Course Code: 9424

Course Name
QUANTITATIVE REASONING-I
UNIT 9
LOGICAL THINKING

Presented By
Naqash Mehmood
 Objectives

At the end of this unit students will be able to:

• Solve practical problems logically
• Survive in the modern world using logic
• Understand propositions and truth values
• Applications of logic
• Improve their ability to use quantitative reasoning in
decision-making
 Introduction
• The word “logic” has its roots in the Greek word “logos,”
which means reasoning. In essence, logical thinking refers
to the practice of sound reasoning or making good
arguments.
• Logical thinkers gather data, examine, evaluate, and
record events, responses, and feedback before making
judgments based on their findings.
• Based on the information they get, they may defend the
tactics, choices, and actions they choose.
 Inductive reasoning
• Inductive reasoning is a method of drawing
conclusions by going from the specific to the
general.
• Inductive reasoning is particularly useful in natural
sciences where we draw conclusions from
repeated experiments or observations. The
process of induction is helpful when we are
struggling to determine if a particular theorem or
mathematical rule applies.
 Deductive reasoning
We can draw conclusions based on well-established
facts or premises, which is known as deduction.
Mathematical proofs are based on deduction.
 Premises
• A premise in logic is a claim that may or may not be
true. It serves to bolster a case that logically draws
a conclusion that is either accurate or incorrect.
• A minimum of two declarative sentences, referred
to as premises, and one additional declarative
sentence, referred to as the conclusion, are
necessary for an argument. A simple argument
consists of one conclusion and two premises.
 Preposition
A proposition is a declarative sentence that is either true or
false (but not both). That is, a statement ends up having one
of two possible truth values: If a statement is true, we assign
it the truth value T. If a statement is false, we assign it the
truth value F.
For example, "Grass is green", and "2 + 5 = 5" are
propositions. The first proposition has the truth value of "true"
and the second "false".
 Truth table
A diagram in rows and columns showing how the truth or
falsity of a proposition varies with that of its components.
A truth table shows all the possible truth values for a set
of statements.
 Negation (Opposite)
• Negation is the logical antithesis of a
proposition.
• When a statement is represented by
a letter like “p “, the negation of that
proposition would be “not p “, which is
represented by “~p “). Since
negatives have the same structure as
a whole sentence, they can also be
true or untrue. A proposition’s
negation must be false (F) if it is true
(T), and vice versa.
 Double Negation

The negation “not” has the

same truth value as the
proposition, as has already
been demonstrated. This
indicates that, in terms of
truth value, the supplied
assertion and the double
negation “ not” are equal.
 Logical Connectors

• Logical connectors such as ‘and’, ‘or’, and ‘if...then’ are

frequently used to combine propositions.
• Let’s consider the following two propositions as an

𝑝 = The road was difficult 𝑞 = I reached early.

example:

If we join these propositions using ‘and’, the new

proposition would be “The road was difficult and I reached
early”. On the other hand, if we use ‘or’, the statement ld be
“ The road was difficult and I reached early “.
 Conjunction (And)
A conjunction is a sentence that uses the word “and” to
join two ideas together. The conjunction “p and q” stands

p and q are true, then the combination 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 is also true.

for “p and q” if p and q are two propositions. If both

Saying “the road was difficult, and I reached early” is only

true if the road really was difficult, and you did make it
there early.
 Truth table of conjunction

logical conjunction of 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞, we
To create a truth table for the

need to examine every possible

for 𝑝 and 𝑞 separately. Since

combination of truth values

each proposition can result in

either true or false, there are
four possible scenarios in total
(2 × 2 = 4). These four
scenarios are represented as
four rows in the truth table.
 Example
Islamabad is the capital of Pakistan, while Chennai is
the capital of India.
Here, we have two propositions. The first proposition is
true, as the capital of Pakistan is indeed Islamabad.
However, the second statement is false, as the capital of
India is not Chennai. Therefore, the conjunction of these
two statements is false.
Example: Triple Conjunction
 Disjunction (Or)
A disjunction is a compound sentence that employs the

disjunction “p or q” is represented by 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞. Since the

connective ‘or’. When two propositions, p and q, the

‘or’ is interpreted as inclusive, the disjunction 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 is

true. Conversely, a disjunction 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 is only untrue if

true if and only if each of the component propositions is

and only if each of the component propositions is

incorrect.
 Conditional (If …Then)

• A conditional proposition, also known as implication,

takes the form of “if p, then q”.
• The statement consists of two parts: the hypothesis
(p) and the conclusion (q). In all situations, except for
the case where p is true and q is false, the conditional
statement is considered true.
 Example: Conditional Truths

Evaluate the truth of the statement if 3 + 3 = 5, then 4 + 4 =

4.
Solution: “If p, then q” is stated, with p being “3+3=5” and q
being “4+4=4”. Given that both p and q are untrue. The
conditional sentence “if p then q” is therefore true
anytime p is false, independent of what q says, according to the
laws of logic. As a result, it is true that “if 3+3=5, then 4+4=4”.
 Converse, Inverse and Contrapositive

propositions is not important. For instance, “𝑝 and 𝑞” has

• When using a conjunction or disjunction, the order of the

the same meaning as “𝑞 and 𝑝”, and “𝑝 or 𝑞” is

equivalent to “𝑞 or 𝑝”. The reverse, on the other hand, is
a distinct assertion that results from rearranging the
propositions in a conditional statement.
• The definitions of the converse and two more forms of a
conditional statement “if p, then q” are compiled in the
table on next slide.
Truth table
 Logical Equivalence

• If the truth values of

two propositions are
the same, then they
are logically
comparable. In the
event that one is true,
the other must also be
true, and vice versa.
 Types of Compound Statements

• Tautology
• Absurdity or contradiction
• Contingency
 Tautology

A compound
statement that
holds true for all
possible values of
the propositions
involved in it is
called a tautology.
 Absurdity or contradiction

On the other hand, a

statement that is
always false is
called an absurdity
or a contradiction.
 Contingency
A statement that can either be true or false depending
on the integrity values of the ideas involved is known as
contingency.
ANY QUESTION???
THANK YOU