Joints, Movement and Muscles

AN 201
 Objectives
• To define arthrology and a joint
• Be able to classify joints and function
• Define and describe fibrous and cartilagenous joints.
• Describe the general features of a synovial joint, and explain
their function.
• List and give examples of six types of synovial joints.
• To relate the importance of the knowledge of joints clinically
• Define and give examples of various types of movements in
the body.
• Describe the factors that influence range of motion
 Arthrology
• is the study of joints, their
structure, function and
dysfunction.
• A joint is a junction between
two bone surfaces.
 Function
• Joints are constructed to allow
– movement appendicular skeleton
– to provide mechanical support (protection) axial
skeleton
– mediation of specialised function e.g ear bones
for hearing , larynx for speech.
 Classification of joints
• They are classified;
– structurally is determined by how the bones
connect to each other
– functionally determined by the degree of
movement between the articulating bones
 Structural classification
• Names of joints are according to the type of
binding tissue that connects the bones to each
other.
– Fibrous joints
– Cartilagenous joints
– Synovial joints.
 Structural classification cont…

• Fibrous joint - joined by dense irregular

connective tissue that is rich in collagen fibers

• Cartilagenous joint - joined by cartilage

• Synovial joint - not directly joined

– the bones have a synovial cavity
– united by the dense irregular connective tissue
that forms the articular capsule
 Cont…
• In the freely movable joints the surfaces are
completely separated
• bones forming articulation are expanded for
greater convenience of mutual connection,
• covered by cartilage and
• enveloped by capsules of fibrous tissue.
 Cont…
• The cells lining the interior of the fibrous
capsule form an imperfect membrane called
the synovial membrane which secretes a
lubricating fluid = synovial fluid.
• The joints are strengthened by strong fibrous
bands called ligaments, which extend
between the bones forming the joint.
Functional classification (movement)
• According to the type and degree of movement they
allow
• Synarthrosis no appreciable motion
– include all articulations in which the surfaces of the bones
are in almost direct contact, fastened together by
intervening connective tissue or hyaline cartilage,
e.g
– Suture immobile fibrous joint btn cranial or facial bones
– Gomphosis insertion of a tooth into a socket, held in place
by collagen fibers of periodontal ligament
– Syndesmoses slightly movable joint held together by
ligaments or interosseous membranes e.g., tibiofibular
joint and radioulnar joint.
 Synarthroses / fibrous joints
Sutures Syndesmoses
 Functional classification cont..
• Amphiarthrosis permits slight mobility.
• Synchondrosis bones held together by hyaline
cartilage.
– e.g articulation of 1st rib with sternum,
– epiphyseal plate uniting the epiphysis and
diaphysis of a long bone of a child
• Symphysis held together by fibrocartilage
– e.g. intervertebral discs and pubic symphysis
Amphiarthroses/ cartilagenous joints

Intervertebral
disc

Symphysis jt
 Cont…
• Diarthrosis are freely movable.
– Adjacent bones covered with hyaline articular cartilage,
– separated by a cavity containing lubricating synovial fluid
– enclosed in a fibrous joint capsule
– some have articulating disc
• Cartilages
– absorb shock and pressure,
– guide the bones across each other,
– improve the fit btn the bones,
– stabilize the joint, reducing the chance of dislocation
Synovial joint
 Features of a synovial joint
• Accessory structures
associated with a synovial joint
include
– tendons, ligaments, and
bursae.
– important structures in
stabilizing a joint
• A tendon is a strip or sheet of
tough collagenous CT that
attaches a muscle to a bone.
• A ligament is a similar tissue
that attaches one bone to
 Cont…
• A bursa is a fibrous sac filled
with synovial fluid,
– located btn adjacent muscles,
– btn bone and skin, or
– where a tendon passes over a
bone
• Bursa cushion muscles, help
tendons slide more easily
over the joints
 6 Classes of synovial joints
• Distinguished by patterns of motion
– Monoaxial move in one plane,
– Biaxial two plane
– Multiaxial more than 2 planes

• According to the number and shapes of the articular

surfaces:
– flat
– concave
– convex surfaces
 1.Ball-and-socket joints
shoulder and hip joints.
• one bone (the humerus or
femur) has a smooth
hemispherical head
• that fits into a cuplike
socket on the other (the
glenoid cavity of the
scapula or the acetabulum
of the hip bone).
 2.Condylar (ellipsoid) joints
• Exhibit an oval convex
surface on one bone
that fits into a shaped
depression on the
other.
• E.g radiocarpal joint of
the wrist and
• metacarpophalangeal
joints at the bases of
the fingers.
 3. Saddle joints
• have a saddle-shaped
• surface—concave in
one direction and
convex in the other
• Saddle joints are also
biaxial.
• E.g thumb,
sternoclavicular joint
 4. Plane (gliding) joints
• bone surfaces are flat or only
slightly concave and convex.
• adjacent bones slide over
each other and
• have relatively limited
movement.
– E.g carpal bones of the wrist
– tarsal bones of the ankle
– articular processes of the
vertebrae.
• usually biaxial
 5. Hinge joints
• essentially monoaxial
joints,
• moving freely in one plane
with very little movement
in any otherlike a door
hinge.
• E.g elbow, knee &
interphalangeal (finger and
toe) joints.
 6. Pivot joints
• monaxial joints
• bone spins on its longitudinal axis.
• 2 principal examples
– radioulnar joint at the elbow
– atlantoaxial joint btn the first two vertebrae.
• At the atlantoaxial joint, the dens of the axis projects into
the vertebral foramen of the atlas
• is held against its anterior arch by the transverse ligament
• As the head rotates left and right, the skull and atlas pivot
around the dens.
Cont….

Atlantoaxial jt
 Pivot cont…
• At the radioulnar joint, the
anular ligament of the ulna
wraps around the neck of the
radius

Radio-ulnar jt
 Monoaxial (Uniaxial)
• There are two varieties in which the
movement is uniaxial, that is to say, all
movements take place around one axis.
– In one form, the axis is transverse;
– in the other, the pivot-joint, it is longitudinal
 Biaxial
• There are two varieties where the movement
is biaxial, or
– around two horizontal axes at right angles to each
other, or
– at any intervening axis between the two.
 Multiaxial (polyaxial)
• These are the condyloid and the saddle-joint.
– the ball-and-socket joint; and
– Allows a wider range of movements
 Movements of joints

• Movement is best described in relation to the anatomical

position:
– movement away from the anatomical position
– movement returning a structure toward the anatomical
position
• may be divided into four kinds:
– gliding
– angular movements,
– circular,
– rotation.
• These movements are often more or less combined in the
various joints, so as to produce an infinite variety.
 4 kinds of movement
• Gliding movement occur in plane joints btn two flat
or nearly flat surfaces where the surfaces slide or glide
over each other
• Angular movements, in which one part of a linear
structure, such as the body as a whole or a limb is bent
relative to another part of the structure, thereby
changing the angle btn the two parts
• Circular movement, involve the rotation of a structure
around an axis or movement of the structure in an arc.
• Rotation movement is the turning of a structure
around its long axis
 Movements of synovial joints
• Flexion (forward, • Pronation & supination
lateral) & extension • Dorsiflection &
• Abduction & adduction planterflection
• Elevation & depression • Rotation (internal /
• Protraction & retraction external)
• Circumduction • Radial / ulnar deviation
• Opposition
Movements
Cont….
 Joint stability
• 3 Factors determines Joint
Stability:
– Strength of Muscles, Tendons
– Ligaments & joint capsule
– structures of articular Surfaces
Cont…
 Clinical application

• A joint disorder is termed an arthropathy

• when involving inflammation of one or more joints the disorder is
called arthritis. Varies types;
• Osteoarthritis (also known as degenerative joint disease)
– cause trauma to the joint,
– an infection or
– simply as a result of aging.
• Septic arthritis is caused by joint infection
• Gouty arthritis is caused by deposition of uric acid crystals in the
joint that results in subsequent inflammation
• Rheumatoid arthritis and psoriatic arthritis, which are autoimmune
diseases in which the body is attacking itself
 Application cont…
• Joint dislocations due to excessive force
exerted to the joint
• Fracture –dislocation
• Sublaxation
• Strains / sprains
• Synovitis
• Bursitis
 Muscles
• Are machines for converting chemical energy
into mechanical work.
• Assemblies of contractile muscle cells
myocytes
• The forces generated move limbs, inflate the
lungs, pump blood, close and open tubes, etc.
• In man, muscle tissue constitutes 40–50% of
the body mass.
• muscle is made up of proteins and water
 Cont…
• There are more than 650 muscles in the
human body.
• Most of these muscles are attached to the
bones of the skeleton by tendons,
• although a few muscles are attached to the
undersurface of the skin
 Function of a muscle
• The primary function of the muscular system
is to
– move the skeleton.
– produce heat, which contributes to the
maintenance of a constant body temperature.
– maintain posture
 Muscle arrangements
• Muscles are arranged around the skeleton so
as to bring about a variety of movements.
• The general types of arrangements are
– Agonist muscle causing an action when it
contracts
– opposing antagonists
– the cooperative synergists.
 Antagonists
• Antagonists are opponents
• the term antagonistic muscles for muscles that
have opposing or opposite functions
• E.g biceps contraction flexes the forearm,
triceps contraction and pulls, it extends the
forearm
 Synergistic Muscles
• Synergistic muscles are those with the same
function or those that work together to
perform a particular function
– E.g biceps brachii and brachioradialis both flexes
the forearm.
• Muscles may also be called synergists if they
help to stabilize or steady a joint to make a
more precise movement possible.
– E.g shoulder muscles
 Types of Muscle Contractions
• Isometric – length of muscle doesn't
change, but tension increases.
• Isotonic – length of muscle changes
Concentric – tension in muscle is great
enough to overcome opposing resistance and
muscle shortens.
Eccentric – tension in muscle stays
constant, but opposing resistance is great enough
to cause muscle to increase in length.
 Classification of Muscle
• Muscle cells (fibres) are also known as myocytes
• the prefixes myo- and sarco- are frequently used
in naming structures associated with muscle.
• They differentiate along one of three main
pathways to form
– skeletal,
– cardiac
– smooth muscles
3 Types of Muscles
 Skeletal muscle
• forms the bulk of the muscular tissue of the body
• consists of parallel bundles of long, multinucleate
fibres.
• capable of powerful contractions.
• attached to bones hence the name skeletal muscle
• innervated by somatic motor nerves.
• also referred to as voluntary muscle,
• initiated under conscious control.
• produce a significant amount of heat, help maintain
the body’s constant temperature.
Cont..
 Cont..

• An entire skeletal muscle is enclosed within a

thick layer of dense connective tissue called
the epimysium that
• is continuous with fascia and the tendon
binding muscle to bone.
• Large muscles contain several fascicles of
muscle tissue,
• each wrapped in a thin but dense connective
tissue layer called the perimysium.
 Cont…
• Within fascicles individual muscle fibers (elongated
multinuclear cells) are
• surrounded by a delicate connective tissue layer,
the endomysium.
Summary
• Epimysium – dense connective tissue sheath
surrounding the entire muscle.
• Perimysium – connective tissue covering bundles of
muscle fibres called fascicles.
• Endomysium – loose connective tissue composed of
reticular fibres supporting individual muscle fibre
 Organization Within Muscle Fibers

• skeletal muscle fibers show cross striations of alternating

light and dark bands
• dark bands are called A bands (anisotropic or birefringent in
polarized light microscopy);
• light bands are called I bands (isotropic, do not alter polarized
light).
• each I band is seen to be bisected by a dark transverse line,
the Z disc (Ger. zwischen, between).
• functional subunit of the contractile apparatus is sarcomere,
• extends from Z disc to Z disc
• is about 2.5 μm long in resting muscle.
 Cont..

• The A and I banding pattern in sarcomeres is

due mainly to the regular arrangement of
thick and thin myofilaments,
• composed of myosin and F-actin,
 Cardiac muscle

• Cardiac muscle is found only in the heart,

• and in the walls of large veins where they enter the
heart.
• It consists of a branching network of individual cells
that are linked to function as a unit.
• Compared with skeletal muscle less powerful
• more resistant to fatigue.
• rhythmic contraction
• rate and strength is responsive to hormonal and
autonomic nervous control
 Smooth muscle
• Smooth muscle is found in all systems of the
body,
– in the walls of the viscera, including most of the
gastrointestinal, respiratory, urinary and
reproductive tracts, in the tunica media of blood
vessels etc.
• Smooth muscle contains actin and myosin, but
they are not organized into repeating units,
and its microscopic appearance is unstriated
(smooth).
 Cont…
• capable of slow but sustained contractions
• is less powerful than striated muscle,
• smooth muscle cell excited in several ways,
mostly by an autonomic nerve fibre, a blood-
borne neurohormone, or
• referred to as involuntary muscle.
 Muscle Shapes
Grouped according to fasciculi [bundle of muscle fibers- bound
by connective tissue]
Pennate – fasciculi arranged like barbs of feather
• Unipennate, Bipennate, Multipennate
Parallel – fasciculi arranged parallel to long axis of muscle
Convergent- base is much wider than insertion triangular shape
Circular –fasciculi arranged in circle around an opening
sphincters
Cont…
 Shapes of Muscles

• Triangular shoulder, neck

• Spindle arms, legs
• Flat diaphragm, forehead
• Circular mouth, anus
 MUSCLE SENSE
• When you walk up a flight of stairs, do you
have to look at your feet to be sure each will
get to the next step?
• Muscle sense (proprioception) is the brain’s
ability to know where our muscles are and
what they are doing, without our having to
consciously look at them.
 Muscle Spindles & Tendon Organs

• muscle fascicles have stretch

detectors known as muscle spindles
or proprioceptors
• providing the CNS with data from the
musculoskeletal system
• Tendon organs detect changes in
tension within tendons produced by
muscle contraction and act to inhibit
motor nerve activity if tension
becomes excessive.
 Cont…
• function to detect changes in the length of a muscle as it is
stretched
• Tendon organs detect changes in tension within tendons
produced by muscle contraction and act to inhibit motor
nerve activity if tension becomes excessive
• they help regulate the amount of effort required to
perform movements
• The impulses for muscle sense are integrated in the
parietal lobes of the cerebrum (conscious muscle sense)
and
• in the cerebellum (unconscious muscle sense) to be used
to promote coordination.
 How are Muscles Attached to Bone?
• Origin-attachment to a movable bone
• Insertion- attachment to an immovable
bone
• Muscles are always attached to at least 2
points
• Movement is attained due to a muscle
moving an attached bone
 Types of Responses
• Twitch-
– A single brief contraction
– Not a normal muscle function
• Tetanus
– One contraction immediately followed by
another
– Muscle never completely returns to a relaxed
state
– Effects are compounded
Where Does the Energy Come From?

• Energy is stored in the muscles in the form

of ATP
• ATP comes from the breakdown of glucose
during Cellular Respiration
• This all happens in the Mitochondria of the
cell
• When a muscle is fatigued (tired) it is
unable to contract because of lack of
Oxygen
 References
• Drake R (2009) Gray’s Anatomy for Students
2nd ed
• Agur Anne (2009) Grant’s Atlas of Anatomy
12th ed
• Valerie et.al (2007)Essentials of anatomy and
physiology 5th ed