Text Book

Title: Data Communication and

Networking
Author: Behrouz A. Forouzan
Chapter 1
Introduction
 This chapter addresses four issues:

1.Data communications,

2.Networks, the internet, and

3.Protocols and standards

1-1 DATA COMMUNICATIONS
The term telecommunication means communication at a
distance.
The word data refers to information presented in whatever
form is agreed upon by the parties creating and using the
data.
Data communications are the exchange of data between
two devices via some form of transmission medium such
as a wire cable.

Topics discussed in this section:

 Components of a data communications system
 Data Flow
 Effectiveness of a data communications system
depends on four fundamental characteristics:

1.Delivery: Data must be received by the intended device

or user

2.Accuracy: deliver the data accurately. Data that have

been altered in transmission and left uncorrected are
unusable

3.Timeliness: Data delivered late are useless

4.Jitter: variation in the packet arrival time

Figure 1.1 Components of a data communication system
 Data Representation
Information today comes in different forms such as
– Text
• ASCII, UNICODE
– Numbers
• represented in bit patterns, not ASCII
– Images
• bits: matrix of pixels, size of the pixel depends on the
resolution
• E.g.: black and white can represent in 0 and 1 (one bit)
• Two bits (00 (black), 01(dark gray), 10 (light gray), 11(white)
• Color can be in combination of RGB and YCM (yellow, cyan,
magenta)
– Audio
• Different from text, it is continuous signal not discrete
– Video
 Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)
Simplex:
•unidirectional (Keyboards is a simplex device)
•use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one direction

Half-duplex
•each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time
•the entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each direction
•Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are both half-duplex
systems

Full-duplex
•both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously
•the link may contain two physically separate transmission paths,
•One for sending and the other for receiving;
•OR the capacity of the channel is divided between signals traveling
in both directions.

•telephone network is an example

1-2 NETWORKS

A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes)

connected by communication links.
A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device
capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by
other nodes on the network.
A link can be a cable, air, optical fiber, or any medium
which can transport a signal carrying information.

Topics discussed in this section:

 Network Criteria
 Physical Structures
 Categories of Networks
Network Criteria

• Performance
– Depends on Network Elements
– Measured in terms of Delay and Throughput

• Reliability
– Failure rate of network components
– Measured in terms of availability/robustness

• Security
– Data protection against corruption/loss of data due to:
– Errors
– Malicious users
Physical Structures

• Type of Connection
– Point to Point - single transmitter and receiver
– Multipoint - multiple recipients of single transmission

• Physical Topology
– Connection of devices
– Type of transmission - unicast, mulitcast, broadcast
Figure 1.3 Types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint
Figure 1.4 Categories of topology
Figure 1.5 A fully connected mesh topology (five devices)
 Mesh Topology
• Each device has a dedicated point-to-point link to
every other device

• we need n (n – 1) / 2 duplex-mode links

• n – 1 input/output (I/O) ports

• installation and reconnection are difficult

• hardware required to connect each can be

prohibitively expensive
Figure 1.6 A star topology connecting four stations
 Star Topology
• each device has a dedicated point-to-point link
only to a central controller, usually called a hub
– Hub (acts as an exchange)
• devices are not directly linked to one another
– less expensive than a mesh topology

• easy to install and reconfigure

• If one link fails, only that link is affected

• If the hub goes down, the whole system is dead

• star topology is used in local-area networks
(LANs)
Figure 1.7 A bus topology connecting three stations
 Bus Topology
• A bus topology is multipoint
– One long cable acts as a backbone to link
– ease of installation

• difficult reconnection and fault isolation

• Signal reflection at the taps can cause
degradation in quality

• a fault or break in the bus cable stops all

transmission
• Traditional Ethernet LANs can use a bus
topology
Figure 1.8 A ring topology connecting six stations
 Ring Topology
• a dedicated point-to-point connection
with only the two devices

• Repeater regenerates the bits and

passes them along

• easy to install and reconfigure

• unidirectional traffic can be a

disadvantage
Figure 1.9 A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus networks
Categories of Networks
• Distinguishing one type of network from
another is difficult and sometimes confusing
– size, geographical coverage, and ownership to make
this distinction
• Local Area Networks (LANs)
– Short distances
– Designed to provide local interconnectivity

• Wide Area Networks (WANs)

– Long distances
– Provide connectivity over large areas

• Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)

– Provide connectivity over areas such as a city, a campus
An isolated LAN in the past and today
 LAN
• Privately owned and connects some hosts in a
– single office, building, or campus

• Packet sent to its destination without sending it

to all other hosts using SMART SWITCH
– Allows more than one pair to communicate with
each other at the same time (different users)

• NO minimum or maximum number of hosts in a

LAN
• LANs today are connected to each other and to
WANs to create communication at a wider level
 Wide Area Network (WAN)
• WAN is also an interconnection of devices
capable of communication

• AN has a wider geographical span than LAN,

– spanning a town,
– a state,
– a country, or even the world
• A LAN interconnects hosts; a WAN
interconnects connecting devices such as
– switches,
– routers, or
– modems
 Cont’d
• A LAN is normally privately owned by the
organization;

• a WAN is normally created and run by

communication companies and leased by an
organization

• Two distinct examples of WANs today:

– point-to-point WANs and
– switched WANs
 Point to Point WAN
• It connects two communicating devices
through a transmission media (cable or
air)
 Switched WANs

• It is a combination of several point-to-point

WANs that are connected by switches
 Internetwork
• It is rare to see a LAN or a WAN in isolation

An internetwork made of two LANs and one point-to-point WAN

A heterogeneous network made of four WANs and three LANs
 Switching
• An internet is a switched network in
which a switch connects at least two
links together

• A switch needs to forward data from a

network to another network when
required

1.circuit-switched and
2.packet-switched networks
 Circuit-Switched Network
• a dedicated connection, called a
circuit, is always available between
the two end systems
– switch can only make it active or
inactive
 Packet-Switched Network
• communication between the two ends is done in
blocks of data called packets
• switches function for both storing and forwarding
– packet is an independent entity
 1-3 THE INTERNET

The Internet has revolutionized many aspects of our daily

lives.

It has affected the way we do business as well as the

way we spend our leisure time.

The Internet is a communication system that has

brought a wealth of information to our fingertips and
organized it for our use.
The Internet today
• backbones are large networks owned by some
communication companies
– It is connected through some complex switching systems,
called peering points

• Second level, there are smaller networks, called

provider networks, that use the services of the
backbones for a fee
– It is connected to backbones OR other provider networks

• Customer networks are networks at the edge of

the Internet that actually use the services

• Backbones and provider networks are also called

Internet Service Providers (ISPs).
– backbones are often referred to as international ISPs;
– the provider networks are national or regional ISPs.
Hierarchical organization of the Internet
 Accessing the Internet
• Needs to be physically connected to an
ISP
– normally done through a point-to-point
WAN

1.Using Telephone Networks

– Dial-up service (slow)
• modem that converts data to voice
– DSL Service
• allows the line to be used simultaneously for
voice and data communication
2. Using Cable Networks (fast)
– cable companies uses their cable
networks to provide the Internet
– depends on the total users

3. Using Wireless Networks

– Internet through a wireless WAN

4. Direct Connection to the Internet

– University creates an internetwork and
then connect the internetwork to the
Internet
 Internet History
• brief history makes it clear how the Internet
has evolved from a private network to a
global one in less than 40 years.

Early History
• telegraph and telephone networks, before
1960
– suitable for constant-rate communication
– the encoded message (telegraphy) or
– voice (telephony) could be exchanged
– A computer network able to handle bursty
data at variable rates
 Cont’d
Birth of Packet-Switched Networks
• Theory for bursty traffic: in 1961 at MIT

ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency)

ARPANET), a small network of connected
computers
– Computers from different manufacturers were able
to communicate with one another via a specialized
computer interface message processor (IMP)
– Software called the Network Control Protocol
(NCP) provided communication between the hosts
 Birth of the Internet
• Many problems to overcome
– diverse packet sizes,
– diverse interfaces, and
– diverse transmission rates, as well as differing
reliability requirements

• Cerf and Kahn devised the idea of a device

called a gateway (hardware to transfer
data from one network to another)
 TCP/IP
• protocols to achieve end-to-end delivery of data
• new version of NCP

• Split TCP into two protocols:

– Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
• responsible for higher level functions such as
segmentation, reassembly, and error detection
– Internet Protocol (IP)
• handle datagram routing while TCP would be

• In 1983, authorities abolished the original ARPANET

protocols,
– TCP/IP became the official protocol for the ARPANET
 Standards
• An Internet standard is a thoroughly
tested specification that is
– useful to and
– adhered to by those who work with the
Internet

Administration
– Various groups that coordinate Internet
issues have guided this growth and
development
Administration
• Internet Society (ISOC) is an international, nonprofit
organization formed in 1992 to provide support for
the Internet standards process
– Supporting other Internet administrative bodies
such as IAB, IETF, IRTF, and IANA

• Internet Architecture Board (IAB) is the technical

advisor to the ISOC
– oversee the continuing development of the TCP/IP
– Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
• protocols, routing, network management next
generation (IPng), and security
– the Internet Research Task Force (IRTF)
• Internet protocols, applications, architecture, and
technology
Protocols

A protocol is synonymous with rule.

It consists of a set of rules that govern data communications.

It determines what is communicated, how it is communicated and

when it is communicated.

The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics and timing

Topics discussed in this section:

 Syntax
 Semantics
 Timing
Elements of a Protocol

• Syntax
– Structure or format of the data
– Indicates how to read the bits - field delineation

• Semantics
– Interprets the meaning of the bits
– Knows which fields define what action

• Timing
– When data should be sent and
– What Speed at which data should be sent or speed at which it
is being received.