MODELING IN CONTROL SYSTEMS

ENG.
CODE: EE 8303
UQF 8 – THIRD YEAR

Prepared by: Vicent V.M., MSc.

Nov., 2023
 Learning Context
Modeling of dynamic system
Control system representation: transfer function, open
and close loop control systems, mason’s rule (Block
diagrams, signal flow graph), Feedback control system

Use of Graphs for circuit analysis: presentation of

an electric circuit as a signal flow. Transformation of
signal flow graphs, the general flow graphs (Mason’s
equations) and Topological transmission law.

Time domain analysis.

Transient response, steady state response of 1st and 2nd
systems, pole – zero location on the z-plane.
Performance criteria ( indices), sensitivity. steady state
error and error constant
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Cont..

 So as to have the:
i. Ability to analyze models of dynamic control
system
ii. Ability to determine performance of a control
systems
iii. Ability to analyze errors of control system

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 Reading List
i. Dorf, R, C., Mordern Control System, 7th edition, Addison -
Addson-Weslay.
ii. Saadat, H., (1992), Computational Aids in Control system Using
MATLAB, McGRaw-Hill
iii. Nise, N.S., Control System Engineering, 2nd edition,
Benjamin/cummings
iv. Kuo, B.C., Automatic Control Systems, Prentice- Hall
v. D’AZZO and Houpis,s C.H., Feed-back Control System Analysis,
McGraw-Hill
vi. De Silva, C. W. (2009). Modeling and control of engineering
systems. CRC Press.
vii. Bakshi, U. A., &Bakshi, V. U. (2009). Automatic control system.
Technical Publications.
viii. Bakshi, U. A. (2009). Feedback Control Systems. Technical
Publications.
ix. Bhattacharya, S. K. (2008). Prepared
Control by Vicent systems
V.M., MSc. engineering.4
Introduction to Control System Engineering
 Engineering is concerned with understanding and
controlling the materials and forces of nature for the
benefit of humankind.
 Control system engineers are concerned with
understanding and controlling segments of their
environment, often called systems, to provide useful
economic products for society. The twin goals of
understanding and controlling are complementary
because effective systems control requires that the
systems be understood and modelled.

Therefore:
A control system is an interconnection of components
forming a system configuration that will provide a desired
system response
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Open – Loop Control System (without Feedback)
The basis for analysis of a system is the
foundation provided by linear system theory,
which assumes a cause–effect relationship for the
components of a system.

Therefore a component or process to be controlled

can be represented by a block, as shown in figure 1.1.
The input–output relationship represents the cause-
and-effect relationship of the process, which in turn
represents a processing of the input signal to provide
an output signal variable, often with a power
amplification. An open-loop control system utilizes a
controller or control actuator to obtain the desired
response, as shown in figure 1.2. An open-loop system
is a system without feedback.
 Process……………..

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Cont..
Fig. 1.1: Process to be controlled

Fig. 1.2: Open - loop control system

Therefore:
 An open – loop control system utilizes an

actuating device to control the process directly

without using feedback

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Cont..
Advantages of Open-Loop Control System
The followings are the advantages of an open-loop
control system:
i. These systems are simple in construction and
design.
ii. These systems are economical.
iii. These systems are easy from maintenance point of
view.
iv. Usually these systems are not much troubled with
problems of stability.
v. These systems are convenient to use when output
is difficult to measure

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Cont..
Disadvantages of Open-Loop Control
System
The followings are the disadvantages of an open-loop
control system:
i. These systems are not accurate and reliable because
their accuracy dependent on the accuracy of
calibration.
ii. In these systems, inaccuracy results are obtained with
parameter variations i . e . internal disturbances.
iii. Recalibration of the controller is required from time to
time for maintaining quality and accuracy
iv. Any change in output cannot be corrected
automatically

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Closed-Loop Control System (with Feedback)
 In contrast to an open-loop control system, a
closed-loop control system utilizes an additional
measure of the actual output to compare the
actual output with the desired output
response. The measure of the output is called
the feedback signal. A simple closed-loop
feedback control system is shown in figure 1.3.
 A feedback control system is a control system
that tends to maintain a prescribed
relationship of one system variable to another
by comparing functions of these variables and
using the difference as a means of control.
A feedback control system often uses a function
of a prescribed relationship between the output
and reference input to control the process.
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Cont..

Fig. 1.3: Closed –loop feedback control system

Therefore:
 A closed – loop control system uses a
measurement of the output and feedback of this
signal to compare it with the desired output
(reference or command)

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Cont..
Due to the increasing complexity of the systems
under control and the interest in achieving
optimum performance, the importance of control
systems engineering has grown in the past
decade. Furthermore, as the systems become
more complex, the interrelationship of many
controlled variables must be considered in the
control scheme. A block diagram depicting
(showing) a multivariable control system is
shown in figure below

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Cont..
Example of closed loop control system
 Consider electric clothes dryer:

 Suppose we used a sensor or transducer (input

device) to continually monitor the temperature or

dryness of the clothes and feed a signal relating
to the dryness back to the controller as shown
below

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Cont..
 This sensor monitors the actual dryness of the
clothes and compare it with (or subtract it from)
the input reference. The error signal (error =
required dryness – actual dryness) is amplified by
the controller, and the controller output makes
the necessary correction to the heating system to
reduce any error.
 For example if the clothes are too wet the

controller may increase the temperature or

drying time. Likewise, if the clothes are nearly dry
it may reduce the temperature or stop the
process so as not to overheat or burn the clothes,
etc.

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Cont..
Advantages of closed-loop control system
i. Accuracy: They are more accurate than open loop
system due to their complex construction. They are
equally accurate and are not disturbed in the
presence of non-linearities.
ii. Noise reduction ability: Since they are composed of a
feedback mechanism, so they clear out the errors
between input and output signals, and hence remain
unaffected to the external noise sources
iii. To reduce errors by automatically adjusting the
systems input.
iv. To improve stability of an unstable system.
v. To increase or reduce the systems sensitivity.
vi. To enhance robustness against external disturbances
to the process.
vii. To produce a reliable and repeatable performance
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Cont..
Disadvantages;
i. Construction: They are relatively more complex
in construction and hence it adds up to the cost
making it costlier than open loop system.
ii. Since it consists of feedback loop, it may create
oscillatory response of the system
iii. Stability: It is less stable than open loop system
but this disadvantage can be striked off since
we can make the sensitivity of the system very
small so as to make the system as stable as
possible
iv. The feedback affetcts the overall gain of the
system

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The End

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 Control System Block Diagrams
Block Diagram Representation of Control
Systems
 A Block Diagram is a shorthand pictorial
representation of the cause-and-effect
relationship of a system.

 The interior of the rectangle representing the

block usually contains a description of or the
name of the element, or the symbol for the
mathematical operation to be performed on the
input to yield the output.
d
 The arrows xrepresent the
dt direction y information
of
or signal flow.
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 Cont..
 The operations of addition and subtraction have a
special representation.
 The block becomes a small circle, called a summing
point, with the appropriate plus or minus sign
associated with the arrows entering the circle.
 The output is the algebraic sum of the inputs.
 Any number of inputs may enter a summing point.
 Some books put a cross in the circle.

𝐴
+¿ 𝐴− 𝐵 𝐴 − 𝐵+𝐶
+¿
−
+¿
𝐵 𝐶
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Cont..
Now
If a block diagram has many blocks, not all of
which are in cascade, then it is useful to have
rules for rearranging the diagram such that you
end up with only one block.
 For example, we would want to transform the

following diagram

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Cont..
Block Diagram Transformations

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Cont..

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Cont..

Rule 6, cont..
 Consider the following simple feedback loop

 If we write equations for the above diagram we

get:

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Cont..
 Substitute (2) into (1) to get

 Substitute (4) into (3) to get

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Cont..

Example 1
Consider the following feedback control system:

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Cont..
 First, let’s move H2 behind block G4 so that we
can isolate the G3 – G4 – H1 feedback loop. Use
Rule 4 of Table 1 to get

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Cont..
 Now, we can eliminate the 3 4 1 G -G - H loop by
using Rule 6 of Table 1:

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Cont..
 Now eliminate inner loop using Rule 6

 Therefore, the equivalent diagram is

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Cont..

 Finally, we can eliminate the last feedback loop to

get:

 Using block diagrams, it becomes easy to see

where new blocks can be added to an existing
system to alter system performance.

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Cont..

Example 2:
Reduce the following multi system into a single
block diagram

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Cont..
 By moving the summing point of the negative
feedback loop containing H2 outside the positive
loop containing H1, we obtain:

 Eliminate the positive feedback loop, we get:

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Cont..

 The elimination of the loop containing H2/G1

gives:

 Finally, eliminating the feedback loop gives:

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Home Work
Q1
Reduce the following multi system into a single
block diagram

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Cont..

Q2
Simplify the following block diagram into a single
block

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The End

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 Signal Flow Graphs
 For complex control systems, the block diagram
reduction technique is cumbersome.
 An alternative method for determining the
relationship between system variables has been
developed by Mason and is based on a signal flow
graph.
 A signal flow graph is a diagram that consists of
nodes that are connected by branches. A node is
assigned to each variable of interest in the system,
and branches are used to relate the different
variables.
 The main advantage for using SFG is that a straight
forward procedure is available for finding the transfer
function in which it is not necessary to move pickoff
point around or to redraw the system several times as
with block diagram manipulations.
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 Cont..

In other words
 Signal flow graphs are a pictorial representation of
the simultaneous equations describing a system.
 Signal flow graphs display the transmission of signals
through the system, as does the block diagrams, but
it is easier to draw and easier to manipulate than the
block diagrams.
 Unlike block diagrams, which consist of blocks,
signals, summing junctions, and pickoff points, a
signal-flow graph consists only of branches, which
represent systems, and nodes, which represent
signals.

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Cont..
 SFG is a diagram that represents a set of
simultaneous linear algebraic equations which
describe a system. Let us consider an equation, y
= ax. It may be represented graphically as;

Terminologies:
 Node: A junction denoting a variable or a signal.

 Branch: A unidirectional path that relates the

dependency of an input and an output.

Relation between variables is written next to the
directional arrow.
 Path: A branch or a continuous sequence of

branches that can be traversed from one node to

another
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Cont..

 An input node or source contain only the outgoing

branches. i.e., X1
 An output node or sink contain only the incoming
branches. i.e., X4
 A path is a continuous, unidirectional succession of
branches along which no node is passed more than ones.
i.e., X1 to X2 to X3 to X4, X2 to X3 back to X2,
X1 to X2 to X4, are paths.
 A forward path is a path from the input node to the
output node. i.e., X1 to X2 to X3 to X4, and X1 to X2
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Cont..
 A feedback path or feedback loop is a path
which originates and terminates on the same
node. i.e.; X2 to X3 and back to X2 is a
feedback path.
 A self-loop is a feedback loop consisting of a
single branch. i.e.; A33 is a self loop.
 The gain of a branch is the transmission function
of that branch when the transmission function is a
multiplicative operator. i.e., A33
 The path gain is the product of branch gains
encountered in traversing a path. i.e., X1 to X2
to X3 to X4 is A21A32A43
 The loop gain is the product of the branch gains
of the loop. i.e., the loop gain of the feedback
loop from X2 to X3 and back to X2 is A32A23.
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Cont..
 Consider a simple equation below and draw
its signal flow graph:
Xi = AijXj
 The signal flow graph of the equation is shown below;

 Every variable in a signal flow graph is designed by a

Node.
 Every transmission function in a signal flow graph is
designed by a Branch.
 Branches are always unidirectional.
 The arrow in the branch denotes the direction of the
signal flow.
 The variables Xi and Xj are represented by a small dot or
circle called a Node.
 The transmission function Aij is represented by a line
with an arrow called a Branch.
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Cont..
1. The Addition Rule:
The value of the variable designated by a node is
equal to the sum of all signals entering the node.
This can be represented as;

Example: The signal flow graph for the equation of

a line in rectangular coordinates, Y = mX + b, is
given below. Since b is a constant it may represent
a node or a transmission function

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Cont..
2. The Transmission Rule:
The value of the variable designed by a node is
transmitted on every branch leaving that node.

Example: The signal flow graph of the

simultaneous equations, Y = 3X, and, Z = -4X, is
given in the figure below.

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Cont..
3. The Multiplication Rule:
A cascaded or series connection of n-1 branches
with transmission functions ,
can be replaced by a single branch
with a new transmission function equal to the
product of the old ones. That is

• Example: The signal flow graph of the

simultaneous equations Y = 10X, Z = -20Y, is
given in

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 Cont..
Converting Cascaded Block Diagram into a
Signal Flow Graph

 First thing is to draw the signal nodes for the system.

 Next thing is to interconnect the signal nodes with system
branches.
 The signal nodes for the system are shown in figure (a).
 The interconnection of the nodes with branches that
represent the subsystem is shown in figure (b).

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 Cont..
Converting Parallel System Block Diagram into a
Signal Flow Graph:
 First thing is to draw the signal
nodes for the system.
 Next thing is to interconnect
the signal nodes with system
branches.
 The signal nodes for the
system are shown in figure (c).
 The interconnection of the
nodes with branches that
represent the subsystem is
shown in figure (d).

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 Cont..
Converting Feedback System Block Diagram
into a Signal Flow Graph:

 First thing is to draw the signal nodes for the system.

 Next thing is to interconnect the signal nodes with system
branches.
 The signal nodes for the system are shown in figure (e).
 The interconnection of the nodes with branches that represent
the subsystem is shown in figure (f).

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Cont..

Example 1:
Convert the block diagram into a signal flow
graph

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Cont..
If desired, simplify the signal-flow graph to the one
shown in Figure (c) by eliminating signals that have a
single flow in and a single flow out, such as V2(s), V6(s),
V7(s), and V8(s).

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Cont..
Example 2:
Consider the signal flow graph below and identify the
following

a) Input node.
b) Output node.
c) Forward paths.
d) Feedback paths.
e) Self loop.
f) Determine the loop gains of the feedback
loops.
g) Determine the path gains of the forward
paths.
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Cont..

Soln.

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 Mason’s Rule (Mason, 1953)

 The block diagram reduction technique requires

successive application of fundamental relationships in
order to arrive at the system transfer function.
 On the other hand, Mason’s rule for reducing a signal-
flow graph to a single transfer function requires the
application of one formula.
 The formula was derived by S. J. Mason when he related
the signal-flow graph to the simultaneous equations
that can be written from the graph.

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 Cont..
Mason’s Rule:
The transfer function, T = C(s)/R(s), of a system
represented by a signal-flow graph is;

Where
n = number of forward paths.
Pi = the i th forward-path gain.
∆ = 1 - ∑Pj1 + ∑Pj2 - ∑Pj3 +…..
= 1 - ∑ loop gains + ∑ gain products of two non-
touching loops - ∑ gain products of three non-
touching loops + . . .
∆i = ∆ - ∑ loop gain terms in ∆ that touch the i th
forward path: In other words;
∆i is formed by eliminating from ∆ those loop gains
that touch the i th forward path.
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Cont..
 Two loops, paths, or loop and a path are said to
be non-touching if they have no nodes in
common.
 ∆ is called the signal flow graph determinant or
characteristic function. Since ∆=0 is the system
characteristic equation.

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 Cont..
Loop gains

Loop gain – total gain (product of individual gains)

around
any path in the signal flow graph
 Beginning and ending at the same node
 Not passing through any node more than once
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Cont..
 Here, there are three loops with the following
gains:

 Forward path gain – gain along any path from

the input to the output
 Not passing through any node more than once
 Here, there are two forward paths with the
following gains:

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 Cont..
 Non‐touching loops – loops that do not have any
nodes in common
 Here:

 Non‐touching loop gains – the product of loop

gains from non‐touching loops, taken two, three,
four, or more at a time
 Here, there are only two pairs of non‐touching
loops

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Cont..
Alternatively

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Cont..

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Cont..

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Cont..

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Cont..

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Cont..

Example 2

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Cont..

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 Home Work

Q1.
Determine the control ratio C/R and the canonical
block diagram of the feedback control system

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 Cont..
Q2.
Apply Mason’s rule to determine the value of
C(s)/R(s)
G9
-H2

G1 G2 G3 G5 G6 G7 G8
G4
R(s) C(s)

-H4
-H5
-H1

-H3

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The End

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 Mathematical Modelling of Control System
 In studying control systems one must be able to

model dynamic systems in mathematical terms and

analyze their dynamic characteristics.
 A mathematical model of a dynamic system is

defined as a set of equations that represents the

dynamics of the system accurately, or at least fairly
well. Note that, a mathematical model is not unique
to a given system. A system may be represented in
many different ways and, therefore, may have many
mathematical models, depending on one’s
perspective.
 The dynamics of many systems, whether they are

mechanical, electrical, thermal, economic, biological,

and so on, may be described in terms of
differential equations. Such differential equations
may be obtained by using Prepared
physical laws
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Cont..
In mathematics, a differential equation is an equation
that relates one or more functions and their
derivatives. In applications, the functions generally
represent physical quantities, the derivatives
represent their rates of change, and the differential
equation defines a relationship between the two
 In control system design the most common
mathematical models of the behavior of interest are,
in:
 the time domain,
 linear ordinary differential equations with constant
coefficients, and in the
 frequency or transform domain, transfer functions
obtained from time domain descriptions via
Laplace transforms.
 The response of dynamic system to an input may be
obtained if these differential equations are solved.
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Cont..

For example; Newton’s laws for mechanical

systems and Kirchhoff’s laws for electrical systems.
We must always keep in mind that deriving
reasonable mathematical models is the most
important part of the entire analysis of control
systems.

Model
A model is a simplified representation or abstraction
of reality. Reality is generally too complex to model
exactly.

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Cont..

Mathematical Model
A set of mathematical equations (e.g., differential
eqs.) that describes the input-output behavior of a
system.
It is used in:
 Simulation
 Prediction/Forecasting
 Prognostics/Diagnostics
 Design/Performance Evaluation
 Control System Design

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 Cont..
Black Box Model
 When only input and output are known.
 Internal dynamics are either too complex or
unknown.
Easy to Model
Input Output

Grey Box Model

When input and output
u(t) y(t)
and some information
y[u(t), t]
about the internal
dynamics of the system
is known.
Easier than white box
Modelling.
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Cont..
White Box Model
When input and output and internal dynamics of the
system is known.

2
𝑑𝑦 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑢(𝑡) 𝑑 𝑦 (𝑡)
u(t) =3 − y(t)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2

One should know complete knowledge of the

system to derive a white box model.

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Cont..
In control system engineering, one can derive
mathematical models for
 Electrical systems
 Mechanical systems
 Electromechanical system
 Electronic circuits
It can be in:
 Time domain/frequency domain
 Laplace transformation
 z- transformation
 State space equation
It can be in:
Distributed / Lumped
 Continuous / Discrete
 Linear / Nonlinear
 Time-variant / Time-invariant
 Stochastic / Deterministic
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Cont..
Time Domain and Laplace
Transformation
 In time-domain analysis the response of a
dynamic system to an input is expressed as a
function of time.
 It is possible to compute the time response of a
system if the nature of input and the
mathematical model of the system are known.
 Usually, the input signals to control systems are
not known fully ahead of time.
 It is therefore difficult to express the actual input
signals mathematically by simple equations.
 The characteristics of actual input signals are a
sudden shock, a sudden change, a constant
velocity, and constant acceleration.
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Cont..
 The dynamic behavior of a system is therefore
judged and compared under application of
standard test signals – an impulse, a step, a
constant velocity, and constant acceleration.
 The other standard signal of great importance is
a sinusoidal signal.

 Time domain analysis examines the amplitude Vs

time characteristic of measuring signal

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Cont..

Frequency Domain Analysis

Frequency domain analysis replaces the measured
signal with a group of sinusoidal which when added
together, produces a waveform equivalent to the
original signal. The relative amplitude, frequencies,
and phases of the sinusoidal are examined

 In time-domain analysis the response of a dynamic

system to an input is expressed as a function of
time c(t)
 It is possible to compute the time response of a

system if the nature of input and the mathematical

model of the system are known

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Cont..
 The time response of a system can be obtained by
solving the differential equation governing the system
 Alternatively, the response c(t) can be obtained from
the transfer function of the system and the input to
the system
 For closed loop transfer function,
𝐶 (𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠)
=
𝑅(𝑠) 1+𝐺(𝑠) 𝐻 (𝑠)
Response in s-domain, (Laplace transformation)
C(s) = R(s)*M(s)
Response in t-domain, (time domain)
c(t)= inverse Lap[C(s)]

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Cont..
Time Domain Specification
 For specifying the desired performance
characteristics of a measurement system
 These characteristics of a system of any order

may be specified in terms of transient response

to a unit step input signal
 The response of a second order system for a unit

input is, 𝜔
2
𝐶 ( 𝑠) 𝑛
= 2
𝑅( 𝑠) 𝑠 +2 𝜔 𝑛 𝑠 +𝜔 𝑛2

i. Peak overshoot
ii. Settling time
iii. Steady state error
Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 79
Cont..

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 80

Cont..
 Settling time: The time taken for a measuring
or control instrument to get within a certain
distance of a new equilibrium value without
subsequently deviating from it by that amount
 Rise time: The time required for a pulse to rise

from 10 per cent to 90 per cent of its steady

value
 The delay time is the time required for the

response to reach half the final value the very

first time.
 The peak time is the time required for the

response to reach the first peak of the overshoot.

 Steady state error: If the output of a control

system at steady state does not exactly match

with the input, the system is said to have steady
Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 81
 Cont..
Standard Test Signals
 Impulse signal
δ(t)
– The impulse signal
imitate the sudden
shock characteristic of
actual input signal.

{
A

𝛿(𝑡)= ¿ 𝐴 𝑡=0
¿0 𝑡≠0

– If A=1, the impulse t

0
signal is called unit
impulse signal.

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 82

 Cont..

 Step signal
– The step signal imitate u(t)
the sudden change
characteristic of actual
input signal.
A

{
𝑢(𝑡 )= ¿ 𝐴
¿0
𝑡≥0
𝑡<0
– If A=1, the step signal t
0
is called unit step
signal

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 83

Cont..

 Ramp signal
– The ramp signal r(t)
imitate the constant
velocity
characteristic of
actual input signal.

{
𝑟 (𝑡)= ¿ 𝐴𝑡
¿0
𝑡≥0
𝑡<0
t
0

– If A=1, the ramp

signal is called unit
ramp signal
Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 84
Cont..
 Parabolic signal
– The parabolic signal
imitate the constant
acceleration characteristic
of actual input signal. p(t)

{
2
𝐴𝑡
𝑝(𝑡)= ¿ 2 𝑡≥0
¿0 𝑡<0
t
– If A=1, the parabolic 0
signal is called unit
parabolic signal.

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 85

Cont..
Laplace Transform of Test Signals

 Impulse
𝛿(𝑡)={¿ 𝐴
¿0
𝑡=0
𝑡≠0
𝐿{ 𝛿(𝑡)}=𝛿(𝑠)= 𝐴

 Step
𝑢(𝑡 )= ¿
{𝐴
¿0
𝑡≥0
𝑡<0
𝐴
𝐿{𝑢(𝑡)}=𝑈 (𝑠)=
𝑆
Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 86
Cont..

{
 Ramp
𝑟 (𝑡)= ¿ 𝐴𝑡 𝑡≥0
¿0 𝑡<0
𝐴
𝐿{𝑟 (𝑡)}= 𝑅(𝑠)= 2
𝑠

{
2
𝐴𝑡
 Parabolic 𝑝(𝑡)= ¿ 2 𝑡≥0
¿0 𝑡<0
𝐴
𝐿{𝑝 (𝑡)}=𝑃 (𝑠)= 3
𝑆
Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 87
Cont..
Relationship between standard Test Signals

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 88

Cont..
Laplace Transforms for Various Time-Domain
Functions

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 89

Cont..
Time Response of Control Systems
 Time response of a dynamic system response to an
input expressed as a function of time.

System

 The time response of any system has two components

 Transient response
 Steady-state response

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 90

Cont..

 When the response of the system is changed from

equilibrium, it takes some time to settle down.
This is called transient response.
 The response of the system after the transient
responsex 10is called steady
-3 state response.
Step Response
6

Step Input
5

4
Response
Amplitude

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time (sec)

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 91

Cont..
 Transient response depend upon the system
poles only and not on the type of input.

 It is therefore sufficient to analyze the transient

response using a step input.

 The steady-state response depends on system

dynamics and the input quantity.

 It is then examined using different test signals by

final value theorem.

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 92

Cont..
Basic Elements of Electrical Systems

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 93

Cont..

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 94

Cont..

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 95

Cont..

V-I and I-V relations

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 96

 Cont..
Example 1
The two-port network shown in the following figure
has vi(t) as the input voltage and vo(t) as the output
voltage. Find the transfer function Vo(s)/Vi(s) of the
network. The answer should be in canonical form

vi( t) i(t) C vo(t)

Solution 1
𝑣 𝑖 ( 𝑡 )=𝑖(𝑡 ) 𝑅+ ∫ 𝑖(𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑡 1
𝑣 𝑜 (𝑡)= ∫ 𝑖(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝐶 𝐶
Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 97
Cont..
 Taking Laplace transform of both equations,
considering initial conditions to zero.
1 1
𝑉 𝑖 (𝑠)= 𝐼 ( 𝑠) 𝑅+ 𝐼 ( 𝑠) 𝑉 𝑜 (𝑠)= 𝐼 (𝑠)
𝐶𝑠 𝐶𝑠
 Re-arrange both equations as:

1
𝑉 𝑖 ( 𝑠)= 𝐼 ( 𝑠)( 𝑅+ ) 𝐶𝑠 𝑉 𝑜 (𝑠 )=𝐼 (𝑠)
𝐶𝑠
 Substitute I(s) in equation on left

1
𝑉 𝑖 (𝑠)=𝐶𝑠𝑉 𝑜 (𝑠)(𝑅 + )
𝐶𝑠
𝑉 𝑜 (𝑠) 1 𝑉 𝑜 (𝑠)
= 1
𝑉 𝑖 (𝑠) 1 =
𝐶𝑠( 𝑅+ ) 𝑉 𝑖 (𝑠) 1+ 𝑅𝐶𝑠
𝐶𝑠
Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 98
Example 2
Find the transfer functions of the RLC –
circuit below in Laplace transform, ie
The answer should be in canonical form

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 99

Cont..

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 10

0
Cont..

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 10

1
Cont..

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 10

2
Cont..

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 10

3
Cont..
A state-space model is a mathematical
representation of a physical system as a set of
input, output, and state variables related by first-
order differential equations. The state variables
define the values of the output variables.

 State
It is a group of variables, which summarizes the
history of the system in order to predict the future
values (outputs).

 State Variable
The number of the state variables required is equal
to the number of the storage elements present in
the system. Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 104
Cont..
The state space model of Linear Time-Invariant (LTI)
system can be represented as:

The first and second equations are known as state

equation and output equation respectively

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 105

Cont..
Example 3
Write the state space equation models for the RLC
– circuit below:
R1 L1 L2
1k 1uH 1uH

+
Vs1 C1 R2
e(t) 10V 1uF 1k
-

Solution
The state space equations of the network are
obtained by writing the voltages across the inductors
and the currents in the capacitor in terms of the three
state variables as there are two inductors and one
capacitor. The state equations are:

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 106

Cont..
…..(1)

………(3)
𝐶 1= 𝑒𝑐
𝑑 𝑖 1 (𝑡 )
𝐿1 =− 𝑅 1 𝑖1 (𝑡 ) −𝑒 𝑐 (𝑡 )+𝑒(𝑡 )
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑖2 (𝑡 )
𝐿2 =− 𝑅2 𝑖 2 (𝑡 )+𝑒 𝑐 (𝑡 )
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑒 𝑐 (𝑡 )
𝐶 =𝑖1 (𝑡 ) − 𝑖 2 (𝑡 )
𝑑𝑡
Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 107
Cont..

In vector - matrix form

[ ][ ]
𝑑 𝑖1 (𝑡 ) − 𝑅1 1

[ ][ ]
¿ ¿ 0−
𝑑𝑡 𝐿1 𝐿1 1
¿ 𝑥1 ¿
𝑑 𝑖2 (𝑡 ) 𝑅2 1 𝐿1 𝑒
¿ = ¿0− ¿ 𝑥2 +
𝑑𝑡 𝐿2 𝐿2 ¿0
¿ 𝑥3
𝑑 𝑒 𝑐 (𝑡 ) 1 1 ¿0
¿ ¿ − 0
𝑑𝑡 𝐶 𝐶

𝑥1=𝑖1(𝑡)
Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 10
8
Example 4
Find a state-space representation of the system shown
below if the output is the current through the resistor

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 10

9
Cont..
Solution
Step 1: select the state variables: write the
derivative equation for the energy-storage
elements (L and C) and choose the differentiated
quantities as the state variables (VC and iL)

Step 2: write the right hand side of step 1 and the

output as linear combination of the state variables
and the input

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 110

Cont..
State space equation become

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 111

Cont..
Output equation

Step 3: obtain state space representation in

vector –matric form

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 11

2
Cont..
State Space Model from Transfer
Function

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 113

Cont..

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 114

Cont..

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 11

5
Cont..
Example 5

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 116

 Cont..

Private study

Transfer function having polynomial function of ‘s’ in

Numerator
Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 117
Home Work
1. Find the transfer functions in Laplace
𝑖2 (𝑡 )below i.e ,
transform of the RLC - circuit
𝑒 (𝑡 )

Answer should be in canonical form;

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 11

8
Cont..

2. Obtain the state space representation in matrix

form for the system below, where y is the output
and u is the input to the system.

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 119

The End

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 120

Transient & Steady State Response Analysis

Transient response
From initial state to the final state – purpose of
control systems is to provide a desired response.

Steady-state response
The manner in which the system output behaves
as t approaches infinity – the error after the
transient response has decayed, leaving only
the continuous response.

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 121

Cont..

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 122

Cont..
First – Order System

A first-order system without zeros can be

represented by the following transfer function
𝐶(𝑠) 1
=
𝑅(𝑠) 𝜏 𝑠+1
Given a step input, i.e., R(s) = 1/s , then the
system output (called step response in this
case) is
1 1 1 1
𝐶 ( 𝑠)= 𝑅 ( 𝑠)= = −
𝜏 𝑠 +1 𝑠(𝜏 𝑠 +1) 𝑠 1
𝑠+
𝜏
Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 123
 Cont..
Taking inverse Laplace transform, we have the step
response 𝑡
−
𝜏
𝑐 (𝑡)=1− 𝑒
𝜏 , So the step response is
Time Constant:If t=
C(t) = (1− 0.37) = 0.63
𝜏 is referred to as the time constant of the
response. In other words, the time constant is the
time it takes for the step response to rise to 63% of
its final value. Because of this, the time constant is
used to measure how fast a system can respond.
The time constant has a unit of seconds.
Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 12
4
 Cont..
Plot c(t) versus time:

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 125

 Cont..

First – Order System - Transient

Response Analysis
Rise Time Tr:
The rise-time (symbol Tr units s) is defined as the
time taken for the step response to go from 10%
to 90% of the final value.
𝑇 𝑟 =2.31 𝜏 − 0.11 𝜏=2.2 𝜏
Settling Time Ts:
Defined the settling-time (symbol Ts units s) to be
the time taken for the step response to come to
within 2% of the final value of the step
response.
𝑇 𝑠 =4 𝜏
Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 126
Cont..
Second – Order System
 Second-order systems exhibit a wide range
of responses which must be analyzed and
described.
 Whereas for a first-order system, varying a
single parameter changes the speed of
response, while changing the parameters
of a second order system can change the
form of the response.

 For example: a second-order system can

display
characteristics much like a first-order system
or, depending on component values, display
Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 12
7
Cont..
A general second-order system is characterized
by the following transfer function:

We can re-write the above transfer function in the

following form (closed loop transfer function):

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 128

 Cont..
- referred to as the un-damped
natural frequency of the second
order system, which is the frequency
of oscillation of the system without
damping
- referred to as the damping ratio
of the second order system, which is
a measure of the degree of
resistance to change in the system
output.

Poles; Poles are complex if ζ< 1!

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 129

Cont..
- According the value of ζ, a second-order
system can be set into one of the four
categories:
 Overdamped - when the system has two real
distinct poles (ζ >1).

 Underdamped - when the system has two

complex conjugate poles (0 <ζ <1)

 Undamped - when the system has two

imaginary poles (ζ = 0).

 Critically damped - when the system has

two real but equal poles (ζ = 1).
Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 130
 Cont..
For transient response, there are 4
specifications 𝜋−𝜃
(a) Tr – rise time =𝜔 1 −𝜍 2
𝑛 √
𝜋
(b) Tp – peak time =
𝜔 𝑛 √ 1 −𝜍 2
𝜋𝜍
(c) %MP – percentage maximum overshoot =
−
√ 1 −𝜍 2
𝑒 𝑥 100%
𝐶max − 𝐶𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙
% 𝑂𝑆= 𝑥 100
𝐶𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙
4
(d) Ts – settling time (2% error) =
𝜍 𝜔𝑛
For a Steady State Response
Steady State error
Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 131
Cont..
Example 1
Find the natural frequency and damping ratio
for the system with transfer function
36
𝐺 (𝑠)= 2
𝑠 +4.2 𝑠+36
Solutio
n:
Compare with general TF

ωn= 6
ξ =0.35

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 132

Cont..
Example 2
Given the transfer function (underdamped ):

find Ts , %OS , T p

Solution:
𝜔 𝑛 =10 𝜉 =0.75

𝑇 𝑠 =0.533 𝑠,% 𝑂𝑆=2.838%,𝑇 𝑝 =0.475 𝑠

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 133

 Cont..
Over-damped Response

9 9
𝐶 ( 𝑠)= =
𝑠 (𝑠 +9 𝑠+ 9) 𝑠( 𝑠 +7.854)( 𝑠+ 1.146)
2

s= 0; s = -7.854; s = -1.146 ( two real poles)

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 134

Cont..
Under-damped
Response

𝟎< 𝛏<𝟏
s = 0; s = -1.5 ± j2.598 ( two complex poles)

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 13

5
Cont..

Undamped
Response

𝜉 =0
s = 0; s = ± j3 ( two imaginary poles)

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 13

6
Cont..

Critically Damped
System

S = 0; s = -3,-3 ( two real and equal poles)

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 137

Cont..

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 138

Cont..
H/W
Describe the nature of the second-order
system response via the value of the
damping ratio for the systems with transfer
function 12
1. 𝐺( 𝑠)= 2
𝑠 + 8 𝑠 +12
16
2. 𝐺( 𝑠)= 2
𝑠 + 8 𝑠 +16
20
3. 𝐺( 𝑠)= 2
𝑠 + 8 𝑠 +20

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 13

9
Cont..

Steady State Error

The deviation of the output of control system
from desired response during steady state is
known as steady state error. It is
represented as eSS

We can find steady state error using the final

value theorem as follows.

Where,
E(s) is the Laplace transform of the error
signal, e(t)
Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 140
 Cont..

For unity feedback systems error is the input of

the feedforward block:

Where:
R(s) is the Laplace transform of the reference Input
signal r(t)
C(s) is the Laplace transform of the output signal c(t)

We know the transfer

function of the unity
negative feedback closed
loop control system as
Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 141
Cont..
The output of the summing point is:

Substitute C(s) value in the above

equation.

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 142

Cont..
Substitute E(s) value in the steady state error
formula

Where, Kp, Kv and Ka are position error constant,

velocity error constant and acceleration error
constant respectively. Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 143
Cont..
Example 1:
Consider the system in the following figure;

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 144

Cont..

Example 2:
Consider the system in the following figure

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 145

The End

Prepared by Vicent V.M., MSc. 146