MEMORY

• The process of this memory has this process:-

ENCODING:- is the process of receiving
sensory input and transforming it into a code
that can be stored.
• STORAGE:- Is the process of actually putting
the coded information into memory.
• RETRIEVAL:- Is the process of gaining access
to the encoded, stored information when it is
to be used.
• There are three main ways in which information can be encoded
(changed):

• 1. Visual (picture)

• 2. Acoustic (sound)

• 3. Semantic (meaning)

• For example, how do you remember a telephone number you have

looked up in the phone book? If you can see it then you are using
visual coding, but if you are repeating it to yourself you are using
acoustic coding (by sound).
• Evidence suggests that this is the principle coding system in
short-term memory (STM) is acoustic coding. When a person
is presented with a list of numbers and letters, they will try to
hold them in STM by rehearsing them (verbally).
• Rehearsal is a verbal process regardless of whether the list of
items is presented acoustically (someone reads them out), or
visually (on a sheet of paper).

• The principle encoding system in long-term memory (LTM)

appears to be semantic coding (by meaning). However,
information in LTM can also be coded both visually and
acoustically.
• 2. Memory Storage
• This concerns the nature of memory stores, i.e., where the information
is stored, how long the memory lasts for (duration), how much can be
stored at any time (capacity) and what kind of information is held.
• The way we store information affects the way we retrieve it. T
• Most adults can store between 5 and 9 items in their short-term
memory.
• Miller (1956) put this idea forward and he called it the magic number
7.
• short-term memory capacity was 7 (plus or minus 2) items because it
only had a certain number of “slots” in which items could be stored.
• 3. Memory Retrieval
• This refers to getting information out storage.
• If we can’t remember something, it may be because we are
unable to retrieve it.
• When we are asked to retrieve something from memory,
the differences between STM and LTM become very clear.
• STM is stored and retrieved sequentially. For example, if a
group of participants are given a list of words to remember,
and then asked to recall the fourth word on the list,
participants go through the list in the order they heard it in
order to retrieve the information
• LTM is stored and retrieved by association. This is why you can
remember what you went upstairs for if you go back to the room
where you first thought about it.

• Organizing information can help aid retrieval. You can organize

information in sequences (such as alphabetically, by size or by
time).
• Imagine a patient being discharged from hospital whose
treatment involved taking various pills at various times, changing
their dressing and doing exercises.
• If the doctor gives these instructions in the order which they
must be carried out throughout the day (i.e., in the sequence of
time), this will help the patient remember them.
 TYPES OF MEMORY
• 1.Sensory Memory (SM) or immediate
memory
• 2.Short term memory (STM) or working
memory
• 3.Long term memory (LTM).
SENSORY MEMORY:_ This stores incoming
information in a sensory register which has
large capacity. Information in sensory register
lasts for a very short duration.
• Short term Memory: Holds a relatively small
amount of information, about seven items or
chunks, for a short period of 15-30 seconds.
This type of information stored consists of
sounds, images, words or sentences.
• This information can be transferred to long
term memory.
• (Diagram)
• Long Term Memory :-Has a unlimited
capacity to store information for days,
months, years and even a life time.
• Information may be lost or not retrieved
because of difficulties in the search
process .for eg: If you had a very close
friend,ln childhood, after 40 years, as soon as
you hear her name itself, you can recall all
memories associated with her.
• some factors which influence our memory process. They
are:
• a. Ability to retain:
• This depends upon good memory traces left in the brain
by past experiences.
• b. Good health:
• A person with good health can retain the learnt material
better than a person with poor health.
• c. Age of the learner:
• Youngsters can remember better than the aged.
• d. Maturity:
• Very young children cannot retain and remember
complex material.
• e. Will to remember:
• f. Intelligence:
• More intelligent person will have better memory than a
dull person,
• g. Interest:
• If a person has more interest, he will learn and retain
better.
• h. Over learning:
• Experiments have proved that over learning will lead to
better memory.
• i. Speed of learning:
• Quicker learning leads to better retention,
• j. Meaningfulness of the material:
• Meaningful materials remain in our memory for longer
• k. Sleep or rest:
• Sleep or rest immediately after learning strengthens
connections in the in the brain and helps for clear
memory.
• Methods of Memorizaing:-
• Information that is organized and makes sense to you
is easier to memorize
• 1. Link it.:- Connect the information you are trying
to memorize to something that you already know.
• For example, you are trying to memorize the fact that
water at sea level boils at 212 degrees Fahrenheit,
and 212 happens to be the first three digits of your
best friend’s phone number. Link these two by
imagining throwing your phone into a boiling ocean.
It’s a crazy link, but it can help that fact to stick.
• 2. Sleep with it.
• Studies show that your brain processes and stores
information while you sleep. Try to review information
just before you go to sleep—even if it’s only for a few
minutes—and see if it helps embed the information in
your memory.
• 3. Self-test. Quiz yourself every so often by actively
recalling the information you are trying to study.
• Make sure to actively quiz yourself—do not simply
reread notes or a textbook.
• reread it. ask yourself questions and force yourself to
remember it without looking at the answer or
material.
• This will enable you to identify areas that you are
struggling with; Wait a few hours, or even a day or
two, to see if it has really stuck in your memory.
• 4. Repetition practice. For a concept to move
from your temporary working memory to your
long-term memory
• the concept should be memorable and it should
be repeated.
• 5. Write it out. Writing appears to help us more
deeply encode information that we’re trying to
learn because there is a direct connection
between our hand and our brain.
• Try writing your notes by hand during a lecture or
rewriting and reorganizing notes or information
by hand after a lecture. While you are writing out
a concept you want to remember, try to say the
information out loud and visualize the concept as
• 6. Create meaningful groups. simplify the material.
For example, let’s say you wanted to remember the
names of four plants—garlic, rose, hawthorn, and
mustard. The first letters abbreviate to GRHM, so you
can connect that with the image of a GRAHAM cracker.
Now all you need to do is remember to picture a
graham cracker, and the names of the plants will be
easier to recall.
• 7. Use mnemonics. Mnemonics are systems and
tricks that make information for memorable.
• One common type is when the first letter of each word
in a sentence is also the first letter of each word in a
list that needs to be memorized. For example, many
children learned the order of operations in math by
using the sentence Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally
(parentheses, exponents, multiply, divide, add,
• 8. Talk to yourself. It may seem strange at first,
but talking to yourself about the material you are
trying to memorize can be an effective memory
tool.
• 2. Visual and spatial techniques
• Visual and spatial techniques are memory tricks
that involve your five senses.
• They utilize images, songs, feelings, and our bodies
to help information stick.
• When you use visual and spatial memory
techniques, you use fun, memorable, and creative
approaches rather than boring, rote memorization.
• . When you group things together, you enhance
your long-term memory.
 FORGETTING
• According to Munn(1967) Defines – Loss
permanent or temporary, of the ability to recall or
recognise something learned ealier.
• Sometimes we think we have forgotten but in
reality we have not encoded itself.
• Students complain they cannot remember things,
it can be due to lack of attention.
• Some information does not reach STM from
sensory register or due to inadequate encoding
and rehearsal.
 CAUSES OF FORGETTING
• 1.FAULTY MEMORY PROCESS:-
• Many times we forget as memory does not
match events which had occurred.
• May be due to materials are changed during
encoding.
• We remember the jist of things, but not the
exact words themselves.
• 2. INTERFERENCE:
• A.Retroactive inhibition:-New learning
interfering with the old learning.this is called
a backward process.
• B.Proactive inhibition:-When prior learning
interferes with the learning and recall of a
new meterial. This is called a forward
process.
• OTHER TYPES OF INTERFERENCE:-
• 1. Items in the STM interfere with eachother
• Some items of the start of the list or lesson and
end of the lesson are remembered than the
middle part.
• 2. Items in the LTM also interfere with eachother.
• Some inputs are rejected by lower centres of
brain because they are meaningless and
unimportant.
• 3.Encoding, Organisation and Retrieval problems:-If
the stored information is not encoded well
organised at the time of learning.-It is forgotten.
• Retrieval cues are important in memory but in its
absence desired items stored in LTM will not be
found.
• 4.Motivated forgetting:-for eg: we may forget the
names of people whom we don’t like.
• Sometimes purposeful forgetting due to painful
memories.
• Emotional factors also play an important role
in forgetting. If we encode while is one
emotional state and try to recall it while in
any other emotional state, our recall suffers.
• This is why punishment is not effective in
learning in the long run.
• 5.Amnesia –Forgetting during sickness:-This
refers to forgetting due to illness.
• It is a profound memory deficit
• This can be classified into:-
• A.. Biological Amnesia: Caused by brain
malfunctioning.eg:alcohol induced amnesia,
or some diseases of the brain.
• Senile dementia of which Alzheimer’s disease
is an example of brain disease.
• B. Psychological Amnesia:-
• A. Childhood Amnesia:- Children forget certain things as they
grow due to lack of proper encoding and storing.
• MEMORY AND BRAIN DAMAGE:
• When brain is damaged due to accident, operation, drugs,
toxins remembering is impaired.
• The amount of forgetting depends on the amount of brain
damage.
• On recovery from electroconvulsive therapy, epilepsy fits, the
patient may forget where he placed his belongings, want he
ate or which ward he was placed
• ********************.