, Stepwise Refinement
 Problem becomes:
Develop a class-averaging program that will process an
arbitrary number of grades each time the program is run.
– Unknown number of students
– How will the program know to end?
 Use sentinel value
– Also called signal value, dummy value, or flag value
– Indicates “end of data entry.”
– Loop ends when user inputs the sentinel value
– Sentinel value chosen so it cannot be confused with a
regular input (such as -1 in this case)
 37

Common Programming Error 3.6

Choosing a sentinel value that is also a

legitimate data value.
 38

3.9 Formulating Algorithms with Top-

Down, Stepwise Refinement
 Top-down, stepwise refinement
– Begin with a pseudocode representation of the top:
Determine the class average for the quiz
– Divide top into smaller tasks and list them in order:
Initialize variables
Input, sum and count the quiz grades
Calculate and print the class average
 Many programs have three phases:
– Initialization: initializes the program variables
– Processing: inputs data values and adjusts program
variables accordingly
– Termination: calculates and prints the final results
1 Initialize total to zero 39
2 Initialize counter to zero
3
4 Input the first grade
5 While the user has not as yet entered the sentinel
6 Add this grade into the running total
7 Add one to the grade counter
8 Input the next grade (possibly the sentinel)
9
10 If the counter is not equal to zero
11 Set the average to the total divided by the counter
12 Print the average
13 else
14 Print “No grades were entered”

Pseudocode algorithm that uses sentinel-controlled repetition to

solve the class average problem.
 40

Good Programming Practice 3.5

When performing division by an expression

whose value could be zero, explicitly test for
this case and handle it appropriately in your
program (such as printing an error message)
rather than allowing the fatal error to occur.
 41

Software Engineering Observation 3.5

You terminate the top-down, stepwise

refinement process when the pseudocode
algorithm is specified in sufficient detail for
you to be able to convert the pseudocode to
C. Implementing the C program is then
normally straightforward.
1 /* Fig. 3.8: fig03_08.c 42
2 Class average program with sentinel-controlled repetition */
3 #include <stdio.h>
4
5 /* function main begins program execution */
6 int main( void )
7 {
8 int counter; /* number of grades entered */
9 int grade; /* grade value */
10 int total; /* sum of grades */
11
float type indicates variable
12 float average; /* number with decimal point for average */ can be a non-integer
13
14 /* initialization phase */
15 total = 0; /* initialize total */
16 counter = 0; /* initialize loop counter */
17
18 /* processing phase */
19 /* get first grade from user */
20 printf( "Enter grade, -1 to end: " ); /* prompt for input */
21 scanf( "%d", &grade ); /* read grade from user */
22
23 /* loop while sentinel value not yet read from user */ 43
24 while ( grade != -1 ) {
25 total = total + grade; /* add grade to total */
26 counter = counter + 1; /* increment counter */ while loop repeats until user enters
27 a value of -1
28 /* get next grade from user */
29 printf( "Enter grade, -1 to end: " ); /* prompt for input */
30 scanf("%d", &grade); /* read next grade */
31 } /* end while */
32
33 /* termination phase */
34 /* if user entered at least one grade */
35 if ( counter != 0 ) { Ensures the user entered at least one grade
36
37 /* calculate average of all grades entered */
38 average = ( float ) total / counter; /* avoid truncation */
39
40 /* display average with two digits of precision */
Converts total to float type
41 printf( "Class average is %.2f\n", average );
42 } /* end if */
43 else { /* if no grades were entered, output message */ Prints result with 2 digits after decimal point
44 printf( "No grades were entered\n" );
45 } /* end else */
46
47 return 0; /* indicate program ended successfully */
48
49 } /* end function main */
 44
Enter grade, -1 to end: 75
Enter grade, -1 to end: 94
Enter grade, -1 to end: 97
Enter grade, -1 to end: 88
Enter grade, -1 to end: 70
Enter grade, -1 to end: 64
Enter grade, -1 to end: 83
Enter grade, -1 to end: 89
Enter grade, -1 to end: -1
Class average is 82.50

Enter grade, -1 to end: -1

No grades were entered
 45

Good Programming Practice 3.6

In a sentinel-controlled loop, the prompts

requesting data entry should explicitly
remind the user what the sentinel value is.
 46

Common Programming Error 3.8

Using precision in a conversion specification

in the format control string of a scanf
statement is wrong. Precisions are used only
in printf conversion specifications.
 47

Common Programming Error 3.9

Using floating-point numbers in a manner

that assumes they are represented precisely
can lead to incorrect results. Floating-point
numbers are represented only approximately
by most computers.
 48

Error-Prevention Tip 3.3

Do not compare floating-point values for equality.

 49

3.10 Nested Control Structures

 Problem
– A college has a list of test results (1 = pass, 2 = fail) for 10
students
– Write a program that analyzes the results
- If more than 8 students pass, print "Raise Tuition"
 Notice that
– The program must process 10 test results
- Counter-controlled loop will be used
– Two counters can be used
- One for number of passes, one for number of fails
– Each test result is a number—either a 1 or a 2
- If the number is not a 1, we assume that it is a 2
 50

3.10 Nested Control Structures

 Top level outline
Analyze exam results and decide if tuition should be raised
 First Refinement
Initialize variables
Input the ten quiz grades and count passes and failures
Print a summary of the exam results and decide if tuition should
be raised
 Refine Initialize variables to
Initialize passes to zero
Initialize failures to zero
Initialize student counter to one
 51

3.10 Nested Control Structures

 Refine Input the ten quiz grades and count passes and
failures to
While student counter is less than or equal to ten
Input the next exam result
If the student passed
Add one to passes
else
Add one to failures
Add one to student counter
 Refine Print a summary of the exam results and decide if
tuition should be raised to
Print the number of passes
Print the number of failures
If more than eight students passed
Print “Raise tuition”
1 Initialize passes to zero 52
2 Initialize failures to zero
3 Initialize student to one
4
5 While student counter is less than or equal to ten
6 Input the next exam result
7
8 If the student passed
9 Add one to passes
10 else
11 Add one to failures
12
13 Add one to student counter
14
15 Print the number of passes
16 Print the number of failures
17 If more than eight students passed
18 Print “Raise tuition”

Pseudocode for examination results problem.

1 /* Fig. 3.10: fig03_10.c 53
2 Analysis of examination results */
3 #include <stdio.h>
4
5 /* function main begins program execution */
6 int main( void )
7 {
8 /* initialize variables in definitions */
9 int passes = 0; /* number of passes */
10 int failures = 0; /* number of failures */
11 int student = 1; /* student counter */
12 int result; /* one exam result */
13
14 /* process 10 students using counter-controlled loop */
15 while ( student <= 10 ) {
16
while loop continues until 10 students have been processed
17 /* prompt user for input and obtain value from user */
18 printf( "Enter result ( 1=pass,2=fail ): " );
19 scanf( "%d", &result );
20
21 /* if result 1, increment passes */
22 if ( result == 1 ) {
23 passes = passes + 1; if and else statements are nested
24 } /* end if */ inside while loop
25 else { /* otherwise, increment failures */
26 failures = failures + 1;
27 } /* end else */
28
29 student = student + 1; /* increment student counter */
30 } /* end while */
31 54
32 /* termination phase; display number of passes and failures */
33 printf( "Passed %d\n", passes );
34 printf( "Failed %d\n", failures );
35
36 /* if more than eight students passed, print "raise tuition" */
37 if ( passes > 8 ) {
38 printf( "Raise tuition\n" );
39 } /* end if */
40
41 return 0; /* indicate program ended successfully */
42
43 } /* end function main */

Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 1

Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 2
Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 2
Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 1
Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 1
Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 1
Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 2
Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 1
Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 1
Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 2
Passed 6
Failed 4
(continued on next slide… )
 (continued from previous slide…) 55
Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 1
Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 1
Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 1
Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 2
Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 1
Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 1
Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 1
Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 1
Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 1
Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 1
Passed 9
Failed 1
Raise tuition
 56

Performance Tip 3.1

Initializing variables when they are defined

can help reduce a program’s execution time.
 57

Performance Tip 3.2

Many of the performance tips we mention in this

text result in nominal improvements, so the reader
may be tempted to ignore them. Note that the
cumulative effect of all these performance
enhancements can make a program perform
significantly faster. Also, significant improvement is
realized when a supposedly nominal improvement is
placed in a loop that may repeat a large number of
times.
 58

Software Engineering Observation 3.6

Experience has shown that the most difficult

part of solving a problem on a computer is
developing the algorithm for the solution. Once
a correct algorithm has been specified, the
process of producing a working C program is
normally straightforward.
 59

Software Engineering Observation 3.7

Many programmers write programs without

ever using program development tools such
as pseudocode. They feel that their ultimate
goal is to solve the problem on a computer
and that writing pseudocode merely delays
the production of final outputs.
 60

3.11 Assignment Operators

 Assignment operators abbreviate assignment expressions
c = c + 3;
can be abbreviated as c += 3; using the addition assignment
operator
 Statements of the form
variable = variable operator expression;
can be rewritten as
variable operator= expression;
 Examples of other assignment operators:
d -= 4 (d = d - 4)
e *= 5 (e = e * 5)
f /= 3 (f = f / 3)
g %= 9 (g = g % 9)
 61

3.12 Increment and Decrement Operators

 Increment operator (++)
– Can be used instead of c+=1
 Decrement operator (--)
– Can be used instead of c-=1
 Preincrement
– Operator is used before the variable (++c or --c)
– Variable is changed before the expression it is in is evaluated
 Postincrement
– Operator is used after the variable (c++ or c--)
– Expression executes before the variable is changed
 62

3.12 Increment and Decrement Operators

 If c equals 5, then
printf( "%d", ++c );
– Prints 6
printf( "%d", c++ );
– Prints 5
– In either case, c now has the value of 6
 When variable not in an expression
– Preincrementing and postincrementing have the same effect
++c;
printf( “%d”, c );
– Has the same effect as
c++;
printf( “%d”, c );
 63

Operator Sample expression Explanation

++ ++a Increment a by 1, then use the new value of a in the

expression in which a resides.
++ a++ Use the current value of a in the expression in which a
resides, then increment a by 1.
-- --b Decrement b by 1, then use the new value of b in the
expression in which b resides.
-- b-- Use the current value of b in the expression in which b
resides, then decrement b by 1.

Increment and decrement operators.

1 /* Fig. 3.13: fig03_13.c 64
2 Preincrementing and postincrementing */
3 #include <stdio.h>
4
5 /* function main begins program execution */
6 int main( void )
7 {
8 int c; /* define variable */
9
10 /* demonstrate postincrement */
11 c = 5; /* assign 5 to c */
12 printf( "%d\n", c ); /* print 5 */
13 printf( "%d\n", c++ ); /* print 5 then postincrement */ c is printed, then incremented
14 printf( "%d\n\n", c ); /* print 6 */
15
16 /* demonstrate preincrement */
17 c = 5; /* assign 5 to c */
18 printf( "%d\n", c ); /* print 5 */
19 printf( "%d\n", ++c ); /* preincrement then print 6 */ c is incremented, then printed
20 printf( "%d\n", c ); /* print 6 */
21
22 return 0; /* indicate program ended successfully */
23
24 } /* end function main */
5
5
6

5
6
6
 65

Good Programming Practice 3.7

Unary operators should be placed directly next

to their operands with no intervening spaces.
 66

Common Programming Error 3.10

Attempting to use the increment or decrement

operator on an expression other than a simple
variable name is a syntax error, e.g., writing ++
(x + 1).
 67

Error-Prevention Tip 3.4

C generally does not specify the order in which

an operator’s operands will be evaluated
(although we will see exceptions to this for a
few operators in Chapter 4). Therefore you
should avoid using statements with increment
or decrement operators in which a particular
variable being incremented or decremented
appears more than once.
 68

Operators Associativity Type

++ (postfix) -- (postfix) right to left postfix

+ - ( type) ++ (prefix) -- (prefix) right to left unary

* / % left to right multiplicative

+ - left to right additive

< <= > >= left to right relational

== != left to right equality

?: right to left conditional

= += -= *= /= %= right to left assignment

Precedence of the operators encountered so far in the text.